MODULE 1

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION: AN OVERVIEW

NATURE, SCOPE, FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
(CHUNK 1)
STUDY GUIDE:
A. Exercise
Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. It is a challenge go to school administration which provide that every school

administration shall perform his duties by discharging his responsibilities in
accordance with the philosophy, goals and objectives.
a. Educational Act of 1984
b. Educational Act of 1985
c. Educational Act of 1982
d. All of the above
2. It is about helping the community translate the overall achievable goals and plants
for a given school.
a. Educational Management
b. Educational Administration
c. Educational Equipment and Facilities
d. None of the Above
3. Which of the following is not area of responsibility by the administration an
educational organization?
a. Purposing
b. Maintaining
c. Observing
d. None of the Above
4. Which of the following steps is considered as the first step done in system
analysis?
a. Identifying the problem
b. Identifying the respondents
c. Identifying the instruments
d. None of the Above
5. It is a systematic guide to action
a. Philosophy of Education
b. Theory and Practice
c. Educational; Administration
d. None of the Above

B. Write the word True if the statement below is True and False if the statement
is false. Write your answer on the space provided.
 TRUE 1. The nature of Educational Administration has to do with getting
things done through the joint efforts of people.
TRUE 2. In the field of education, school are organized principally to provide
various types of educational services.
TRUE 3. The Education Act of 1982 provides that every school administrator
shall perform his duties to the school by discharging his responsibilities in
accordance with the philosophy, goals and objectives of the school.
TRUE 4. The key element in the administrative process is people. It is a social
process in terms of objectives, content, and methods.
__TRUE 5. To understand better the scope and functions of educational
administration, it is necessary to examine the school approach to school
administration.
C.
1. Briefly discuss the five major functions of educational administration.
Educational

What is educational administration?" is that it is the process of managing the

resources, communication and tasks involved in running a school system. Often,
educational administration focuses on planning, organising, coordinating,
directing, controlling and evaluating students' performance. It primarily involves
providing leadership for the education of students, implementing assessments for
students, developing curriculum and managing the educational institution's
resources for achieving specific goals.

Working as an educational administrator gives you the power to shape the

education policy, programme and procedures. If you have an interest in becoming
an educational administrator, learning about its functions can help you manage and
maintain the school environment's efficacy. In this article, we find an answer to, "

5 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling

PLANNING

- Educational planning is a process in which each student is involved in self-

assessment, exploring, and integrating academic and career alternatives, and
making decisions that are personally relevant for the present and the future.

ORGANIZING

- Organizing is the function of management that involves developing an

organizational structure and allocating human resources to ensure the
accomplishment of objectives. The structure of the organization is the framework
within which effort is coordinated.

STAFFING

- taffing involves the process of recruiting, selection, deployment, training as well

development and performance assessment of individual workers in organization.
Staffing is an important managerial function.

DIRECTING

- Directing school work and formulating and executing educational policies … that

is decision-making, who to carry out plans, who teaches what; and working out
policies and regulations for all those in the organization

CONTROLLING

-Controlling is the process of ensuring that the organization is actually attaining its
objectives as planned. In the school, most staff and even students are sometimes
unwilling to act in the best interest of the organization. Staff personal biases and
limitations can affect school performance.

2. Briefly discuss the nature, scope and functional of educational administration.

The Nature, Scope and Functions of Educational Administration
Practicum in educational management is a practical course which is designed for
students who which to obtain the Master Degree in Educational Administration and
Planning.
            It is a practical aspect of educational management course designed to
enable the future educational manager’s to have practical experiences and skills of
all theories acquired during the course of study in the university.
            Educational management has being defined in many ways by different
authors, but in all, it has been summarized as the control of human and material
resources directed to education in order to have effective attainment of the stated
educational goals and objectives for effective teaching and learning in educational
institution.
            In order to display the theoretical aspect of educational management
studied in school there is need to have the practical before one becomes a full
education manager. Hence, the justification for practicum in educational
management which is an internship programme that involves the attachment of
educational administration and planning students to any educational institution to
acquire the practical aspect of educational management.
Practicum is an activity that has to do with the practice of acquiring the knowledge
and skills in a particular field or discipline. In the case of educational management,
Practicum is organized to assist the student to gain practical experience and also to
expose them to the actual practice of the numerous theories and concepts, skills
and principles that might have been studied during the course work in the school.
             Students should be acquainted with all aspect of administration in
educational institution; it is an enriching experience for the student in the area of
administration, leadership, decision-making, planning, organizing, staffing, co-
ordinating and budgeting. The practicum exercise will also assist the students to
exhibit some personal characteristics and qualities expected of an educational
manager, such qualities include maturity, intelligence, kindness, sympathy,
honesty, accommodating, impartial and being considerate in decision-making and
general administration.
            However, the need for practicum in educational management cannot be
over emphasized due to its significance to prospective educational managers for
the following reasons:
1.      It enables the student to be more intelligent and knowledgeable in handling
managerial works.
2.      It helps the students of educational management to be exposed to organizational
management structure and mobilization of human and material resources toward
the achievement of set goals and objectives.
3.      It gives the opportunity for every education management students to know both
theoretical and practical aspect of education administration and planning.
4.      It gives students encouragement and confidence to face problems process in
carrying out their duties in any educational establishment, workplace and take
necessary actions in order to solve arising problems.
5.      It gives opportunity of a team work between the intern (student) doing practicum
and the staff of the LGEA because it create human relationship between the officer
of the department and practicum student asking various on how the department is
been managed.
6.      It helps the students to know the various problems facing the organization.

2. Educational Philosophy and The School Head Administrator/Head

Becoming an educational leader requires a clear philosophy and a plan for
implementing that philosophy.
Principals and school administrators need core beliefs about what it means to serve
as an effective and inspirational leader. These beliefs can come from experience as
a teacher under an effective or ineffective leader, literature, and experience in
leadership positions. Regardless of origin, school administrators should know how
to articulate why they hold their beliefs. They should also have a plan for how to
motivate teachers and students to reach goals and develop a leadership style that
creates a community that trusts them.

For example, principals and school administrators often use different styles of
leadership, pulling aspects from various styles to form personalized versions.

 Servant leadership, for instance, focuses on providing the conditions that

enable students and teachers to succeed. Using this style, school leaders
build a culture of trust through guidance, consensus building, and listening.
 Transformational leadership focuses on giving teachers and students a sense
of ownership over what they do in order to motivate them. It honors the
knowledge and abilities of teachers and gives them the independence to
develop curricula and be creative.
 School communities are inherently collaborative. As a result, school leaders should
consider how to use their leadership positions to create an atmosphere of
teamwork. They must also consider how to make themselves accessible to the
concerns of teachers and students. Ultimately, school leaders with thoughtful
philosophies about leadership can better empower teachers and students to do their
best work.

An educational leadership philosophy must have a vision. School leaders must

adopt a vision that they believe encompasses the best teaching practices and most
valuable learning goals. They must demonstrate that their vision aligns with the
core values and ideas of their teachers and must demonstrate that the goals they
want to achieve are important.

They must then communicate their vision to teachers and staff, ensuring that
everyone holds a common understanding of the school’s direction. Some school
leaders find value in seeking input from their staff regarding school vision,
believing it improves buy-in when the people involved in manifesting a vision help
develop it. Likewise, laying out incremental steps that show how a school
community can achieve a vision encourages everyone to meet goals.

Core Beliefs About Teaching and Learning

Many factors influence and determine student learning. School leaders must
possess a comprehensive system of beliefs about what meaningful instruction
looks like. This often includes considering the following questions:

 What type of instructional designs and which types of learning experiences

make the greatest impact on students?
 How should a school integrate special education into its overall curriculum?
 What technology should a school use to deliver instruction, and how?

A philosophy of how to best support teachers must also guide school leaders.
Teachers with varying levels of experience, different skills, and an array of talents
make up school communities. As a result, school leaders need to tailor their
support and tap into the different abilities of the people they lead. For example,
novice and veteran teachers may benefit from very different kinds of professional
development. A one-size-fits-all approach to professional development often fails
someone in the teaching community.

3. The Development of Administrative Science

Administrative Sciences (ISSN 2076-3387) is an international, peer-reviewed, open
access journal (free for readers), which publishes original theoretical and empirical
work on organization studies. Administrative Sciences aims to advance and
communicate knowledge concerning management theory and practice both in
public administration and in profit organizations; it encourages submissions that
build on interdisciplinary research in related fields, such as business, economics,
political science, gender studies, psychology, sociology, physiology,
communication theory or artificial intelligence and their implications on
management, organizations and the society. Administrative Sciences aims to
 provide a rapid refereeing and editorial processes, following standard publication
practices.
Administrative Sciences publishes regular research articles, reviews and short
notes. There is no restriction on the length of the papers as we encourage
researchers to publish their theoretical and empirical results in as much detail as
possible.
The term “evolution” is often used in the administrative sciences to designate dynamic
processes of change in general. In biology, evolution has a very specific meaning, namely
the application of a generative variation-selective retention scheme to change. Applying
this to the administrative sciences is more exacting: describing what the variation consists
of, how replication of the generated variation occurs and delineating the population from
which the selection is made are far from easy. While it is the intention of this special issue
as a whole to provide some empirical examples of evolutionary change in the public and
private sectors, this introduction will lay out the main lines of thought in what is often
referred to as universal Darwinism and what this means in the administrative sciences.
Key concepts here are generative variation, selective retention, and selective institutional
environment. According to the authors, the Darwinian scheme of evolutionary theory
focuses on how new ideas or concepts arise, how they propagate and influence wider actor
thinking and on how the institutional environment in which they operate affects their
differential survival. This evolutionary process is an interplay between actors and
replicators (sounds, images, and in this context mostly words) in which it cannot be said in
advance which one is fooling the other.
4. Theory, Research, and Practice in Educational Administration
With current changes in local, state, and federal policies focusing on the
relationship between educational leadership and student achievement, it is no
surprise that understanding what is being taught in principal preparation and other
educational leadership programs has come under scrutiny. The ever‐changing role
and increased pressures placed upon principals has made it imperative that these
preparation programs use materials that prepare today's school leaders to meet the
new challenges they must face. The book Educational Administration: Theory,
Research, and Practice by Wayne K. Hoy and Cecil G. Miskel, serves as a great
overview into this changing world of educational leadership. The text, in its eighth
edition, takes a conceptual overview that administrators can apply to the field
despite numerous ongoing policy changes. Meanwhile revising this particular
edition by including new knowledge, a new topic on instructional decision‐making,
the inclusion of case studies and highlights at the end of each chapter allows this
book to be innovative and updated.

The text looks at a number of different issues directly relevant to school leadership
and frames each of these topics within three critical elements of educational
science: the role that theory serves in the field, how this theory relates to and
guides research, and the complex relationship between these two facets and
practice itself. The text focuses on three underlying assumptions about the field of
educational administration: first, there is a fair amount of knowledge about
educational administration as an organization that is neglected by those in the field;
second, that schools should be viewed as open systems to best organize and apply
 the theory and research relative to schools; and third, that using sound theory and
research guides strong administrative practice. These three assumptions present an
overview of the elements of educational leadership that allow for effective
management, problem‐solving, and decision making.

5. The School as a Social System

A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning
environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. The school has
to reconstruct society through study and research in the higher branches of learning. As a
social system the school aims to prepare the students to occupy social roles according to
their capacities after leaving the school play important functions in society. The social
system of a school may constitute a pattern of formal relationships as well as a pattern of
informal relationship. However many problems of school as a social system.
School is a special environment where a certain quality of life and certain types of
activities and occupations are provided with the object of securing the child’s development
along desirable lines. School are the most important part of the society. It considered as
one of the agency of the socialization process. It helps to control the human behavior and
develop theirs personality. School also prepare the children for adult rules. In many times
school is considered as an social system. The concept of social system was given by
Talcott person. Social system refers to an orderly arrangement ,an inter relationships of
parts. In arrangement every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The part are
bound by interaction. As a social system school is characterized by an inter-dependent
structure of parts, A clearly define population, differentiated from its environment, a
complex network of social relationships and its own unique culture.
The social organization in the school consists of different roles and statuses for the
educator and the educed. Among the teachers also there are different statuses and roles
according to their seniority, qualifications, specials skills and the position of the hierarchy
of the school. The headmaster in every school occupies a pivotal position, more
responsibility, more administrative power and therefore the most important role. Similarly,
among the educations also different students occupy different statuses and roles in the
schools according to their seniority, special skills and allotted responsibilities. For
example, the chief prefect is overall in charge of the discipline among the students.
Similarly, there are so many prefects who maintain discipline in the school. Every class
has a monitor who maintains law and order in the classroom in the absence of the teacher
and complains to the teacher about the defaulter student. As a social system the school
aims to prepare the students to occupy social roles according to their capacities after
leaving the school. In India most of the rural youths finish their studies after high school.
Some of them do not go beyond the middle schools. Therefore the functions of the middle
schools and the high schools in transmitting knowledge, skills and socialization are very
important. As a social system the first function of the school is to transmit knowledge and
skills to the younger generation. The technical schools transmit knowledge concerning so
many traits. The agricultural institutions tell the sons of cultivators about better means of
cultivation. All the schools impart knowledge of 3r’s,reading,writing and arithmetic. This
is necessary in order to help every male and female to skillfully manage the household
affairs and also matters concerning every day life. Beside transmitting knowledge, the
school as a social system transmits culture to the younger generation. The younger
generation learns future roles by means of perception and identity formation both in the
family and in the school. Extra-curricular activities in the school are important to develop
individual differences and particular skills of the educed. Thus some of them may develop
social leadership qualities, other political leadership traits and so on. An important
function of education is the development of the individuality of the student. This
individuality is develop by the development of individual skill and the allotment of roles
and statuses according to it. This should not be based upon favors and prejudices. As a
social system school is the best place to teach equality, liberty and fraternity to the
younger generation. It is the best preparation around for practice of democratic traits in the
wider social situation.
3. Differentiate Effectiveness and Efficiency.

Administrative effectiveness denotes the ability of the administrator to achieve the

goals and objectives of the organization, it involves consideration of time and
money. while,
Administrative Efficiency defined efficiency as the “extent to which government
produces a given output with least pos- sible use of resources” and effectiveness as
“the amount of end product, the real service to the public, that the government is
providing.
4. Explain the relation of role expectations and neee-disposition to effectiveness,
efficiency, and satisfaction.
Blake and Mouton have likewise posited two dimensions- concern for production
and concern for people while Argyris has pointed out that the demands of the
Organizations may be inimical to the development of the individual. It is the view
of Limpham and Hoeh, although the foregoing formulations are not precisely
equivalent, they are phenotypically similar and have stimulated further of the
organizational-individual relationship. Using the basic Getzels-Guba formulation,
and in terms of the social systems model, Lipham and Hoeh presents a schema of
the two classes of phenomena (organization and individual) in figure. 1.1 Here, the
significant distinctions among effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction and their
relationship to the basic elements of the model. (role/ expectations and personality/
need disposition) are presented.
Relation of Role Expectations and Need- Dispositon to Effectiveness, Efficiency
and Satisfaction.
As explain by Liapham and Hoem, effectiveness in terms of the model is the extent
to which the observed social behavior is congruent with expectations held for the
role. In assessing effectiveness, the measurement of behavior alone is insufficient,
the criterion must be behavior relative to the expectation held by the rater.
Efficiency, in terms of the model, it is to extent to which the observed social
behavior is congruent with the need-dispositions of the individual. When behavior
conforms to needs, it is pleasurable and forthcoming with a minimum of strain or
expenditure of psychic energy. It is possible for behavior to be inefficient and
effective at the same time.
C. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES:
1. Interview a school administrator on each of three levels (elementary, secondary,
and tertiary) of the educational ladder concerning his or her work, using
Litchfield’s three functional areas of administration (policy, resources,
execution) as a framework. Summarize your findings in terms of similarities
and differences.

- The similarities in concerning the functions of areas of administration in

terms of policy in elementary, secondary and tertiary, they all implements
rules and regulations in maintaining the peace and orders in the school. In
terms of resources in the elementary and secondary the government provides
all the necessary equipment and resources that the schools will be needing.
In execution, all of the school execute, administered and prepared the school
organization for responsive action. Their differences in using the functional
areas of administrations is that all levels have different ways in
implementing the policy, resources and executions depending to the levels
of the students.

2. Make a survey of the literature in administration in general and in education

administration in particular and take note of other conceptualizations of
“efficiency” and “effectiveness”. Compare such conceptualizations as you
found in your survey with those presented in the chapter.

-Literature in administration in general and in education administration in

particular and take note of other conceptualizations of “efficiency” and
“effectiveness”. These domains of administrative behavior could, with
appropriate modification/ adaption, substantively be applied to the behavior of
any other educational administrator. In conceptualization found in my survey
the efficiency in the institutional role expectations measured to the behavior
held by the rater that is presented in the chapter. The distinctions among
effectiveness and satisfaction relates to the accomplishment of the cooperative
purpose.

3. In your school with which you are familiar, analyze the school performance in
terms of the “tangibles” and “intangibles” of administration. How might said
performance in these two dimensions of administrations be improved?

- Intangibles of administrations in school analyze the performance among

others, the encouragement of academic freedom, the exercise of democratic
leadership, the strengthening of group dynamics. The tangibles of
administrations include among others, school site, laboratory facilities,
 library facilities, faculty, medical-dental and security, and co-curricular or
special facilities such as audio-visual aids, speech clinics, and guidance and
counseling centers.

4. Develop an instrument to evaluate a year’s performance of the administrator of

a school of your own choosing. Distribute the instrument to classmates or
colleagues for criticisms, comparison, and suggestions.

- In evaluating a year performance of the administrator of a school. The

school had to define organizational goals and objectives that was based on
the MELC. The school head, the teacher has to submit their OPCRF (for the
school head) and IPCRF (teachers). In this, the school head and the teachers
was being rated by the rater based on their performance for the whole school
year.
 EDUCATION PHILISOPHY AND THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION/
HEAD
(CHUNK 2)
STUDY GUIDE:
A. QUESTIONS ON EDUCATIONAL PHILISOPHY
1. Compare and Contrast any two philosophies in the chapter in terms of
(a) Metaphysics
(b) Ethics
(c) Aesthetics
(d) Epistemology
Metaphysics is the area of philosophy that examines the nature of reality. There are
3 common approaches of metaphysics:
1. Reality as the physical world – this approach says that physical objects are
really out there and are not figments of our imagination. Everyone believes
this to some extent; that is, why we change our course when a tree blocks
our path and why we assume the tree is still there even when it is our sight.
2. Reality as the non-physical word- Many people are convinced that the
impermanence of the physical world indicates a reality beyond it.
3. Reality as the perceptions of the individual’s mind- Maintain and support his
view none of us actually knows what is out there in the world because we
can perceive it only through our mind, which may distort things, therefore
no one’s claim to knowing reality is more valid that another’s, and reality is
whatever the individual perceives it to be.
- Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines value and their relation to
human actions. Ethical considerations permeate our daily decision-making and
have recently been getting a good deal of attention in the school under headings
such as values clarification and moral education. Although the relationship
between ethics and metaphysics is often overlooked, what a person believes to
be real has a major impact on his values.
- Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty and with judgments about it.
Although some regard aesthetics as a minor part of philosophy, it is included in
the present discussions because it surfaces in many areas of school life. While
some philosophers and critics have developed ingenious criteria by which to
evaluate the beauty of anything-nature, art, literature, music- others maintain
that beauty lies only in the beholder’s eye. This controversy is obviously
metaphysical.
- Epistemology is the branch of philosophy dearest to the hearts of educators
because it examines the nature of knowledge and learning. Three basic
epistemological questions have always interested and today receive a great deal
of attention form teachers, psychologist, and curriculum developer.
 2. Assume that you are a school administrator of developing a basic
philosophical orientation that is consistent, comprehensive, and workable.
Explain how you would go about developing your philosophy of education.

- Education philosophy is relevant to both the classroom teachers and the

school administrator. As professionals involved in the promotion of
education, both must appreciate the importance of educational philosophy in
professional development, develop their own philosophical systems vis-à-vis
education, and examine the major education philosophies to help them refine
their own. If needed it is true that what teacher teaches, how he teaches it,
and the values he stresses are all influenced by his educational philosophy, it
is equally true that the manner in his philosophy of educational
administration.

3. Interview a school administrator about his philosophy of education

administration. What does the school administrator consider as the major
features of his philosophy?
-Realistic, Educational administrators must be able to build relationships with
all stakeholders, discover and play to the strengths of their staff and school
community members, build leadership capacity by empowering students and
educators to embrace an innovator's mindset, be REAL, and lead by doing.
How does philosophy in education affects us as teachers administrators?
It helps educators in formulating beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in
making value judgments. Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also
helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how
students should learn, and what materials and methods should be used.
The study of philosophy helps students to develop both their capacity and
their inclination to do critical thinking. Other disciplines also help in fulfilling
this function, but philosophy contributes distinctively, intensively, and
extensively to a student's ability to think critically.

4. Why is there a need for us to develop our own philosophy in education?

- There is a need for us to have our own philosophy in education because it to

develop both our capacity and our inclination to do critical thinking.
Other disciplines also help in fulfilling this function, but philosophy
contributes us to be distinctively, intensively, and extensively to a student's
ability to think critically.

B. EXERCISE:
Write the word True if the statement is true and False If the statement is
false. Write your answer on the space provided.
 TRUE _1. Educational philosophy is relevance to both the classroom teacher
and the school administrator. What the teachers teaches, how he teaches it, and the
values he stresses are influenced by his educational philosophy.
TRUE 2. The manner in which the school administrator or school head
manages the school is affected by his philosophy of educational administration.
FALSE 3. The rationales theorizing is the contention that a school administrator
may consciously reflect conflicting or inconsistent philosophical assumptions in
his behavior.
TRUE 4. People with reflective philosophers are those who evaluate a situation
independently before deciding whether or not to adopt another person’s criterion
for handling it.
TRUE 5. A philosophy of education is a systematic guide to action.

C. Define the following common philosophical terms:

1. Metaphysics
2. Ethics
3. Aesthetics
4. Epistemology

- Metaphysics is the area of philosophy that examines the nature of reality.

There are 3 common approaches of metaphysics:
4. Reality as the physical world – this approach says that physical objects
are really out there and are not figments of our imagination. Everyone
believes this to some extent; that is, why we change our course when a
tree blocks our path and why we assume the tree is still there even when
it is our sight.
5. Reality as the non-physical word- Many people are convinced that the
impermanence of the physical world indicates a reality beyond it.
6. Reality as the perceptions of the individual’s mind- Maintain and support
his view none of us actually knows what is out there in the world because
we can perceive it only through our mind, which may distort things,
therefore no one’s claim to knowing reality is more valid that another’s,
and reality is whatever the individual perceives it to be.
- Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines value and their relation to
human actions. Ethical considerations permeate our daily decision-making
and have recently been getting a good deal of attention in the school under
headings such as values clarification and moral education. Although the
relationship between ethics and metaphysics is often overlooked, what a
person believes to be real has a major impact on his values.
- Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty and with judgments about
it. Although some regard aesthetics as a minor part of philosophy, it is
included in the present discussions because it surfaces in many areas of
school life. While some philosophers and critics have developed ingenious
 criteria by which to evaluate the beauty of anything-nature, art, literature,
music- others maintain that beauty lies only in the beholder’s eye. This
controversy is obviously metaphysical.
- Epistemology is the branch of philosophy dearest to the hearts of educators
because it examines the nature of knowledge and learning. Three basic
epistemological questions have always interested and today receive a great
deal of attention form teachers, psychologist, and curriculum developer tr.

D. Discuss the idea behind the following philosophies

1. Idealism- is a belief that knowledge comes from within. Originally

conceived by Plato, idealism states that the only true reality is the reality
within the mind. For teachers, this implies the need to develop children to
their true potential and guide their minds so that they are living up to their
purpose.
2. Realism – is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of Aristotle,
this philosophy emphasizes that “reality, knowledge, and value exist
independent of the human mind’
Realists argue for the use of the sense and scientific investigation in order to
discover truth.
3. Pragmatism- is an educational philosophy that says that education should be
about life and growth. That is teachers should be teaching students things
that are practical for life and encourage them to grow into better people.
Many famous educators, including John Dewey, were pragmatist.
4. Existentialism- believes that every individual is unique and education must
cater to the individual differences. Therefore, the objective of education is to
enable every individual to develop his unique qualities, to harness his
potentialities and cultivate his individualities.
5. Naturalism- considers child as a gift of nature with potentialities for natural
growth according to laws of nature. The child is an active individual capable
of self-development. The aim of education is to develop the child as healthy
and active personality in a natural setting.
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE

(CHUNK 3)
STUDY GUIDE
A.
I. Compare and contrast the historical antecedents in educational administration in
the Philippines with the historical antecedents in educational administration in the
United States.
- School in the Philippines have stricter management than of the United States. In
the Philippines, every grade level is divided from each other and students form the
same grade levels are divided into sections based on who excels the most or their
final average grade form the year before.
2. Differentiate scientific management from administrative management.
- Scientific management theory considers employee efficiency, whereas
administrative management theory considers human and behavioral determinants
of the organization.
The scientific administration hypothesis essentially includes the work performed
on the production line as these assignments are very unique in relation to alternate
undertaking performed inside the association. On the other hand, administrative
theory focuses on the management process and principles of management.
3. Give your own concept of nationalism
- Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion or allegiance to a
nation or nation-state and holds that such obligations outweigh other individual
group interests. The root of nationalism is often based on shared ethnicity. An
example of nationalism can be seen in much of Adolf Hitler’s rhetoric. The
difference between nationalism and patriotism is the feeling of superiority.
4. Identify in the current periodical educational literature the foci criticisms
directed at the Philippine schools today. Do you agree with these criticisms? YES,
Why or why not?
The function of literary criticism is to examine the merits and demerits or defects
of a work of art and finally to evaluate its worth. The chief function of criticism is
to enlighten and stimulate. The true critic is the one who is equipped for his/her
task by a sound knowledge of his subject.
5. Interview community leaders and school administrators regarding their
expectations for the schools. Compare and contrast their respective positions
- The expectations of the leaders or school administrators in the school is shaping
a vision of academic success for all students, and creating a climate hospitable to
education, cultivating leadership in others and managing people, data and
processes.
B. Questions on the Development on Administrative
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is the key to the scientific management approach, the concept of manaes-
machine
a. Behavioral Approach
b. Quantitative System Approach
c. Human Relation Approach
d. Classical Organizational Thought Approach

2. It is about believing that the problem in all organization was development and
maintenance of dynamic and harmonious relationships.

a. Behavioral Approach
b. Quantitative System Approach
c. Human Relation Approach
d. Classical Organizational thought Approach

3. It is about gaining insight and recommendation for action concerning a wide

range of decision-problems, operations, research, techniques utilized in
quantitative based analytical methods.

a. Quantitative System Approach

b. Behavior Approach
c. Human Relations Approach
d. Classical Organizational Thought Approach

4. It is quantitative tool and technique utilized in solving management problems in

school administration.

a. Quantitative System Approach

b. Behavioral Approach
C. Human Relations Approach
d. Classical Organizational Thought Approach

5. It is a behavior that demonstrates a concern for tasks for individuals, and for
interpersonal or group relations toward followers that acts the tone of their
interaction with one another and for their performance behavior

a. Leadership
b. Decision-Making
c. Communication
d. Motivation
 MODULE 2
FOUNDATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
LEADERSHIP
(CHUNK 1)
VIII. STUDY GUIDE
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE

A. Exercises
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4.TRUE
5.TRUE

B. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. A
5. B
C. DISCUSSION OF THE FOLLOWING
1. What is leadership?

“The action of leading a group of people or an organisation.”

That’s how the Oxford Dictionary defines leadership. In simple words, leadership is
about taking risks and challenging the status quo. Leaders motivate others to achieve
something new and better. Interestingly, leaders do what they do to pursue innovation,
not as an obligation. They measure success by looking at the team’s achievements and
learning.

In contrast, management is about delegating responsibilities and getting people to

follow the rules to reduce risk and deliver predictable outcomes. A manager is
responsible for completing four critical functions: planning, organising, leading, and
controlling.

Unlike leaders, managers do not challenge the status quo. Instead, they strive to
maintain it. They evaluate success by seeing if the team has achieved what was
expected.
 Leaders and managers apply different approaches to achieve their goals. For example,
managers seek compliance to rules and procedures, whereas leaders thrive on breaking
the norm and challenging the status quo. Here’s how leadership and management are
different from each other.

Leaders are not always people who hold higher ranks in an organisation. But they are
people who are known for their beliefs and work ethics. A leader is passionate about their
work, and they pass on their enthusiasm to their fellow workers, enabling them to achieve
their goals.

Knowing your leadership style is critical because it can help you determine how you
affect those who are under your direct influence. It’s always important to ask for
feedback to understand how you’re doing, but knowing your leadership style prior to
asking for feedback can be a helpful starting point. That way, when you receive junior
employees’ thoughts, you can automatically decide which leadership style would be
best and adopt the style’s characteristics in your day-to-day management duties.

2. THE LEADERSHIP ROLE AND TYPE OF LEADERSHIP

Understanding the importance of leadership roles

Leadership skills and qualities at work can help advance your career and lead to
you having greater overall job satisfaction. Becoming a leader requires that you
demonstrate specific abilities in your approach to work and in guiding others. As
you practice your leadership skills and advance your abilities, you can make
yourself a viable candidate for higher roles to lead individuals and the company
toward success. Review examples of leadership roles to understand how you can
apply these skills in your profession to position yourself for greater success and
upward mobility.

What is considered a leadership role?

A leadership role is a position that requires you to manage people, situations, and
items effectively and ethically. Although a leadership role can be both formal and
informal, every aspect and type of leadership within an organization functions to
shape and guide the organization. Leaders are individuals who can influence others
using their abilities, influence, and title to help a project or company progress. A
leadership role can help you apply and hone the soft skills and interpersonal
skills necessary for success in both your personal and professional life.

Examples of Leadership Roles:

Mentor
A mentor is an individual who has gained a substantial amount of experience at a
company or within their industry and acts as an advisor to someone who is less
experienced. They lend their expertise, knowledge, and counsel to provide a wise
perspective. Through this perspective, they offer a glance into the future and serve
as a reserve of information for the novice. A mentorship can be formal or informal
and is a relationship that is developed through a trusted bond where the mentor act
for the benefit of the mentee and offers valuable and informative advice to support
the mentee in their professional goals.

Coach
A coach is someone who offers their skills and knowledge to help individuals
improve upon their own skills and abilities. Coaches guide others and businesses
toward improvement by focusing on strengths, teamwork, and understanding. This
particular leadership role requires the use of many transferable skills such as
empathy, communication, and positivity. Coaches provide consistent and
constructive feedback based on performance, observation, and quantifiable data.
By motivating others using their expertise and support, coaches often serve as
leaders to large teams and can offer guidance individually or in groups. Often
gaining trust both professionally and personally, those who coach benefit from the
opportunity to guide others and typically build long-lasting relationships with
many.

Trainer
A trainer often facilitates classes and guides others through modeling ways to
improve their skills, abilities, or knowledge. They tend sessions, lead seminars, or
workshops that interactive and are geared toward improving a specific skill set or
capability. Trainers can be anyone who shares their knowledge to help others
strengthen their own abilities and perform better. The role requires strong
communication and listening skills to create strategies and methods for others to
follow. Trainers typically function in a formal capacity and because they offer their
expertise in smaller and more intense sessions, don’t often build strong personal
relationships. They do benefit from professional bonds by forming and helping
others form key network connections.

Influencer
Often based on experience, an established reputation, and knowledge, an influencer
guides the actions and opinions of others through example. They can usually wield
their authority on a specific subject to generate interest and inspire action.
Although an influencer can be a specific and formal role, any individual who can
lead and has swayed a group opinion or used their authority and leadership to
regulate action and determine outcomes can be an influencer. Influencers use their
reputation as experts in a specific industry to impact the behaviors and opinions of
others.

Manager
Managers are often leaders of small groups of people and are tasked with
organizing, motivating, and guiding others to achieve goals. A manager can be a
formal role but if you have ever worked in a capacity where you helped to organize
or lead a team using your communication, problem-solving, and evaluation skills
then you have held a leadership role as a manager. Managers may also be in charge
of helping new team members acclimate to rules, procedures, and general company
culture by providing informative sessions or leading small informal meetings.
Managers are familiar with the inner workings of an organization and may be
required to facilitate in the training of new and existing group members within an
organization.

Strategist
If you have ever worked in a capacity where you have identified a problem, sought
a solution, and applied it with success, then you have leadership experience as a
strategist. Strategists develop plans and step by step procedures by keeping the
goal in mind and creating logical steps to guide a team towards achieving that goal.

Developing a strategy and implementing it effectively requires leaders to be

inquisitive and take action to discover new methods and procedures to solve
problems, often on a daily basis. Strategists are experts at identifying and
anticipating problems to plan solutions before issues arise. They implement
advanced critical thinking for their process and are very observant individuals.

Communicator
Leadership positions that require you to be a good communicator, ensuring that
you understand others clearly and are understood by them, exist at all levels and in
many different industries. A good communicator exhibits leadership skills by using
verbal, non-verbal, written, and visual communication to ensure a clear message.

Listening skills are essential to effective communication and necessitate the ability
to ask probing questions to ensure complete understanding for all participants.
Including a friendly demeanor and communicating respect through language and
action reveal leadership potential and are necessary for successful guidance. The
success of a project often rests on solid communication skills to ensure that all
members are working together toward the common goal.

Visionary
A visionary is anyone who can see the potential in an individual, group, or
organization and uses their influence, knowledge, and strong communication skills
to help the group understand, achieve a goal and reach their potential. Visionaries
are often highly creative individuals who utilize the strengths of others to see
projects come to fruition. Even something like leading a fundraiser or organizing a
party for a co-worker can show that you are a visionary who envisions a plan and
takes active steps to make it a reality. Visionary leaders often exhibit strong
communication skills and are highly persistent.

Role model
Role models serve as examples for others and inspire those around them to action
through their own actions and individual personalities. Other people can be
inspired by role models and want to emulate them. Leaders serve as role models by
being examples of integrity, persistence, optimism, and hope. Role models lead by
example and exhibit characteristics and traits that others hope to emulate because
they respect and admire them. Although many in leadership roles are role models,
it is not necessary to have a formal leadership position to serve as a role model to
others within your industry or company. Simply conducting yourself admirably
and having a solid and respectable work ethic can prove you to be a strong role
model for colleagues.

Organizer
An example of a leadership role that is necessary at every level is an organizer.
The skill to think logically and strategically plan out to organize individuals,
events, and programs requires problem-solving skills and critical thinking. Leaders
who can assemble a group of individuals and delegate responsibilities effectively
so small tasks are completed in steps to accomplish a larger objective are sought
after in every industry. Additionally, people who see a logical order to documents
or ideas and can arrange them to reveal information clearly and in an easily
accessible manner are skilled organizers with strong leadership skills.

Motivator
Exhibiting the skill to inspire others to action by persuading them, often verbally,
is another example of a leadership role. Motivators use verbal praise and various
methods of positive reinforcement to help team members work collaboratively
towards a common goal. A skilled leader can motivate others and keep teams
focused for long periods of time to help guide projects toward successful
completion. Motivators have a solid understanding of time management and team
capacity and can harness the strengths of individuals within a team to help the
collective group succeed. Motivators harness their skills to instill in others the want
to work and the yearning for success.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP:

1. Democratic Leadership

This is as clear as its name. In democratic leadership, the leaders make or break
decisions democratically, based on their team’s opinion and feedback. Although it
is the leader who makes the final call, every opinion counts. This is easily one of
the most effective leadership styles since it allows employees to have a voice.

2. Autocratic Leadership

This is exactly the opposite of democratic leadership wherein the opinions of

employees are not considered. Leaders with this style expect others to adhere to the
decisions they take, which is not a sustainable approach in the long term.

3. Laissez-faire Leadership

Laissez-fire means “let them do”. This style is the least intrusive and leaders with
this approach ensure that the authority lies with the employees. While this
leadership style can empower, it may also limit development, therefore, must be
kept in check.

4. Strategic Leadership

Strategic leadership acts as a bridge between the senior team and the employees.
Leaders adopting this style ensure that both executive interests and working
conditions for the team are stable when a decision is made.

5. Transformational Leadership

This kind of leadership always aims at transforming and improving functions and
capabilities. There may be tasks and schedules assigned and leaders following this
style may ask employees to push their boundaries constantly. Most growth-minded
companies tend to adopt this kind of a leadership style.

6. Transactional Leadership

This is a very common leadership style today based on the action-and-reward

concept. For instance, an employee or team may receive an incentive or bonus for
achieving a target set by the company.
 7. Coach-Style Leadership

This leadership style focuses on larger growth while encouraging individual team
members to focus on their strengths and talent. Though this is similar to strategic
and democratic leadership styles, the focus here is more on the individual.

8. Bureaucratic Leadership

This kind of leadership style goes by the books. Although leaders with this
approach do listen to employees and their opinions, they may negate or reject it, in
case they go against the company’s ethos or policy.

3. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR

Learn compassionate management 

While many leadership experts will tell you that empathy is critical to great
leadership, it’s actually compassion — an “ objective form of empathy ” —
that’s key to being more in touch with your team. Practicing compassion  comes
down to training yourself to see situations from another person’s perspective.
Compassionate management involves taking the time to consider and
understand people’s stresses so you can be better equipped to take action.
Unlike empathy and empathetic leadership , compassion creates emotional
distance, giving leaders the ability to proactively assist another person. Being a
compassionate leader can decrease team members’ stress levels and in turn,
increase their productivity and effectiveness.

Compassionate management involves taking the time to consider and

understand people’s stresses so you can be better equipped to take action. It
also helps your team manage their stress  when they know they know you both
see and hear them.

Compassionate leadership  means showing genuine interest in team members’

success and well-being and a commitment to understanding, but not necessarily
agreeing. As you practice this skill, you’ll find that you’ll be able to develop
more loyalty and trust with team members. While raises and promotions are
valuable, research has shown that it’s the positive relationships we develop at
work that have a greater impact on retention.

Leaders adapt to change

Great leaders are able to quickly change course themselves and also help their
team evolve with the organization’s needs.

These types of leaders (much like elite athletes) tend to operate at their peak
performance because they enjoy the process, continually push themselves and
their teams forward, and aren’t afraid of occasionally losing. They recognize
that leadership is a lifelong learning process  and mistakes are optimal
opportunities to better ourselves and our decision-making skills .

Embracing a coaching mindset

Studies have shown that employee development results are  best achieved when
a manager is actively involved in the process .

Managers who are able to take a coaching approach to leadership develop a

partnership with their teammates and establish a shared vision for what needs to
be done and how these goals will be accomplished. This sort of relationship
will give you a more personal and active role in each individual’s development,
create a relationship of trust, and foster an environment of continual growth.

Leaders practice effective listening

Effective communication skills  are key to building trust with your teammates
and getting them to buy into your vision.

Great leaders know that listening can be more empowering than speaking.
Effective communication skills are key to building trust with your teammates
and getting them to buy into your vision. Effective listening is a combination of
both verbal and nonverbal communication skills  that can be learned and
practiced over time.

Cultivating an inspiring vision

One of the joys of being a leader is the opportunity to motivate and inspire
people to do their best work and pursue projects and goals that enable them to
grow. While being inspiring might sound like a soft pursuit,  motivation
theory has actually shown that there are proven ways leaders can motivate and
inspire their teams.

Effective leaders prioritize the creation of an inspiring work environment that

propels their teams to see beyond their perceived limitations and step up to new
challenges.

What’s their secret?

Motivational leaders have a keen understanding of how to create a strong sense

of community and belonging within their organizations, regularly celebrate and
reward achievements, and set standards for performance by modeling drive,
initiative-taking, and energy. As a result, their teams tend to see lower turnover,
increased productivity, and increased motivation .

4. LEDERSHIP’S CRUCIAL TASK

As a leader, you may feel that the most critical task is to guide, coach, mentor,
teach, encourage, or train. There is no real right or wrong answer to this question,
but the interviewer wants to hear an insightful response.

Whatever your response, consider providing a story of a time when you stepped up
as a leader or experienced true leadership from another person.
 As a teacher, I am a leader in a variety of ways throughout the day. I have found
that the most important task as a leader and a teacher is to be an observant and
active listener. Many students will show me what they need if I take the time to
observe and listen attentively.

The most important task of a leader is to share any new knowledge or resources
that I acquire while learning.

The most important task of a leader is building trust with the team. Upon that
foundation, the house can be built. You cannot motivate and lead a team that
doesn't trust you. How I built trust with my students was through paying attention,
listening, and letting them know that I cared about them as people.

The most important thing as a leader is to take care of your team. When you take
care of them they take care of your customer. Supporting them in developing
themselves and creating a career path with them so they know what they can
achieve. Also feedback is important and being honest and positive.

When a leader helps others to grow, projects run smoother, and the work becomes
higher quality! Try to incorporate a statement related to how you practice this in
your own leadership role.

5. CURRENT THINKING ON LEADERSHIP

Leadership has shifted in the last twenty years away from an autocratic style and
towards a more collaborative approach, fostering greater teamwork, productivity,
innovation and creativity.
We're nearing the end of January 2020, and two decades into the 21st century;a lot
has changed since the turn of the millennium.  

In 2000, the Nokia 3210 was the mobile phone of choice. While busy playing
snake, we were also watching the first ever series of Big Brother in the UK.
Westlife, Craig David and Britney Spears were topping the charts, and Brad Pitt
and Jennifer Aniston got married, sparking a global obsession. 

Fast forward twenty years and the majority of the population would be lost without
their iPhones. Reality TV has gone wild, from TOWIE to Love Island to
Gogglebox; Westlife have just completed their twenty-year reunion tour; and we've
followed the whole of Brad and Jen's tumultuous journey, right up until their
awards ceremony reunion last week. 

The corporate world has also changed drastically in the last twenty years. The pace
of commercial and technological change that’s dominated the 21st century has led
to a hyper-competitive business environment; one that’s far removed from the
stability of the past. 

In this blog post we ask, what has this shift meant for leadership? How much has
leadership evolved over the last twenty years? And what does this mean for how
we develop our leaders of the future?
Has leadership really changed?
Arguably, the fundamental qualities of effective leaders haven’t really changed.
We still need leaders who have a clear vision, who can communicate that vision in
an inspiring and memorable way, who work hard and are committed to the goals of
the organisation. We still need leaders who act with integrity, honesty, and
transparency.

It’s just the commercial environment has changed so radically that we’ve had to
adapt how we lead in order to keep pace.

Leadership in 2000: autocratic and task-oriented

Twenty years ago, businesses were operating in a relatively stable world, where
change occurred at a much slower pace. The internet had only been mainstream for
five years, remote working wasn’t half the phenomenon it is now, and we were all
blissfully unaware of the financial crisis that was to plague the noughties.

Against this backdrop, autocratic leadership was often the norm. Managers made
all the decisions, with little input from employees. They had full control, giving
people clear direction on what they need to do, when to do it, and how to do it. The
focus was on hard skills and getting tasks done.

In this stable world, it was also easier for organisations to identify and develop
their future leaders. With a linear career path the norm and people staying in jobs
for longer, succession planning was easy. Organisations knew exactly where the
next leaders were coming from and the skills they would need to succeed.

Leadership in 2020: collaborative and people-oriented

Fast forward to today, and we live in a world driven by commercial and
technological disruption. With change a constant, leaders need to be both attuned
to the impact of technology on their business and highly adaptable as a result.

This has meant a shift away from the autocratic leadership style of the 20th century
and towards a more collaborative approach. In this new style of leadership, work is
no longer ordered from above but powered from within.

This new way of working has opened the door to innovation and creativity, which
is crucial for organisations wanting to gain a competitive advantage. It has also
brought teamwork, productivity, meaning and purpose to every aspect of our work,
which just so happens to be exactly what employees today are seeking.

There has been a shift away from hard leadership to soft leadership skills too.
Leaders are more people-oriented than task-oriented. We’ve talked in previous
blog posts about the power of leading with kindness and a more human approach.
We can see this in the greater awareness of how employees’ different personalities
reflect how they respond to leadership. Leaders are more open to adapting their
approach to get the best out of the individuals they lead, using tools
like personality profiling that offer insights into the best ways to manage people
based on their natural behavioural preferences.
The impact of technology has also brought new challenges that have triggered a
change in how we lead. The rise of remote working, for instance, has emphasised
the importance of leaders trusting people to work towards organisational goals
without constant monitoring or guidance. This notion of empowering rather than
smothering your employees is fundamental to 21st century leadership.

When it comes to succession planning and identifying the future leaders of your
company, it’s not as easy today as it was twenty years ago. Research shows that
there has been a continued slippage since 1999 in the number of companies who
feel they have leaders ready to step in to replace those who retire or move on. Data
from 2018 shows that only 14% of companies have a strong bench of ‘ready-now’
leaders.

What this shift means for leadership development

Knowing where your future leaders are coming from is as key now as it was
twenty years ago. It’s just more complex. The pace of commercial and
technological change shows no signs of slowing down, and so the image of what
effective leadership looks like will continue to evolve.

This only makes it more important for organisations to invest in developing high-
potential employees early on. As Kathy Caprino writes in an article for Forbes,
“Part of being a great leader in a digital era also depends on developing other
leaders.”

As employees across the board are given more autonomy and freedom to make
decisions that align with the goals and strategy of the business, organisations are
starting to develop leaders earlier, before they reach senior roles.

What’s more, these development programmes are more personalised to the

learners’ roles and the organisations’ needs. Many organisations have seen benefits
in introducing a formal mentoring culture, for example. Likewise, technology is
also being used to create learning content that is more tailored to individual
employees.

Takeaways
The last twenty years have seen organisations shift from an autocratic to a more
collaborative leadership style; from task-oriented to people-oriented. Change can
be good (imagine still having a Nokia 3210?), but it can also be bad (no-one
wanted Hollywood’s golden couple to split). 

When we think about the last twenty years of leadership, despite the turbulence
digital disruption has caused, the shift in both how we lead and how we develop
our leaders has been a positive one.  

6. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP:

1. Democratic Leadership
This is as clear as its name. In democratic leadership, the leaders make or break
decisions democratically, based on their team’s opinion and feedback. Although it
is the leader who makes the final call, every opinion counts. This is easily one of
the most effective leadership styles since it allows employees to have a voice.

2. Autocratic Leadership

This is exactly the opposite of democratic leadership wherein the opinions of

employees are not considered. Leaders with this style expect others to adhere to the
decisions they take, which is not a sustainable approach in the long term

3. Laissez-faire Leadership

Laissez-fire means “let them do”. This style is the least intrusive and leaders with
this approach ensure that the authority lies with the employees. While this
leadership style can empower, it may also limit development, therefore, must be
kept in check.

4. Strategic Leadership

Strategic leadership acts as a bridge between the senior team and the employees.
Leaders adopting this style ensure that both executive interests and working
conditions for the team are stable when a decision is made.

5. Transformational Leadership

This kind of leadership always aims at transforming and improving functions and
capabilities. There may be tasks and schedules assigned and leaders following this
style may ask employees to push their boundaries constantly. Most growth-minded
companies tend to adopt this kind of a leadership style.

6. Transactional Leadership

This is a very common leadership style today based on the action-and-reward

concept. For instance, an employee or team may receive an incentive or bonus for
achieving a target set by the company.

7. Coach-Style Leadership

This leadership style focuses on larger growth while encouraging individual team
members to focus on their strengths and talent. Though this is similar to strategic
and democratic leadership styles, the focus here is more on the individual.

8. Bureaucratic Leadership

This kind of leadership style goes by the books. Although leaders with this
approach do listen to employees and their opinions, they may negate or reject it, in
case they go against the company’s ethos or policy.

7. THE TASK AND HUMAN DIMENSION OF LEADERSHIP

Task Leadership When between one-third and one-half of recent scholarly
leadership articles are devoted to transformational leadership (where followers'
goals are broadened and elevated and confidence is gained to go beyond
expectations) or charismatic leadership (where leaders by force of their personal
abilities are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers),
one wonders whatever happened to plain, unadorned leadership directed toward
task completion. The answer is that such leadership, here called “task leadership,”
is alive and well and still serves as an irreplaceable leadership component. The
notion of task leadership, first hinted at by social psychologists Kurt Lewin,
Ronald Lippitt, and R. K. White (1939), gained dramatic impetus shortly after
World War II. A new breed of leadership researchers began to break away from
earlier “great man” (a leader as a person endowed with unique qualities that
capture the imagination of the masses) and trait approaches (what traits make
certain leaders “better” or more effective than others, or what traits make one
person, rather than another, emerge as a leader?). Disappointed in their ability to
clearly answer the trait questions, researchers decided to look at leadership
behaviors in the hope that such behaviors would show clearer results.

Much of the literature covering aspects of task leadership and relationship

leadership has tended to treat them broadly or at a relatively high level of
abstraction. That is, researchers have emphasized overall task leadership and
overall relationship leadership. The problem is that the components making up
each of these dimensions have tended not to be emphasized much, and therefore
dimensions with the same or similar labels have often differed from study to study.
Thus, it has been difficult to compare the results of one study with another in terms
of follower satisfaction, performance, and so forth. 1 Business school professors
Gary Yukl, Angela Gordon, and Tom Taber (2002) consider this issue in what they
call a “hierarchical taxonomy” (system of classification) with three meta-categories
(general, broadly defined), two of which focus on task leadership and relationship
leadership aspects. After considerable conceptual and empirical work, the authors
split task behavior into three more specific behaviors or components tapping
shortterm planning, clarification of task objectives, and role expectations, and split
relations into five specific behaviors ranging from support and encouragement to
empowerment. The authors conclude from their conceptual and empirical work
that different components are likely to be important in different situations and, in
most cases, should be emphasized in lieu of the broadergauge, more abstract task
leadership and relationship dimensions.
 DECISION-MAKING AND COMMUNICATION
(CHUNK 2)
VII. STUDY GUIDE
. MAKING AT LEAST FIVE INFLUENCES THAT DIRECTLY DICTATES
THE NATURE OF DECISION-MAKING.
Decision making is an important area of research in cognitive psychology.
Understanding the process by which individuals make decisions is important for
understanding the decisions they make. Several factors influence decision making.
Those factors are past experiences, cognitive biases, age and individual
differences, belief in personal relevance, and an escalation of commitment.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that take some of the cognitive load off decision-
makers. After an individual makes a decision, there are several differing outcomes,
including regret and satisfaction. Reversible decisions are more desired, and people
are willing to pay a premium for the ability to reverse decisions; though
reversibility may not lead to positive or satisfactory outcomes. Cognitive
psychologists have developed many decision-making models, which explain the
process by which people effectively make decisions. One innovative model is
based on goals and planning. There is yet a lot of research to be conducted on
decision making, which will enable psychologists and educators to positively
influence the lives of many.
There are several important factors that influence decision making. Significant
factors include past experiences, a variety of cognitive biases, an escalation of
commitment and sunk outcomes, individual differences, including age and
socioeconomic status, and a belief in personal relevance. These things all impact
the decision making process and the decisions made.

Past experiences can impact future decision making. Juliusson, Karlsson, and
Garling (2005) indicated past decisions influence the decisions people make in the
future. It stands to reason that when something positive results from a decision,
people are more likely to decide in a similar way, given a similar situation. On the
other hand, people tend to avoid repeating past mistakes (Sagi, & Friedland, 2007).
This is significant to the extent that future decisions made based on past
experiences are not necessarily the best decisions. In financial decision making,
highly successful people do not make investment decisions based on past sunk
outcomes, rather by examining choices with no regard for past experiences; this
approach conflicts with what one may expect (Juliusson et al., 2005).

In addition to past experiences, there are several cognitive biases that influence
decision making. Cognitive biases are thinking patterns based on observations and
generalizations that may lead to memory errors, inaccurate judgments, and faulty
logic (Evans, Barston, & Pollard, 1983; West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2008).
Cognitive biases include, but are not limited to: belief bias, the over dependence on
prior knowledge in arriving at decisions; hindsight bias, people tend to readily
explain an event as inevitable, once it has happened; omission bias, generally,
people have a propensity to omit information perceived as risky; and confirmation
bias, in which people observe what they expect in observations (Marsh, & Hanlon,
2007; Nestler. & von Collani, 2008; Stanovich & West, 2008; see also West et al.,
2008).

In decision making, cognitive biases influence people by causing them to over rely
or lend more credence to expected observations and previous knowledge, while
dismissing information or observations that are perceived as uncertain, without
looking at the bigger picture. While this influence may lead to poor decisions
sometimes, the cognitive biases enable individuals to make efficient decisions with
assistance of heuristics (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008).

In addition to past experiences and cognitive biases, decision making may be

influenced by an escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes, which are
unrecoverable costs. Juliusson, Karlsson, and Garling (2005) concluded people
make decisions based on an irrational escalation of commitment, that is,
individuals invest larger amounts of time, money, and effort into a decision to
which they feel committed; further, people will tend to continue to make risky
decisions when they feel responsible for the sunk costs, time, money, and effort
spent on a project. As a result, decision making may at times be influenced by
‘how far in the hole’ the individual feels he or she is (Juliusson et al., 2005).

Some individual differences may also influence decision making. Research has
indicated that age, socioeconomic status (SES), and cognitive abilities influences
decision making (de Bruin, Parker, & Fischoff, 2007; Finucane, Mertz, Slovic, &
Schmidt, 2005). Finucane et al. established a significant difference in decision
making across age; that is, as cognitive functions decline as a result of age,
decision making performance may decline as well. In addition, older people may
be more overconfident regarding their ability to make decisions, which inhibits
their ability to apply strategies (de Bruin et al., 2007). Finally, with respect to age,
there is evidence to support the notion that older adults prefer fewer choices than
younger adults (Reed, Mikels, & Simon, 2008).

Age is only one individual difference that influences decision making. According
to de Bruin et al. (2007), people in lower SES groups may have less access to
education and resources, which may make them more susceptible to experiencing
negative life events, often beyond their control; as a result, low SES individuals
may make poorer decisions, based on past decisions.

Over and above past experiences, cognitive biases, and individual differences;
another influence on decision making is the belief in personal relevance. When
people believe what they decide matters, they are more likely to make a decision.
Acevedo and Krueger (2004) examined individuals’ voting patterns, and concluded
that people will vote more readily when they believe their opinion is indicative of
the attitudes of the general population, as well as when they have a regard for their
own importance in the outcomes.

B. ILLUSTRATE YOUR OWN VIEW OF A COMMUNICATION THEORY.

DISCUSS EACH ITEM AND EXPLAIN CLEARLY HOW IT AFFECTS
EFFECTIVE DECISION-MAKING.
Communication is the essence of life. It is a necessity. To express themselves,
human beings need to communicate. An individual has to communicate to express
his feelings, pass on information to the other human beings and share his thoughts
and feelings.

Do only Human Beings Communicate ?

Let us go through the following examples:

Ted spotted a poor weak pup lying almost lifeless on the streets and crying meekly.
He took no time in taking the pup to a nearby vet and giving him the basic medical
treatment the poor creature required. Have you ever thought how did Ted come to
know that the pup requires immediate attention? The pup couldn’t speak.

The answer to the above question is through communication.

Ted came to know about the condition of the pup through communication only.
The crying of pup was actually an indication that the creature needs to be
immediately attended by the doctor. Through his crying the pup tried to
communicate Ted about his deteriorating condition and requirement of medical
aid.

Another example:

A gardener waters the plants when the leaves start turning brown, become dry and
start showing withering signs. Turning brown, drying of leaves are actually ways
the tree tries to communicate to the gardener that it is dying and needs to be
watered immediately.

All the above examples support the communication theory.

What is communication Theory ?

Communication theory was proposed by S. F. Scudder in the year 1980. It states
that all living beings existing on the planet communicate although the way of
communication is different.

Plants communicate their need to be taken care of and watered immediately

through visible changes in the colour of the leaves, and the falling of leaves and
flowers.

Animals communicate by sounds, several movements to indicate that they are

hungry or unwell or need medical attention.

A mother would never understand that her child is hungry unless and until the
child cries. Crying is again a form through which the child communicates that he is
hungry and needs food. The same applies when he is injured, where he uses crying
again as a tool to communicate his pain and need of urgent medical attention.

Thus the universal law of communication theory says that all living beings whether
they are plants, animals, human beings communicate through sound, speech,
visible changes, body movements, gestures or in the best possible way to make the
others aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness or any other
information.

If a child scores less marks in examinations, parents would not speak to the child
for sometime- again an effort to communicate that the parents are angry over the
child’s performance and he needs to buck up for his further examinations. Try to
irritate a stray dog, he will surely bark on you - again an animal’s way to
communicate that he is angry and should not be irritated further.

Like human beings, animals also communicate among themselves through gestures
and body movements. Monkeys always carry their babies with them wherever they
go, again a way through which the mother tries to communicate that their babies
are safe and the mother is there to take good care of them. During the mating
season of animals, communication through gestures plays a very important role in
bringing them close, the same way a peacock dances to attract its partner.

Another model of communication says that communication is simply the process

of transferring information from the sender to the recipient where the recipient
decodes the information and acts accordingly. Large number of people also support
this model of communication.

Communication Theory Framework

Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following
viewpoints:

 Mechanistic - The mechanistic view point says that communication is simply

the transmission of information from the first party to the second party. The
first party being the sender and the second party being the receiver.
 Psychological - According to the psychological view point, communication is
simply not the flow of information from the sender to the receiver but
actually the thoughts, feelings of the sender which he tries to share with the
recepients. It also includes the reactions, feelings of the receiver after he
decodes the information.
 Social - The social view point considers communication as a result of
interaction between the sender and the receiver. It simply says that
communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech. “How one
communicates” is the basis of the social view point.
 Systemic - The systemic view point says that communication is actually a
new and a different message which is created when various individuals
interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and draw their own
conclusion.
 Critical - The critical view point says that communication is simply a way
with the help of which an individual expresses his power and authority among
other individuals.
To summarize the communication theory proposes that to survive, every living
entity, needs to communicate with others and also among themselves.
Communication is a dire need of survival.
 C. DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF A SOUND AND EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION SET-UP TOWARDS EFFECTIVE DECISIONS.
When a decision needs to be made, the responsibility naturally falls to the leader
in charge. A sound decision can’t be made in isolation. What are the advantages
of communication? When a leader consults with organizational constituents,
varying perspectives can frame an issue in a new and different way. A
catastrophic decision may be the result, without information from a variety of
stakeholders. The nuance is to determine who should be consulted and the timing
associated with a decision-making meeting.

Begin by creating an action-oriented team. Once you’ve identified the go-to

experts in your organization, assemble and discuss the decision that needs to be
made. Assign each member a role and then reconvene for a strategy session.
Outline the pros and cons of possible resolutions, then create a timeline for
action.

Pitfalls of Decision Making

Concordia College St. Paul  emphasizes that leaders can face communication
hurdles in the decision-making process.

 Information overload, or a lack of information: Believe it or not, it’s possible to

have too much information. If you’re inundated with opinions, you may feel
paralyzed. Weigh what you need and be ready to act, even if it means that
everyone doesn’t contribute to the conversation. Conversely, if you don’t have
enough information, you may find yourself acting in a bubble of ignorance. You
can become too insulated, if you only have one or two people feeding you their
perspectives.
 Miscalculation of the problem: If you don’t have adequate information or your
sources have an agenda, you may find that your assessment of the decision is off
target. It’s possible to make the wrong decision because you haven’t accurately
identified the problem. Don’t be afraid to seek clarification, even if it means
talking to people outside of the organization.
 Acting too quickly: Your first instinct might be to make a swift decision, but
acting in haste may work against your ability to make a sound choice. Take your
time to consider your options and the implications of your decision.

What are 5 Good Communication Skills?

Engage in self-evaluation about your own communication skills as a leader. Hone

your skills, so that you’re ready to act, when faced with an organizational
decision. Thomas Jefferson University  identifies five effective communication
skills that contribute to organizational success:

1. Collaboration: Involve your team in the work and the decision-making process.
2. Public speaking: Be ready to speak clearly about decisions and their impact on the
organization.
3. Listening: Engage in active listening and send a signal to your employees that all
perspectives matter.
4. Nonverbal Communication: Be aware of your body language and how it conveys a
positive or negative reaction to the ideas shared by your staff.
5. Written communication: Be clear and concise in your written communication. This
includes emails, memos and other letters to internal and external constituents.

D. TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE

E. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. D
 MODULE 3
SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND ITS DETERMINANTS/INDICATORS
Chunk 1
A. Exercises
Choose the letter of the correct answer. 1. It is where the teaching-learning process
takes place
a. School
b. Community
c. environment
d. none of the above

2. The research outputs is utilized in those countries that are controllable and can
be influenced by the principal and school teachers.
a. Developed countries
b. Underdeveloped countries
c. developing countries
d. all of the above

3.One of the important findings from the researchers of developing countries is

the...
a. Variables inclusion
b. Importance of material inputs on achievement
c. Absence of the collected data
d. Validity of instruments used.

4. Three elements are required to make effective school. What are they?
a. Close monitoring, supervision, Evaluation
b. Maintenance, support system, evaluation
c. Coordination, support system, budget
d. Basic inputs, facilitating conditions, win to change
5. The best factor to influence school effectiveness, is to require the school
personnel, school head and teachers alike to:
a. Believe that the students are educable and capable of.
b. Must have higher expectations of their students.
c. Must work as a team to transform the vision into a reality.
d. All of the above.
B. Write True if the statement is true, and False if it is false.
TRUE 1. Effective schools are relatively more flexible in the sense that their
curricula respond to local needs and adapted to the lives of the children they
served.
TRUE2. Effective schools are relatively closed and straight forward that their
curricula respond to local needs and adapted to the lives of the children they
served.
FALSE 3. Teachers are decision-makers and perform important roles in improving
school program.
TRUE 4. Davis and Thomas found out that the purposeful leadership of the
principal is critical in building effective schools.
TRUE 5. The school principal is closely directed to which the school is heading.
C. Discussion on the following:
1. Discuss the salient features of effective leadership.
Being leader is not about your job title o years of service of
experience. It is mentality. Leaders must have the abilty to influence
others, transparency to an extent,encourage risk and innovaton, value
ethics and integrity and act decisively.
2. Discuss the meaning of a capable teaching force.
Expert teachers learn through experiencing complexity of classroom
situtations. They contine to learn from experience, storing up case
knowledge whch they can begin to impart to new teachers in
mentoring programs.
3. Explain the scope of flexibility and autonomy.
A school has suffiecent flexibility and autonomy to be effective when
the staff can determine the specifics of how school time and resource
are used to increase academic performance.
4. Discuss the importance of research towards effective school management and
effective students' lerning.
Action research is an effective tool that school administrators can use
to solve educational problems that do not have easy asnwers.
5. Point out the salient points of effective leadership as influenced by the
administrators' style or brand of leadership.
Cooperative decision-making by the Head and teaches for specific
school processes, independence to acquire and distribute resources
according to the school’ decision.

CHUNK 2
A. Write the word true if the statement below is true and false if it is false.
Write your answer on the space provided.
TRUE 1. Discipline is evident in effective school when classroom and
classes are well-managed and organized.
FALSE 2. School rules are to be strictly followed by teachers and students.
TRUE 3. A Teachers have confidence in their ability to teach if they show positive
attitude towards themselves and proud to others.
FALSE 4. The students' achievement level does not necessarily confirm their high
standard of performance.
TRUE 5. A limited learning resources could hinder a well-organized curriculum

B. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. There are several opportunities for students to take responsibilities.

a. Positive teacher attitudes
b. High expectations of students
c. Organized curriculum
d. Rewards and incentives
2. Academic achievement of students should be recognized.
a. Positive teacher attitudes
b. High expectations of students
c. Organized curriculum
d. Rewards and incentives

3. Teachers are committed to teaching and care about their students.

a. Positive teacher attitudes
b. High expectations of students
c. Organized curriculum
d. Rewards and incentives

4. Well-organized classroom and class should be observed.

a. Order and discipline
b. Positive teacher attitudes
c. Rewards and incentives
d. Organized curriculum

5. The school emphasizes the acquisition of basic skills.

a. Order and discipline
b. Organized curriculum
c. Rewards and incentives
d. Positive teacher attitudes

C. Enumeration and Discussion

1. Discuss the role of teachers towards the level of students' academic achievement
and their high standards performance.
The function of teachers is to help students learn by importing
knowledge to them and by setting up a situation in which students can
and will learn effectively.
2. How are you going to teach effectively with only limited source of instructional
materials? Create a scenario for the improvement of teaching-learning situation.
Use include varied activities that include role-play, conversation,
debates and simple games that do not require certain materials or
objects as you can communicate a lot and ensure students are having
fun.
3. Draw a demarcation on the forms of students' discipline before and at present.
Compare and give conclusion.

warnings
corporal punishment Students’ teacher calls parents
Discipline
teacher sends child to
principal
4. Why rewards and incentives are still favorable motivation to students' academic
performance? Give an account to which incentives become a negative factor to
students' performance.
Layering incetives at classroom, grade , and schoolwide levels creates
a culture of positivity and achievement where students celebrate
milestone in their individual and shared learning.

5. If you are in the shoe of a curriculum planner, what changes you want to employ
in our basic education program at present? Expound your answer.
Keeping the curriculum responsive to changing demands is essential
to any organization’s strategy. Use of technology as part of the
curriculum review and design process can help you to communicate in
better ways, capture and share information and data more efficiently,
and improve administration.
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND WORK MOTIVATION
(Chunk 3)
STUDY GUIDE/Suggested Activities
A. 1. Identify the kind of organization theory your administrator is using in
implementing his/her goals towards successful endeavor in your
organization. Synthesize the positive and negative effects of his decisions
and give some recommendation towards it.
 There are many different organization theories that our administrator
is used to guide the management and operation of organizations.
Some common approaches include scientific management, human
relations, contingency theory, and systems theory. Each of these
approaches has its own set of assumptions, principles, and strategies
for achieving organizational goals and objectives.
In order to determine which organization theory is being used by your
administrator, it might be helpful to consider the following questions:
 What are the administrator's goals and objectives for the
organization?
 What is the administrator's leadership style and management
approach?
 How does the administrator make decisions and solve
problems?
 What are the key values and priorities that guide the
administrator's actions and decisions?
 By considering these and other factors, you may be able to identify
which organization theory is being used by administrator. It is also
important to consider the positive and negative effects of their
decisions and to make recommendations for improvement if
necessary. This may involve gathering feedback from stakeholders,
analyzing data and performance metrics, and considering alternative
approaches or strategies.
B. Essay:
1. Illustrate Argyris' Model towards his formal and informal description
organization. Try to criticize both the dimension towards our recent
educational system in the Philippines.
 Argyris' model is a theory of organizational behavior and management
that suggests that organizations have both formal and informal
aspects, and that these can be in conflict with one another. The formal
aspects of an organization refer to its official policies, procedures, and
rules, while the informal aspects refer to the unwritten norms, values,
and behaviors that exist within the organization.
According to Argyris, organizations often have a formal structure that
is designed to achieve certain goals and objectives, but this structure
can be at odds with the informal structure of the organization, which
is shaped by the social relationships and interactions of its members.
This can lead to a discrepancy between the intended outcomes of the
organization and the actual outcomes that are achieved.
One criticism of Argyris' model is that it can be overly deterministic,
suggesting that organizational behavior is driven solely by the formal
and informal structures of the organization, rather than by the
individual choices and actions of its members.
As for the relevance of Argyris' model to the educational system in
the Philippines, it is possible that the formal policies and procedures
of the education system may be at odds with the informal norms and
values of teachers, students, and other stakeholders. For example, the
formal curriculum and testing requirements may not always align with
the informal teaching and learning practices that take place in the
classroom. However, without more specific information, it is difficult
to say how well Argyris' model might apply to the education system
in the Philippines

2. What do you think is the most effective organizational theory should employ
towards the realization of organizational goals and objectives? Justify your
answer.
  The contingency theory, which posits that the most effective approach
to organizing an organization depends on the specific context in which
the organization operates. This theory suggests that organizations
should be flexible and adaptable, and should be willing to change their
organizational structure and processes as needed in order to respond to
changing conditions.
Another effective organizational theory is the systems theory, which
suggests that organizations should be viewed as complex systems that
are made up of interconnected parts. This theory emphasizes the
importance of understanding how different parts of an organization
interact with one another, and how changes in one part of the
organization can impact other parts.
Ultimately, the most effective organizational theory for a given
organization will depend on the specific needs and goals of that
organization. It is important for organizations to carefully consider
their unique context and needs, and to select an organizational theory
that is well-suited to their situation.
3. Differentiate the two kinds of organizational climate that serve as the
personality of the school. Which of the two is roughly used in your school?
Elucidate important facts and reasons why the climate that is recently used

be weathered out. Justify your answer.

 An open organizational climate is characterized by transparency, open
communication, and a willingness to listen to and consider the ideas
and perspectives of all stakeholders. This type of climate is often
associated with high levels of trust, collaboration, and innovation.
In contrast, a closed organizational climate is characterized by a
culture of secrecy, lack of transparency, and limited communication
among staff and with external stakeholders. This type of climate can
lead to a lack of trust, low levels of employee engagement, and a lack
of innovation and creativity.
Between this two organizational climate that serve as the personality
of the school one that is roughly used in our school is the cllosed
organizational climate because it is characterized by a culture of
secrecy, lack of transparency, and limited communication among staff
and with external stakeholders. This type of climate can lead to a lack
of trust, low levels of employee engagement, and a lack of innovation
and creativity.
Closed organizational climates are not commonly used in schools or
other organizations because they can have negative impacts on the
culture and overall functioning of the organization. In a closed
climate, staff may feel disconnected from one another and from the
leadership of the organization, which can lead to low levels of job
 satisfaction and a lack of commitment to the organization's goals. In
addition, a closed climate can inhibit the flow of information and
ideas, which can hinder problem-solving and decision-making
processes.
Overall, a closed organizational climate is not conducive to creating a
positive and supportive culture and is not typically seen as a desirable
or effective way to run a school or other organization.
4. What is organizational change? Why there is a need for an organizational
change? Give your views and philosophical judgement towards change in an
organization and try to propose the kind of change you want to employ.
 Organizational change refers to the process of implementing a new
approach, strategy, or structure in an organization in order to achieve
specific goals or address challenges. Organizational change can be
small-scale, such as implementing a new process or introducing a new
software system, or it can be large-scale, such as restructuring the
organization or shifting to a new business model.
There is a need for organizational change for a variety of reasons.
Organizations may need to change in order to respond to external
factors, such as changes in the market or regulatory environment.
They may also need to change in order to address internal challenges,
such as a decline in productivity or customer satisfaction. In addition,
organizations may choose to change in order to take advantage of new
opportunities or to improve their overall performance.
In terms of my views and philosophical judgement towards change in
an organization, I believe that change can be an important and
necessary part of an organization's evolution and growth. However, I
also recognize that change can be challenging and can create
uncertainty and discomfort for staff. Therefore, it is important for
organizations to approach change in a thoughtful and mindful way,
taking the time to properly communicate and implement the change,
and providing support to staff during the transition period.
As for the kind of change I would like to employ, I believe that it is
important to consider the specific goals and needs of the organization
and the context in which it operates. However, one type of change that
I think could be beneficial for many organizations is a shift towards a
more collaborative and participatory decision-making model. This
could involve involving staff and other stakeholders in the planning
and decision-making process, and promoting transparency and open
communication throughout the organization. I believe that this type of
change could help to create a more positive and supportive culture,
foster innovation and creativity, and improve overall organizational
performance.
5. Draw a diagram on Maslow's Need Hierarchy Model, and discuss each level by
pointing out the gravity of needs to every individual.

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY OF HUMAN

MOTIVATION
Needs Physiological and
Psychological
Indicators
Level 5 Achievement of
Potential Maximum
SELF-
Self-Development,
ACTUALIZATION OR
Creativity, and Self-
HIGHER-LEVEL SELF-FULFILLMENT
Expression
NEEDS
LEVEL 4 The Desire for being
ESTEEM Highly Regarded by
Others

Achievement,
Competence, Status,
and Recognition Satisfy
this Need Level
LEVEL 3 Satisfactory
Associations with
BELONGING, LOVE Others Belonging to
AND SOCIAL
Groups Giving and
ACTIVITY
Receiving Friendship
LOWER-LEVEL and Affection
NEEDS
LEVEL 2 Protection Against
SAFETY AND Danger and Threat
SECURITY Freedom from Fear,
Anxiety, and Chaos
Need for Structure,
Order, Law, Limits,
and Stability
LEVEL 1 Hunger, Thirst, Sex,
PHYSIOLOGICAL Taste, Smell, Touch,
Sleep
C. Multiple Choice:
Choose the letter of the best answer form the alternatives given.
1. This theory explains that one's effort will lead to successful performance.
a. Motivational theory b. Expectancy theory
c. Theory X d. Theory Y
2. The leadership role is delegated to the individual. The members' belief will best
fulfill their needs.
a. Argyris' Formal Education b. Argyris' Informal Education
c. Getzel's Philosophy d. Argyris' Philosophy
3. His role, according to (Blanchard and Cook, 1971) is one of planning and
controlling the process of change.
a. Technical Assistance b. Manager
c. Technical Consultant d. Technical Engineer
4. This model is developed by Argyris that is considered as a sub classification of
general motivation.
a. Hierarchy Model b. Disposition Model
c. Predisposition Model d. Organizational Model
5. This theory is rapidly emerging cognitive approach to motivation.
a. Expectancy Theory b. Theory Z
c. Theory X d. Theory Y

ROLE AND VALUES

(CHUNK 4)
D. STUDY GUIDE/SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Interview teachers, parents, students, and school administrators concerning the
major expectations they hold for the school administrator's actual role. Compare
and contrast the expectations.
  Teachers may have expectations for a school administrator to support their
professional development, advocate for resources and funding for the school,
and create a positive and inclusive learning environment for students.
Parents may expect a school administrator to ensure the safety and well-
being of their children, communicate effectively with them about their
child's progress and any concerns, and make decisions that benefit the whole
student body. Students may expect a school administrator to listen to their
ideas and concerns, provide support for their academic and personal growth,
and promote a positive school culture. School administrators may have
expectations for themselves to lead and manage the school effectively, make
data-driven decisions, and ensure compliance with laws and regulations.
2. Analyze description in school policies and records of the roles such educational
administrators as university president, college dean, division superintendent,
district supervisor, and school principal in terms of (1) the functional categories,
(2) major responsibilities, and (3) expected leadership styles. Compare the results.
3. Interview position holders or community leaders regarding their value
orientations for the schools. Prepare and submit a report on your findings.
4. Applying the Lipham and Hoeh model for the analysis of values, analyze
Filipino values in terms of the three levels - Level I (sacred or core values), Level
II (secular values), and Level III (operational values).
5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino cultural values. Suggest ways
for improving on the weak points.
A. TRUE OR FALSE
Write T if the statement below is true and F if it is false. Write your answer on the
space provided for.
T 1. Our values are fundamentally neither Asian nor Western but Human.
__T__2. 1977-1987 was declared as the "Decade of the Filipino Child" and also
called as a National Conference for the Development of the Child.
_ F___3. The person who seeks help is the counselor, and person who provides
help is called the counselee.
T 4. In industries and business as well; the word "counseling" refers to
relationships in which one person has the authority over another.
__F__5. Consultations implies no evaluation of the committee.
B. Choose the best answer form the given alternatives.
1. Considered as an administrative role?
a. Consultation c. supervision
b. Counseling d. all of the above
 2. This should be taken into account in determining which item are to be included
in the list of values to be indicated in the youth of the land?
a. National Goals c. Tradition and Norms
b. Philippine Culture d. Culture
3. Which of the following is considered as the two cultural values?
a. Justice b. charity c. sanctity d. frugality
4. Which of the following is considered as the two cultural values?
a. Utang na loob at hiya c. hiya and na bahala
b. Utang na loob and bahala na. d. all of the above
5. Other values are worth inculcating.
a. Purity b. modesty c. temperance d. all of the above

B. DISCUSSIONS
1. Explain the wisdom of teaching values to students. Are these values truly
influence the well-being of the students? Comment on the saying: "Values are
caught not taught."

 Teaching values to students can help them to develop a strong sense of right
and wrong, and to make positive choices in their lives. These values can also
help students to develop a sense of purpose and meaning, and to treat others
with kindness and respect. Some values that are often taught to students
include honesty, responsibility, respect, compassion, and fairness.
There is some truth to the saying "values are caught not taught," as students
often learn values by observing the behaviors and actions of the people
around them. However, it is also important for values to be explicitly taught
and reinforced through words and actions, as this can help students to
understand and internalize these values more deeply.
Overall, teaching values to students can be an important part of helping them
to develop into well-rounded, compassionate, and responsible individuals.
These values can have a positive impact on the well-being of students by
helping them to make positive choices and to build strong, healthy
relationships with others.
2. Differentiate Role Theory to Values Theory. How it affects in the administrators
approach towards decision-making?
 Role theory and values theory are two distinct theoretical frameworks that
can be applied in the study of organizational behavior and decision-making.
Role theory suggests that individuals within an organization have certain
roles that they are expected to fulfill, and that these roles come with certain
expectations and behaviors. These expectations and behaviors are shaped by
the norms and values of the organization, as well as the individual's personal
values and beliefs. In this sense, role theory can be seen as a way of
understanding how individuals' behaviors and decision-making processes are
influenced by the roles they play within an organization.
Values theory, on the other hand, focuses on the personal values and beliefs
that shape an individual's behavior and decision-making. Personal values are
deeply held beliefs about what is important or desirable in life, and they can
influence an individual's actions and decisions in many ways. For example, a
person with strong personal values around fairness and justice may be more
likely to make decisions that reflect those values, even if it means going
against the norm or expectations of their role within an organization.
In terms of how these theories can affect an administrator's approach to
decision-making, role theory might suggest that an administrator will be
influenced in their decision-making by the expectations and norms
associated with their role within the organization. For example, if an
administrator is expected to prioritize the interests of the organization over
those of individual employees, they might be more likely to make decisions
that reflect this expectation. Values theory, on the other hand, would suggest
that an administrator's personal values and beliefs will be a significant factor
in their decision-making, regardless of the expectations of their role.
Overall, both role theory and values theory can provide useful insights into
the factors that influence an administrator's approach to decision-making,
but they highlight different aspects of that process.
A. TRUE OR FALSE
Write T if the statement below is true and F if it is false. Write your answer
on the space provided for.
T 1. Our values are fundamentally neither Asian nor Western but
Human.
__T__2. 1977-1987 was declared as the "Decade of the Filipino Child" and
also called as a National Conference for the Development of the Child.
_ F___3. The person who seeks help is the counselor, and person who
provides help is called the counselee.
T 4. In industries and business as well; the word "counseling" refers to
relationships in which one person has the authority over another.
__F__5. Consultations implies no evaluation of the committee.
B. Choose the best answer form the given alternatives.
1. Considered as an administrative role?
a. Consultation c. supervision
 b. Counseling d. all of the above
2. This should be taken into account in determining which item are to be
included in the list of values to be indicated in the youth of the land?
a. National Goals c. Tradition and Norms
b. Philippine Culture d. Culture
3. Which of the following is considered as the two cultural values?
a. Justice b. charity c. sanctity d. frugality
4. Which of the following is considered as the two cultural values?
a. Utang na loob at hiya c. hiya and na bahala
b. Utang na loob and bahala na. d. all of the above
5. Other values are worth inculcating.
a. Purity b. modesty c. temperance d. all of the above
 MODULE 4
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS
TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS: FREQUENT HOMEWORK
TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS: FREQUENT STUDENT
ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK

A. STUDY GUIDE
 Give what is asked.
1. Enumerate the requirements in achieving high learning time.
 Maximized school learning time
 Efficient use of classroom learning time

2. What are the indicators in Variety in Teaching Strategies?

 a. Teachers use a variety of teaching techniques including
individual assignments with worksheets, class discussion, group
work, explaining, drill-and-practice, asking questions, and
cross-age tutoring.

b. When available, teachers make regular use of interactive

radio and/or programmed materials.
c. Students are actively engaged in the classroom activities.

3. Enumerate the requirements in frequent student assessment and

feedback.
 Regular integrated assessment and feedback.
 Assessment used for diagnostic purposes
 Feedback is immediate and continuous

4. Give at least 3 indicators in maximized school learning time.

 The school and system have a clear schedule of performance,
monitoring activities that check academic progress.

5. Enumerate at least 3 indicators in efficient use of classroom learning

time.
 School events are scheduled to avoid disrupting learning time.
 Time-use allocation for subjects is clearly established and followed
by teachers.
 School day and individual classes start and end on time.

DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING.

1. Interview teachers, parents, students, and school administrators
concerning the major expectations they hold for the school
administrator's actual role. Compare and contrast the expectations.
  Teachers may have expectations that the school administrator will
provide support for the teaching staff, including resources,
professional development opportunities, and assistance with
managing classroom issues. They may also expect the school
administrator to advocate for the needs of teachers and students
within the school and to make decisions that prioritize the education
and well-being of the students.
Parents may have expectations that the school administrator will
ensure a safe and welcoming environment for their children,
communicate effectively with them about their children's progress and
any concerns, and be available to address any issues that arise. They
may also expect the school administrator to be transparent about
school policies and procedures and to involve them in decision-
making processes that impact their children's education.
Students may have expectations that the school administrator will
create a positive and inclusive school culture, provide support for their
academic and personal growth, and be approachable and responsive to
their needs. They may also expect the school administrator to enforce
rules and consequences fairly and consistently.
School administrators may have expectations that they will have the
autonomy to make decisions that are in the best interest of the school
and its community, that they will receive support and resources from
district or higher level administrators, and that they will be held
accountable for the performance and outcomes of the school. They
may also have expectations about their own professional development
and the opportunity to continually improve their skills and knowledge
as an administrator.

2. Analyze description in school policies and records of the roles such

educational administrators as university president, college dean, division
superintendent, district supervisor, and school principal in terms of (1)
the functional categories, (2) major responsibilities, and (3) expected
leadership styles. Compare the results.
 The roles of a university president, college dean, division
superintendent, district supervisor, and school principal all involve
overseeing and managing various aspects of educational institutions.
These roles can be grouped into the following functional categories:
Academic Affairs: These administrators are responsible for
overseeing the academic programs and policies of their institutions,
including curriculum development, faculty hiring and evaluation, and
student academic support.
 Student Affairs: These administrators are responsible for managing
the non-academic aspects of student life, including housing, student
activities, and counseling services.
Financial Management: These administrators are responsible for
managing the financial resources of their institutions, including
budgeting, fundraising, and financial aid.
Public Relations: These administrators are responsible for
representing their institutions to the public and building relationships
with stakeholders, including alumni, donors, and community
members.
In terms of major responsibilities, university presidents, college deans,
division superintendents, and district supervisors generally have
broader and more strategic responsibilities than school principals.
They may be responsible for setting the overall direction and vision
for their institutions, and for making key decisions that affect the
entire organization. School principals, on the other hand, are primarily
responsible for managing and leading a single school, and may be
responsible for day-to-day operations such as student discipline and
teacher evaluation.
In terms of leadership style, it is expected that educational
administrators at all levels will demonstrate strong leadership skills,
including the ability to communicate effectively, make sound
decisions, and inspire and motivate others. However, the specific
leadership style that is most effective for a particular administrator
will depend on the needs and culture of their institution. Some
administrators may be more directive and autocratic in their
leadership style, while others may be more collaborative and
participatory.
3. Interview position holders or community leaders regarding their value
orientations for the schools. Prepare and submit a report on your
findings.
 According to the positive holder that I interviewed It is important for
school leaders and community leaders to have a strong set of values
and to communicate those values to the school community. These
values should guide their actions and decision-making, and should
reflect the goals and mission of the school. Some common values that
may be important to school leaders and community leaders include:
 Academic excellence: A commitment to providing high-
quality education and supporting student learning and
achievement.
 Inclusivity and diversity: A commitment to creating a
welcoming and inclusive environment for all students,
regardless of their background or identity.
  Community engagement: A commitment to building
strong partnerships with parents, families, and other
community stakeholders.
 Social justice: A commitment to promoting fairness and
equity, and working to address issues of social and
economic injustice.
 Innovation and continuous improvement: A commitment
to seeking out new ideas and approaches, and
continuously striving to improve and evolve.
 Integrity and transparency: A commitment to honesty,
transparency, and ethical conduct in all actions and
decisions.
It is important for school leaders and community leaders to be clear
about their values and to consistently demonstrate those values in their
work. This can help to build trust and create a positive and supportive
learning environment for students.

4. Applying the Lipham and Hoeh model for the analysis of values, analyze
Filipino values in terms of the three levels - Level I (sacred or core
values), Level II (secular values), and Level III (operational values).
 The Lipham and Hoeh model for the analysis of values identifies three
levels of values: Level I values, which are sacred or core values;
Level II values, which are secular values; and Level III values, which
are operational values. Using this model, we can analyze Filipino
values as follows:
Level I values: These are the values that are considered sacred or core
to Filipino culture, and include things like respect for authority and
elders, the importance of family and community, and the value of hard
work and perseverance.
Level II values: These are secular values that are not necessarily tied
to any particular religion or belief system, but are important to
Filipino culture. Examples of Level II values in Filipino culture might
include the importance of education and intellectual achievement, the
value of honesty and integrity, and the importance of taking care of
the environment.
Level III values: These are operational values, which are the values
that guide the day-to-day actions of individuals and groups. Examples
of Level III values in Filipino culture might include the importance of
punctuality, the value of being kind and helpful to others, and the
importance of being resourceful and adaptable.
Overall, Filipino culture values respect, hard work, family, education,
honesty, and resourcefulness, among other things. These values are
 reflected in the way that Filipinos interact with each other and with
the world around them, and are an important part of what defines the
culture and identity of the Philippines.
5. Discuss the strengths and of Filipino cultural values. Suggest ways for
improving on the weak points.

 There are many strengths to Filipino cultural values, including:

Familism: Filipinos place a strong emphasis on family and prioritize
the needs of the family over the needs of the individual. This can lead
to strong bonds and a sense of community.
Respect for authority: Filipinos have a strong sense of respect for
authority figures, such as parents, teachers, and elders. This can lead
to a more orderly and harmonious society.
Hospitality: Filipinos are known for their hospitality and generosity
towards guests and visitors. This can help to create a welcoming and
friendly atmosphere.
Hard work: Filipinos value hard work and diligence, and place a
strong emphasis on education and personal improvement.
However, there are also some potential weak points to Filipino
cultural values that could be improved upon, including:
Hierarchy: Filipino culture places a strong emphasis on hierarchy and
respect for authority, which can sometimes lead to a lack of equal
opportunities and a rigid social structure.
Gender roles: Traditional Filipino culture can be quite patriarchal and
has strict gender roles, which can lead to gender inequality and
discrimination against women.
Collectivism: While a strong sense of community and collectivism
can be a strength, it can also lead to a lack of individualism and a
difficulty in standing up for oneself or expressing personal opinions.
To improve on these weak points, it could be helpful to promote
gender equality and empower women, encourage individualism and
critical thinking, and challenge traditional hierarchies and power
dynamics. It could also be helpful to promote more open and honest
communication within families and communities, and to encourage a
sense of personal responsibility and agency
B. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING.
1. Discuss the indicators in maximized school learning time.
 School events are scheduled to avoid disrupting learning time.
 Time-use allocation for subjects is clearly established and followed by teachers
 School day and individual classes start and end on time.
 Extra learning time is provided for students
 There are firm and enforced policies regarding tardiness, absenteeism, and
appropriate classroom behavior for both teachers and students
 Students are achieving tasks assigned at high rate of success.
Education systems are typically analysed in terms of context, specific inputs, social
or institutional processes, and outputs or outcomes. Indicators can be developed to
measure issues that fall under each of these categories.

1. Context indicators: provide information on the contextual factors that affect

learning, e.g. student characteristics, socio- economic conditions, cultural
aspects, status of the teaching profession, and local community issues. Context
indicators are often challenging to develop and measure as they concern
qualitative issues. Common data-collection tools include surveys, classroom
observations, inspection reports, and self-evaluations.
2. Input indicators: primarily measure the deployment and use of resources to
facilitate learning. They reveal whether the planned financial, material, and
human resources are being delivered in the planned quantities, at all levels of
the system. Information on input indicators is relatively easy to obtain since
inputs are often “countable” by nature, and management processes involve
keeping records of many inputs automatically. One challenge may be the
differences between producing inputs and ensuring that they are available at the
endpoint. For example, the textbook/pupil ratio may be measured in terms of
the number of textbooks that are delivered, or by the number of textbooks in use
in schools. In some cases, there may be a discrepancy between the two figures.
3. Process indicators: measure how educational programme activities were
conducted – whether they were carried out to the desired standard of quality.
This includes how specific educational processes are conducted in practice, e.g.
the application of standards, teaching quality, time on task, school climate, and
educational leadership. Like context indicators, process indicators also concern
qualitative issues and may be obtained through surveys and pedagogical
observations, inspection reports, and self-evaluations.
4. Output indicators: measure the effects of the programme activities to see
whether the programme objectives were attained. They reveal how the
education system is performing in terms of subject knowledge, competencies,
repetition, progression and completion rates, and employer satisfaction. Output
indicators may be obtained through national examinations, international
assessments, surveys, and systematic field observations. Output indicators
typically involve measurement of learning outcomes based on national
examinations or international assessments. Output indicators provide the most
important data for understanding whether educational quality and learning
outcomes are improving as intended.

Indicators should be based on context and on the specific learning goals of the
education system. They should be designed to allow for measurement of change
over time and be disaggregated by gender, geography, socio-economic
situation, and other equity issues.
2. What is energy? How is it utilize in teaching-learning situation. Explain
Sustainability is important for our future because it helps to put an emphasis on
the importance of clean water, free clean air, and natural resources.

Progress will depend on building a solid understanding of efficiency and

sustainability. The common consensus is that Earth’s resources are finite and
humanity’s various activities can have a massive impact on biological ecosystems
and the planet overall. We have a significant amount of technology that enables us
to replace forests and other natural terrains and these efforts have had and will
continue to have effects on different ecosystems around the world.

Energy Education Importance For Students in Schools

While data and larger narratives around climate change certainly have their place,
hands-on practical learning can help students of all ages connect the dots a bit
faster. Furthermore, practical and hands-on learning can help individuals see the
connections between their actions and their effects on the environment and their
quality of life.

It can help individuals understand concepts such as the water-energy nexus and
how water and energy work together to create a higher quality of life. Smart
Energy Education teaches students about renewable energy, energy conservation,
and the importance of energy as we transition into the future. Students will learn
about a host of factors in the energy field and how energy conservation benefits
individual finances and overall quality of life in the present and the future.

Important Energy Education Programs are about Practicality, Efficiency, and

Renewable Energy
Saving energy, improving conservation, and reducing carbon emissions are goals
that many countries around the world have and will remain priorities over the next
few decades. 

As such, it is no surprise that several nations in the European Union and elsewhere
have noted specific carbon emission reduction goals over the next decade. With
these carbon emission reduction goals, there’s been a rise of electric vehicles to
wind energy and solar power adaptation and the transition from fossil fuel
utilization to renewable energy consumption, the shift toward sustainable
economic development occurs.

For large-scale energy production we’ll need to improve current options (such as
nuclear and solar) and even develop new ones. These new options will be required
to help solve the many sustainability problems society faces today. Smart Energy
Education believes that incorporating energy sustainability lessons and activities
into the classroom will help reinforce energy-saving and carbon-emissions
reduction within the school curriculum to inspire more to get involved. Everyone,
can play a role in helping to solve energy issues by conserving energy or
discovering new methods to advance renewable energy.
 Hands-On Learning about Energy Efficiency Can Improve Energy Literacy
The importance of hands-on energy-saving activities plays a key role in how
students learn about efficiency, and can have a positive impact on their thoughts
and behaviors around conservation in the future. 

Smart Energy Education’s activities are engaging and show how energy ties into
students’ daily lives. Hands-on learning helps students go beyond general concepts
and improves overall energy literacy through practical, interactive lessons. 

The right exposure to conservation program materials, teaching, and activities can
contribute to more initiatives that help save the Earth. Smart Energy Education’s
programs are a great resource that can teach students about energy use and how
they can help build a more sustainable world.

3. Explain the importance of assessment and feedback towards effective teaching?

Feedback is one of the most effective teaching and learning techniques that puts
out a direct impact on both teaching and learning process that has an immediate
impact on the process of acquiring knowledge. Feedback in education is an
essential part of the system. Feedback helps all individual students to understand
the subject they are studying and gives them clear guidance on how to improve
their learning procedure. Feedback can help students improve confidence, self-
awareness and enthusiasm for learning what they are being taught. Providing
students with relevant feedback can help them enhance their performance in
academics or be it in field work.
 Effective and relevant feedback assists the learners to reflect on their learning and
the learning strategies so they can make adjustments to make better progress at
their learning stages. Effective feedback is henceforth designed to determine a
learner’s level of understanding which varies to each individual and the rate of
skill development so that they can plan for the next steps towards achieving their
targeted learning goals.
 Feedback is also central to teaching in education. The importance of constructive
feedback allows for many positive opportunities. Feedback in education provides
a foundation for positive student and teacher relationship. When teachers and
students share effective feedback, they build a sense of trust amongst each other,
they build the trust to tell each other when they see points of improvement.
 By providing appropriate feedback, the students understand that their professors
are willing to help them and are genuinely concerned about their education.
Along with providing constructive feedback teachers are also willing to help the
students in the learning process from a closer point. Like giving them extra
classes, or extra detailed notes as study material etc.
 Another benefit for feedback in a classroom environment is that it affords an
opportunity for clarification of what is expected. When provided with feedback,
student performance and achievement increases as they are able to understand the
 expectations or targets that need to be met. It also helps students identify their
strengths and weaknesses in various content domains.
 Effective feedback from teachers assists in student identification of different
levels of understanding. Teachers can determine the learning preference of
individual students and get the information to help guide instruction. Students are
able to achieve their targeted goals and submit appropriate work on time.
 Providing feedback means giving students an idea about how their work or
learning process is going on. It can be referred to as additional remarks. It is one
of the most productive ways of learning. Through feedback students get to know
what is accurate and what is wrong. They get to know about the weak points and
further can work on them so that they achieve the actual goal.
 Especially in the times of online learning, feedback in education is essential as we
are teaching and learning on through a blank screen. There are many instances
where students do not respond well to what the teacher is teaching in the online
course. Here, they ought to give constructive feedback to their teachers of that
particular subject so that they can work on their teaching techniques and students
can improve their understanding of it.
 Being students, it is their responsibility to let the teacher know if they are unable
to understand what they are being taught. Students ought to give feedback to their
teachers about the teaching process, only then it’ll be worth learning.
 When student feedback is given immediately after their submission of work,
students respond and remember to experience what is being learned more
positively.
It is vital for feedback to exist in the teaching learning process as it helps in
improvement.

4. Discuss the pros and cons in using variety of teaching strategies. To what extent
is the limitation in the use of varied strategies.
Differentiation is the educational practice of modifying or adapting instruction,
school materials, subject content, class projects, and assessment methods to better
meet the needs of diverse learners.1

In a differentiated classroom, teachers recognize that all students are different and
require varied teaching methods to be successful. These include students with
learning disabilities who might otherwise fall behind in a traditional classroom
setting.

Pros and Cons of Traditional Teaching

The traditional method of teaching isn't entirely without value. It can be helpful to
evaluate the pros and cons of the time-worn practice.

Pros
 School evaluation by school boards and departments of education are more
easily performed
 Subjects and skills are taught in a specific, cohesive order.
 Teacher assessments are more straightforward
  Teaching is uniform and consistent
Cons
 Based on a false assumption that children are all on a level playing field and
that some are "meant" to fail.
 Curriculum and teacher role are inflexible
 Instruction focuses on memorization rather than higher-level thinking skills,
placing students who struggle with memorization at a disadvantage
 Systems are less able to keep up with student needs
 The needs of students with diverse backgrounds and disabilities are rarely
met
Pros and Cons of Differentiated Teaching

While support for differentiated teaching is growing, it is not without its

shortcomings and benefits.

Cons

Pros
 Children take on more of the responsibility for learning
 Differentiation effective for both high-ability students and those with a
disability
 Engagement in learning tends to be stronger because it addresses the
children as equal individuals
Cons
 May require more resources for a school or school district to implement
 Many schools lack the professional development resources to properly train
faculty
 Requires much more lesson-planning time for teachers

5. The primary purpose of student assessment is to determine what students know

and are capable of doing. Student assessment results can help students advance in
their learning and support them in making informed decisions on the next step in
their education. 

Student assessment refers to the processes and instruments used to evaluate student
learning. These include assessment by teachers as part of school-based, classroom
activities, such as daily observations and periodic quizzes, and through
standardised examinations and assessments designed and graded outside schools.

Common expected learning outcomes against which students are assessed are
important to determine their level of learning and how improvements can be
made (OECD, 2013[2]). Expectations for student learning can be documented and
explained in several ways. Many countries define them as part of national learning
standards. Others integrate them into their national curriculum
frameworks (OECD, 2013[2]).

Assessments can generally be categorised into classroom assessments, national

examinations and national assessments. Assessment has traditionally held a
summative purpose, aiming to explain and document learning that has occurred.
Many countries are now also emphasising the importance of formative assessment,
which aims to understand learning as it occurs in order to inform and improve
subsequent instruction and learning (see Box 2.1) (OECD, 2013[2]). Formative
assessment is now recognised to be a key part of the teaching and learning process
and has been shown to have one of the most significant positive impacts on student
achievement among all educational policy interventions.

Classroom assessment

Among the different types of assessment, classroom assessment has the greatest
impact on student learning (Absolum et al., 2009[5]). It supports learning by:
regularly monitoring learning and progress; providing teachers with information to
understand student learning needs and guide instruction; and helping students
understand the next steps in their learning through the feedback their teachers
provide.
Classroom assessments are administered by teachers in classrooms and can have both
summative and formative purposes. They can be delivered in various formats,
including closed multiple-choice questions, semi-constructed short-answer questions
and open-ended responses such as essays or projects. Different assessment formats
are needed for assessing different skills and subjects. In general, however, assessing
complex competencies and higher-order skills requires the use of more open-ended
assessment tasks.
C. Multiple Choice.
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. D
D. TRUE OR FALSE
Write the word true if the statement below is true and false if it is false.
_FALSE_1. High-learning time is considered if classroom learning time is
exclusively used to a group of students.
_TRUE_2. Passive and enormous engagement of students by the use of variety of
teaching technique is a requirement under variety in teaching strategies.
_TRUE _3. Feedback should be immediate and continuous overtime.
_TRUE_ 4. Regular and integrated assessment and feedback is an indicator under
frequent student assessment and feedback.
TRUE 5. Monitoring of students' progress frequently is a positive indicator
towards students learning development.