INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
HUMANITARIANISM - humanitarianism. Many
societies place value on human life and welfare.
Not all societies have the same degree of regard
for people. Having value for human life is a
moral basis for the field of safety and health.
LAW - Different societies use different
standards for right and wrong. Societies set
standards of conduct through laws and
regulations. This reason for safety derives from
the first. Laws define a society's moral code.
The laws protect the safety, health, and welfare
of individuals, property, and the environment.
COST -Some governments and businesses have
established a value for human life. Some have
established values for injuries and illnesses. The
costs involved in injury, illness and death are
part of the economic system of a society. So are
costs for loss of property. Damage to the
environment may also incur costs as part of
business. Society often defines the costs
through laws.
Three main reasons for safety
HUMANITARIANISM
• The Value of Human Life and Property
• Professional Conduct and Ethics
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
• Sustainability
LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND STANDARDS
• Government Laws, Regulations, and Standards
• Voluntary or Consensus Standards
• Standards of Practice
COSTS
• Direct Costs
• Indirect Costs
The Value of Human Life and Property
Humanitarianism has many aspects derived
from the value placed on human life, property
and the environment in which we live.
Humanitarianism represents the moral part of
safety and health. Protecting people is the right
thing to do, the moral action.
Professional Conduct and Ethics
The moral aspect of safety and health often is
linked to professional ethics. Many codes of
professional conduct and ethics place high value
on human life. For example, the National
Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) places
protection of people at the top of its Code of
Professional Conduct:
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
Many companies have set a moral standard for
their businesses that defines responsibilities to
their stakeholders. These companies make a
commitment to those they serve, including
employees, customers, communities and
others. Corporate Social Responsibility refers to
operating a business in a manner that accounts
for the social and environmental impact created
by the business. Often CSR policies include
commitments to the safety and health of
workers, customers and communities, and
action plans to implement them.
In 1984, chemical releases in Bhopal, India,
killed between 2,300 and 16,000 people
(depending on estimates) and harmed as many
as 550,000 others. As a result, the American
Chemical Society set up a program called
"Responsible Care." This program reflects the
moral basis for the field of safety and health.
The program sets standards that guide
producers and users of chemicals in protecting
people, property, and the environment
Sustainability
Another moral concept involving protection of
people, property, and the environment is
sustainability. Sustainability is similar to CSR.
One definition of sustainability is "improving the
quality of human life while living within the
carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems.”
Sustainability involves three Kelements:
economy, society, and environment.
LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND STANDARDS
Government Laws, Regulations, and Standards
In general, society codifies protection through
laws enacted at international, national, state or
province, and local government levels. Often,
government agencies issue regulations and
standards as interpretations of laws. Laws may
conflict with each other, a problem for those
trying to comply.
Voluntary or Consensus Standards
In addition, groups of interested parties, such as
companies, industry groups and associations or
others, may create and publish voluntary or
consensus standards applicable to their groups.
A variety of associations and organizations
engage in the creation of these standards.
Standards of Practice
Finally, standards may refer to standards of
practice. These are generally accepted practices
by crafts, professions, managers or others
without formally codifying them.
COSTS
Direct Costs
For safety and health, there are direct costs
focused on prevention of injury, illness, and
death.
Examples are training on how to perform jobs
properly and safely. There are costs for
equipment and clothing to prevent injuries,
illness, and deaths. There are costs to complete
work effectively. There are safety costs for
employers.
Examples are creating a brand that includes
safety concepts and creating loyalty of
employees and customers in support of safety.
Costs may include creating a positive image for
a company or a product that includes safety.
There are costs to incorporate safety into
designs and the testing of products and
processes. There are costs to comply with laws,
regulations, and standards. There are costs to
establish and operate safety management
systems.
Preventive costs should have significant returns
on investments and contribute to business
financial success.
Indirect Costs
When there is a loss, there are many possible
costs. Treating injuries and illnesses incur costs.
Deaths create costs. The costs may involve
cleanup, recovery, repair, and replacement of
materials, equipment and facilities and hiring
and training new personnel. Investigations have
expenses. Lost production and productivity cost
money. Insurance and processing of insurance
claims incur costs. There may also be costs
related to preventing or resolving legal
challenges related to loss events
Over the years the terminology has changed.
Some time ago records tracked injuries,
illnesses and deaths from "accidents." Today,
records use the term "unintentional" instead,
such as unintentional injury deaths.
Worldwide Record
The International Labour Organizations (ILO)
estimates that around the world:
• Every 15 seconds, a worker dies from a work-
related accident or disease.
• Every 15 seconds, 160 workers have a work-
related accident.
• Every day, 6,300 people die as a result of
occupational accidents or workrelated diseases.
• Every year, 317 million accidents occur on the
job.
• Every year, there are more than 2.3 million
deaths per year.
• The annual economic burden is 4% of global
Gross Domestic Product.
World Health Organization
4M – unintentional injury deaths worldwide
59 per 100,000 population average
unintentional fatality rate among all age groups
Road traffic accidents were the leading
unintentional fatality cause for all age groups
under 70.
Philippines Record
Integrated Survey on Labor and Employment
(ISLE)
Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA)
OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENTS
47,440 cases in 2013 44,739 cases in 2015
OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES
49,118 cases in 2013
50,961 cases in 2015
manufacturing accounted for the highest
shares of total occupational injuries
48.1 percent (23,641) 2013
50.4 percent (25,667) 2015
Superficial injuries and open wounds were the
most common type of injuries
Top 3 body parts of the body that were injured
in 2015 and 2013 were; wrist and hands (39.2%
vs.45.4%); lower extremities ( 19.7% vs. 17.0%);
and arms and shoulders (16.7% vs. 15.8%)
The leading causes of occupational injuries
suffered by workers were stepping on, striking
against or struck by objects (excluding falling
objects which accounted for 31.8 percent and
39.0 percent of total injuries in 2015 and 2013,
respectively.
The top three agents of injuries were machines
and equipment (26.9%); materials and objects
(25.7%); and hand tools (19.5%) These three
agents of occupational injuries were
interchangeably the same top three causes of
injuries in 2013
Safety Professionals and Practitioners
Safety professional - is someone who has the
knowledge and skill to advise employers about
eliminating and reducing hazards by applying
appropriate controls. The primary roles of
safety professionals are anticipating and
recognizing hazards, identifying controls for
them, and recommending protective action to
managers. They also establish and operate
management systems to achieve the safety of
workplaces, operations, equipment, facilities,
products, and processes.
Safety engineer - Safety engineering is the
application of scientific and engineering
knowledge, principles and methods to identify
and eliminate or reduce and control hazards.
Safety engineers need to know a lot about other
engineering fields. They often work together
with engineers from other specialties. Their
roles are similar to those of safety professionals.
In addition, they participate or coordinate with
designers and others in non-engineering
disciplines.
Fire protection engineer - Fire protection
engineering is an engineering specialty focused
on preventing and reducing loss of life and
property from fires, explosions, and related
hazards. Fire protection engineers specialize in
fire prevention, protection, detection, and
alarms. They plan and design fire control and
extinguishment systems for structures,
equipment, processes, and systems. They also
design egress routes to allow safe exiting from
fires and related incidents.
Industrial hygienist - Industrial hygiene
specializes in the anticipation, recognition,
prevention, and control of hazards leading to
illnesses and diseases. Industrial hygienists
specialize in measuring chemical and physical
environment exposures. They specialize in
preventing such exposures, especially harmful
exposures. They advise management on the į
dangers of such hazards and implementing
appropriate controls.
Health physicist -Health physics specializes in
recognition, prevention, and control of
radiation hazards. The hazards involve both
ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Health
physics is a small branch of medical physics.
Their professional organization is the Health
Physics Society (HPS).
Ergonomist - Ergonomics is the science of work.
The goal of ergonomics is to achieve human
performance, safety and satisfaction.
Ergonomists seek to improve the fit between
people and their equipment, environments,
systems, workplaces, and information.
Ergonomists seek to reduce task errors and
physical stress. Ergonomics has a strong
emphasis on the physiological and
biomechanical aspects of human performance.
Some in this field prefer the term human factors
specialist or human factors engineer over
ergonomics. The term human factors
emphasizes the behavioral and cognitive
aspects of performance, safety, and
satisfaction. Ergonomists and human factors
specialists often receive an education in
psychology, but some come from engineering,
industrial hygiene, and safety academic
programs. The professional organization for this
field is the Human Factors and Ergonomics
Society (HFES).
Occupational health nurse - Closely associated
with occupational and environmental medicine
is occupational health nursing. Occupational
health nurses deal with diseases and illness
related to work and environmental exposures.
They help manage cases for employers to
accelerate a return to work. They help
employers deal with work-related injuries and
illness. They handle preventive programs such
as immunizations and worker wellness
promotion. The professional organization in the
United States is the American Association of
Occupational Health Nurses (AAOHN).
Occupational health physician - Occupational
and environmental medicine is a branch of
medical practice specializing in disease and
illness related to work and environmental
exposures. Occupational health physicians
diagnose and treat diseases and illness that may
arise from work and exposure to hazardous
environments. Such exposure may be a
contributory factor in other diseases. Treatment
may include various physical and occupational
therapies to allow a return to work.
Occupational health physicians also promote
healthy workplaces and deal with workplace
stresses. The professional organization in the
United State is the American College of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine
(ACOEM).
Human Resources manager - Human Resources
(HR) involves a wide range of programs and
functions of an employer related to recruiting,
hiring, paying, and supporting employees. In
some cases, safety and health functions report
to the manager of Human Resources. Human
Resource managers often deal with workers'
compensation and other insurance. They may
oversee return-to work programs following
illness and injury. Overall, safety and health
functions are a small, but important, element of
Human Resources. The professional
organization is the Society for Human Resource
Management.
Licensing and Certification for Safety
Practitioners
Licensing
States have a responsibility to protect the
health, safety, and welfare of the public. One
way states do that is through licensing of
professions offering services directly to the
public. These are doctors, lawyers, engineers
and others must sit for and pass an examination
related to their practice.
The license authorizes them to practice their
profession or trade in the awarding state
The license helps protect the public. Some
professionals do not get a license to practice
because they work for employers. The
employers offer products and services to the
public and the liability attaches to the
employer, not their employees.
Certification
There is no licensing for many professions. The
main reason is that they do not provide services
directly to the public.
In order to gain recognition and credibility,
many professions have set up certification.
Practitioners must qualify and pass one or more
examinations related to practice to become
certified. The process is almost the same as for
licensing.
Certification marks a level of professionalism
and competency for those who achieve it.
Certification does not prevent anyone from
practicing.
Fundamental Concepts and Terms
BASIC TERMS
SAFETY is the state of being relatively free from
harm, danger, injury or damage.
SAFETY ENGINEERING is the application of
engineering principles and practices to the
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards
that can lead to accidents and incidents.
HAZARD The potential or inherent
characteristics of an activity, condition, or
circumstance which can produce adverse or
harmful events and consequences.
CONTROL In the safety context, a control is any
means of reducing the likelihood or severity of
an accident or incident. Two main classes of
controls engineering controls and
administrative controls
RISK is the chance or likelihood of an adverse
event and the potential severity that may result.
ACCIDENT
An accident is an unintended, unplanned, single
or multiple event sequence that results from
hazards and may result in immediate or delayed
undesirable effects.
INCIDENT
The word incident focuses on an event. The
event may or may not have consequences.
Incident does not carry the connotation that the
event sequence is a chance event. Incident does
not rule out the potential for prevention. An
incident does not suggest a rapid event.
CONSEQUENCES
There are many kinds of consequences when
adverse events occur.
• There may be injuries, illnesses, death,
property damage, or harm to the
environment.
• There are other consequences as well. loss of
production or sales.
• Consequences often require additional work,
such as conducting
investigations and completing forms, reports,
and records.
• There may be cleanup, recovery, and
reconstruction tasks.
• There may be emergency and medical
treatment of individuals.
• There may be a need to rebuild brand and
public image.
There are some important terms related to
consequences. The National Safety Council
offers the following definitions.
Injury Source An injury source is the principal
object such as tool, machine, or equipment
involved in an accident and usually the object
inflicting injury or property damage. An injury
source also has the names agent or agency.
Injury Injury is physical harm or damage to the
body resulting from an exchange, usually acute,
of mechanical, chemical, thermal, or other
environmental energy that exceeds the body's
tolerance.
Fatal Accident A fatal accident is an accident
that results in one or more deaths within one
year.
Occupational illness An occupational illness is
any abnormal condition or disorder other than
one resulting from an occupational injury
caused by exposure to environmental factors
associated with employment. It includes acute
and chronic illnesses or diseases that may result
from inhalation, absorption, ingestion, or direct
contact
Occupational Injury An occupational injury is
any injury, such as a cut, fracture, sprain,
amputation, or other injury, which results from
a work accident or from a single instantaneous
exposure in the work environment
Unintended Injury, Illness and Death
For many decades, people called injury, illness,
and death statistics resulting from adverse
events accident statistics. There were accidental
injuries, accidental illnesses, and accidental
deaths. The confusion related to the term
accident led to use of the term "unintended."
Now the preferred terms are unintended
injuries, unintended illnesses and unintended
deaths. Also influencing the change in terms
were workplace violence cases involving
intentional incidents and consequences. Such
cases don't fit the idea of accidents.
Relationships Between Accidents/Incidents
and Consequences
Let us look at the relationships among accidents
with no consequences and those with minor or
major consequences. Some assume a no
consequence accident may provide valuable
information to help prevent those with
consequences. To promote this preventive idea,
Heinrich conducted a study. He found that
among 330 accident cases, there were 300 with
no consequences, 29 with minor consequences
and 1 with major consequences. The ratio itself
is not significant, the importance derives from
seeking to create preventive strategies based
on experience gained from low or no-
consequence incidents.
COSTS
Direct Versus Indirect Costs
One approach divides accident-related costs
into direct and indirect costs.
• Indirect costs refer to as hidden costs.
• Direct costs are expenses incurred from and
directly linked to an accident.
Direct costs typically include:
-medical expenses;
-compensation to injured employees for time
away from work, such as vacation or sick leave,
and long-term disability payments, and
-repair or replacement of damaged equipment,
buildings, and other items.
Indirect costs:
are real expenses associated with accidents? It
may be difficult to assess these expenses for
individual cases costs. They help direct
attention to the importance of preventing
accidents. Such as Preventive Programs,
Training
Total Costs
When one can measure both direct and indirect
costs in accident cases, it is helpful to consider
the total cost of cases. The total costs help
convince managers about the importance of
preventing accidents. In addition, one can link
accident costs to business metrics, such as
profit. Accident costs are part of the operating
costs of an organization. A company can reduce
its operating costs by improving productivity
and reducing any operating expenses. This
includes reducing accidents and their costs.
Insured Versus Uninsured Costs
Another way to consider the costs related to
accidents is by dividing costs into insured and
uninsured costs.
Insured costs are those paid by an insurance
policy. Uninsured costs are those not paid by an
insurance policy.
Incident-Cost Relationships
There is also an important relationship between
the frequency of injury accidents and direct
costs.
A concept termed the vital few, Vilfredo
Paretois, an Italian economist of the nineteenth
century, was the first to apply unequal
distributions to economic data. Some call this
Pareto's Law. He noted that significant items in
a given group normally are a relatively small
portion of the total.
For example, recognize that a small portion of
accidents, assume 20%, will account for a large
portion of all accident costs. The remaining 80%
account for a small part of the total costs. For a
group of similar incidents resulting in injuries
and direct costs (insurance claims), only a small
percentage of the injuries account for most of
the total costs of the group. Most of the injuries
account for a small portion of the total injury
costs.
ACCIDENT CAUSES: UNSAFE ACTS, CONDITIONS
AND CIRCUMSTANCES
In the 1930s, Heinrich studied the relative role
of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions. He
concluded that 88% of cases involved unsafe
acts, 10% involved unsafe conditions and 2%
had no preventable cause.
A different study in the 1960s by the State of
Pennsylvania found both unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions were causes for nearly every
accident studied. The ratio between the two
causes is irrelevant. Any ratio does not provide
a suitable strategy when analyzing hazards and
accident prevention. Preventing accidents must
consider both as well as the surrounding
circumstances.
ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT THEORIES
Safety practitioners need to recognize several
premises when addressing accident prevention:
-Accidents have causes.
-Accidents often involve hazards that include
unsafe acts (activities), unsafe conditions, and
other circumstances.
-Accidents may or may not have consequences.
-Consequences may be minor or major (severe).
Understanding these points helps practitioners
apply accident theories and models. Accident
theories and models provide some insights
when investigating accidents or conducting
hazard and risk analysis aimed at prevention.
The Domino Theory
Heinrich produced some early thinking about
accident prevention. He recognized the
importance of unsafe acts and conditions and
created a theory called "the Domino Theory"
because Heinrich used a row of dominos to
illustrate his theory.
The theory states that an accident sequence is
like a series of five dominos standing on end.
One falling can knock the others over. The five
dominos in reverse sequence are:
(1) an injury caused by
(2) an accident, which, in turn, is caused by
(3) unsafe acts or conditions. Causes for the
latter are
(4) undesirable traits (such as recklessness,
nervousness, violent temper, lack of knowledge,
or unsafe practices) resulting from one's
(5) social environment.
Removing or controlling contributing factors will
stop the accident sequence. The theory places
strong emphasis for accident prevention on the
middle domino: unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions.
Serial and Parallel Theories
A parallel accident causation theory will look for
combinations of items working together that
lead to an accident.
For example, suppose a driver had difficulty
stopping a car when stepping on the brake
pedal.
• A serial theory might learn that the driver's
foot slipped from the pedal.
• A parallel theory might find the foot slipping
from a worn and slippery pedal.
• It may also find there was some wet
substance on the sole of the driver's shoe.
• In addition, the pedal material and sole
material together may have created a low
friction interface.
Single Factor Theories
Many people who deal with accident
prevention look for a single or major cause for
certain accidents.
A single factor theory assumes that when one
finds a cause, there is nothing more to find out.
Very often the cause is the immediate or
proximate cause, but that does not consider
other elements that can contribute to the
event.
• Single factor theories have limited value in
prevention.
• Sometimes they are a hindrance to effective
prevention.
• Most often there are other causes beside one
immediate cause.
Relying on a single factor theory will cause one
to overlook other important preventive actions.
Multiple Factor Theories
In multiple factor theories, several factors
combine in random or some logical fashion and
lead to accidents. Factors may include any of
the three elements of a hazard: activities,
conditions, and circumstances.
Different authors have proposed multiple factor
models to help safety practitioners think
through accident causation. Grose proposed a
model involving four M's: man, machine, media,
and management.
Man refers to people, Machine includes any
kind of equipment or vehicle, Media includes
environments, roads, and weather,
Management is the human context in which the
other three M's exist and operate.
When analyzing hazards, one can think through
all of the characteristics falling under each of
the four M's in the model.
For example, characteristics of people are age,
gender, height, skill level, amount of training,
strength, posture, motivation, emotional state,
language spoken, and so on. Characteristics of
machines might include size, weight, shape,
energy source, amount of energy, type of action
or motion availability or placement of controls,
materials of construction, or protection systems
in place. Characteristics of media might include
thermal conditions, rain or snow, roadway
width, surface conditions, noise levelete.
Characteristics of management might be
management style, organizational structure,
communication flow, policies, and operating
procedures.
Energy Theory
William Haddon worked primarily in the
prevention of vehicle accidents. He developed a
theory that involves the transfer of energy, "the
Energy Theory," as a way to think about
prevention.
His approach is called "the Energy Release
Theory." The Energy Theory suggests that
quantities of energy, means of energy transfer
and rates of energy transfer relate to the kinds
of injuries and severity of injuries.
His theory helps resolve many safety
engineering problems and offers a way to think
about what can happen. Haddon's approach
involves a parallel theory of prevention.
Multiple actions working concurrently can
reduce the likelihood and severity of an
accident.
Based on the energy transfer model, Haddon
suggests ten strategies for preventing or
reducing losses or consequences of accidents.
The order for these strategies builds on
potential accident sequences:
1. Prevent the marshaling of energy. In this
strategy the goal is not producing energy or
changing it to a form that cannot cause an
accident or injury. Examples are substituting a
safe substance for a dangerous one, not letting
small children climb to levels above the floor,
and not setting a vehicle in motion.
2. Reducing the amount of energy marshaled.
Examples are keeping vehicle speeds down,
reducing the quantities or concentration of high
energy or toxic materials, limiting the height for
objects, and reducing machine speed to the
minimu needed during cleaning or maintenance
of an unguarded machine.
3. Prevent the release of energy. Examples are
using various means or devices to prevent
elevators from falling, flammables from igniting, Examples are rehabilitating an injured worker
or foundations from being undercut by erosion. and repairing a damaged vehicle.

4. Modify the rate of energy released from its Errors in Management Systems
source or modify the spatial distribution of the
Edward Deming
released energy. Slowing the burning rate of a
substance or using an inhibitor and reducing the Some involved with management methods
slope of roads are examples. believe that errors people make are
management issues, not worker issues. Errors
5. Separate in space or time the energy
by workers are attributes of poor management
released from the potentially damaged
processes. This concept is a critical part of
structure or the potentially injured human.
management through quality espoused by Juran
Examples include separate paths for vehicular
and Deming.
and pedestrian traffic, placing electric power
lines out of reach, using traffic signals to phase Deming claimed that 85% of errors are due to
pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and using poor processes. Only 15% of errors involve
energy-absorbing materials. worker skills. He felt no matter how hard
someone tries to improve within a given
6. Separate the energy being released from a
process, it is not possible unless there is a
structure or person who can suffer loss by
change in the process itself. He focused on
interposing a barrier. Safety glasses, barrier
management getting the processes right,
guards, radiation filters or shields, median
reducing errors in poorly operating processes,
barriers on roadways, thermal insulation, and
and avoiding the need to make corrections after
explosive barricades are examples of barriers.
errors occur. Incidents and accidents are forms
7. Modify the surfaces of structures that come of errors, they interrupt processes and reduce
into contact with people or other structures. quality. By engaging workers and managers to
Rounded corners, blunt objects, dull edges, and work together, it is possible to improve
larger surface areas for tool handles are processes.
examples.
Joseph M. Juran
8. Strengthen the structure or person
Juran, defined critical processes as ones that
susceptible to damage. Examples of this
present serious dangers to human life, health,
strategy are fire- and earth quake resistant
and the environment or create losses of very
construction of buildings, training of personnel,
large sums of money.
and vaccination for disease.
Such processes require planning and design to
9. Detect damage quickly and counter its
reduce opportunities for human error to a
continuation or extension. An example of this
minimum. Emphasis is on continuous
strategy is sprinklers that detect heat and spray
improvement to achieve quality. That also
water to prevent the spread of a fire. Another is
emphasizes reducing accidents.
wear indicators built into the treads of vehicle
tires. The management concepts of Deming and Juran
are often called "Total Quality Management."
10. During the period following damage and
Their solution to bad processes was constant
the return to normal conditions, take
improvement. Today, the extension of their
measures to restore a stable condition.
approach is called "Six Sigma."
Preventive Strategies
Hazard Controls and Risk Reduction
Priorities for Hazard Controls: The Hierarchy of
Controls
Eliminate hazards by changing processes so the
hazards do not exist.
Reduce the hazard level through substitutions,
process changes and redesigns.
Provide safety devices, such as enclosing a
hazard or applying other engineering controls.
Provide warnings, which may be visual or
auditory.
Provide administrative controls that include:
- safety procedures and job changes.
- safety training. - use of personal protective
equipment
Concept-Driven Strategies
One can use accident theories and accident
sequence models presented earlier in this
chapter to help formulate accident prevention
strategies.
The three E's are engineering, education, and
enforcement
Engineering primarily seeks to prevent unsafe
conditions.
Education primarily addresses unsafe acts.
However, there are many training needs in
safety that go beyond unsafe acts themselves.
Engineers need to know how to recognize and
control hazards in their designs. Workers and
supervisors need to know how to recognize
hazards on the job. They need to know which
controls can help prevent accidents. Everyone
needs to know which prevention strategies,
policies and methods are in place.
Enforcement applies to all aspects of accident
prevention. It ensures implementing and
complying with laws, regulation, standards, and
policies.
A fourth E, enthusiasm, is sometimes added to
the first three E's. It refers to motivating people
to follow safe practices and contribute
effectively to safety.
Case-Driven Strategies: A Reactive Approach
A reactive approach can be used to develop
strategies for preventing accidents.
Comprehensive Strategies: A Proactive
Approach
An alternate approach is a proactive one. The
aim is to identify all of the factors that can lead
to accidents and the combinations of those
factors.
Proactive Prevention Strategies
Frequency-based strategy. Focus on High
Frequency Cases Frequency strategies try to
prevent as many accidents as possible. The aim
is to reduce accidents that occur often as a way
to lower accident rates. For example, it is
known that nearly half of work-related injuries
occur during the first year on the job. Half of
those cases occur during the first three months
of employment in a new position. A good
strategy is to teach people in new roles a lot
about what can go wrong and how to prevent
adverse events.
Severity strategies
Focus on High Severity Cases Severity strategies
focus on potential accidents that lead to major
injuries, long-term disability, serious illnesses,
death, impact many people or cause major
property damage. Data from national injury
statistics by industry, occupation, type of work
or other factors help pinpoint risks.
High-Cost Strategies
High Cost Another approach to prevention
strategies looks at accident costs. A study of
accident cases and insurance claims that applies
principles such as the Vital Few can help focus
on high-cost events. Often high-cost cases are
high severity cases.
Combinations
Perhaps the best approach to accident
prevention strategies involves a combination of
approaches. Safety practice today requires the
use of all approaches. Preventive strategies
must use all the available tools to think about
what can go wrong and how to prevent adverse
events. The aim is to prevent accidents from
happening at all. An effective strategy requires
applying a broad range of knowledge. Examples
are:
-past cases;

-cases reported by others;

-internal and national statistics;

-knowledge of hazards and controls;

- techniques for effectively motivating and

working with people;

- an understanding of business goals and

performance.

Safety Management Systems

The process involves employer representatives,

employees, and a safety planning facilitator,
often a safety practitioner. Each type of
participant brings different viewpoints and
experience to the process. The initial task is
hazard identification. Participants apply
information from the theories, models, and
definitions above, along with other knowledge
and experience. The next task is to conduct risk
assessments on the identified hazards. Based on
results, the participants select acceptable levels
of risk and appropriate hazard controls. Each
possibility needs evaluation to determine the
potential for risk reduction. Then they test and
implement one or more selected controls. The
final task is to evaluate the effectiveness of
implemented controls. The panel may apply the
evaluation results in working through the
process again.
 Occupational Safety and Health Principles
In order to understand why occupational safety
and health (OSH) is an area of concern and
relevant to the operation of a business or
industry, the why is best explained by becoming
familiar with why so much emphasis is placed
on the development of OSH as a critical part of
the business environment.
The Components of Safety and Health
Initiatives
The National Safety Council (NSC) has provided
guidance in the form of elements that should be
addressed in order to have a successful safety
and health program based on an amalgamation
of research, safety and health expertise, and
experience.
Recommended elements for an occupational
safety and health initiative.
1. Hazard recognition, evaluation, and control
2. Workplace design and engineering
3. Safety performance management
4. Regulatory compliance management
5. Occupation health
6. Information collection
7. Employee involvement
8. Motivation, behavior, and attitudes
9. Training and orientation
10. Organizational communications
11. Management and control of external
exposures
12. Environmental management
13. Workplace planning and staffing
14. Assessments, audits, and evaluations
Factors affecting OSH Implementation
Management factors:
• Management commitment as reflected by
management involvement in aspects of the
safety and health program in a formal way and
employers' resources committed to employers'
safety and health program.
• Management adherence to principles of good
management in the utilization of resources
(people, machinery, and materials), supervision
of employees, and production planning and
monitoring.
• Designated safety and health personnel
reporting directly to top management as well as
duties and responsibilities from managers,
supervisors, and employees.
Motivational factors:
• Humanistic approach to interacting with
employees
• High levels of employee/supervisor contact
• Efficient production planning
Hazard control factors:
• Effort to improve workplace safety and health
• Continuing development of employees
• Clean working environment
• Regular, frequent inspections
Illness and injury investigations and
recordkeeping factors:
• Investigation of all incidents of illness and
injury as well as non-lost-time accidents
• Recording of all first-aid cases
Business or industry must take the principles
and philosophies that meet their individual
needs and tailor them to their safety and health
initiative.
The following is a list of other areas that need
consideration when developing an OSH effort:
✓ Goal and objectives for worker safety and
health
✓ Visibility of top management leadership
✓ Employee participation
✓ Assignment of responsibility
✓ Adequate authority and resources
✓ Accountability of managers, supervisors, and
hourly employees
✓ Evaluation of contractor/vendor programs
✓ Comprehensive surveys, change analysis,
routine hazard analysis
✓ Regular site safety and health inspections
✓ Employee reports of hazards
✓ Accident and near-miss investigations
✓ Injury and illness pattern analysis
✓ Appropriate use of engineering controls,
work practices, personal protective equipment,
and administrative controls
✓ Facility and equipment preventive
maintenance
✓ Establishing a medical program
✓ Emergency planning and preparation
✓ Firefighting and fire prevention
✓ Ensuring that all employees understand
hazards
✓ Ensuring that supervisors understand their
responsibilities
✓ Ensuring that managers understand their
safety and health responsibilities
Evolution of OSH
Why is there occupational safety and health
(OSH) in our present-day day world? Exploring
what has transpired in the past has set the
foundation of what is the modern world of OSH
and most likely the future.
From the beginning of man's walk on the earth,
people have realized that along with their
chosen work come dangers and risk. From the
hunter or gatherer, there was the danger of the
environment from the natural hazards of
weather, catastrophic events, and their
predators or prey.
Historically...
• the Egyptians were aware of the dangers from
gold and silver fumes. They even had a first-aid
manual for workers as early as 3000 BC.
• In 2000 BC, Hammurabi placed a value on
permanent injuries, such as the
loss of an eye, for which the owner paid the
worker or paid the doctor's bill.
• In 1500 BC, Ramses hired a physician for
quarry workers.
• In 400 BC, Hippocrates, the father of
medicine, realized stonecutters were having
breathing problems.
In 100 BC, the Romans were aware of the
dangers faced by workers. They would free a
slave if he/she survived the launching of a ship.
The Romans even had a goddess of safety and
health named Salus, whose image was often
embedded on their coins.
In the Middle Ages... Around 1900's, mining catastrophes continued
to occur and more laws were passed to protect
people became more aware of the link between
miners. Some catastrophes, such as
the type of work they did and the types of
injuries and illnesses that they sustained. Triangle Shirtwaist Co. in 1910, where 146
young women were killed in a fire because exit
For example, English chimney sweeps in the
doors were locked, demonstrated a need to
1700s were more susceptible to testicular
better protect workers.
cancer because of the soot.
When 2,000 workers or 50% of the workforce
With the advent of the industrial revolution,
died from silica exposure at Gauley Bridge,
the use of machinery and the changed work
West Virginia, the Walsh-Healey Act was passed
environment saw a rapid rise in the number of
that required safety and health measures for
injuries, illnesses, and deaths. During this
any employer receiving a government contract.
period, the fist unions began to be organized to
try to protect workers from the hazards of the The American Match Co. allowed other
workplace. The only improvement in the 1800s companies in the match-producing industry to
was fire protection because of pressure from use their process, which substituted a safer
insurance companies. substance for phosphorus in match making. This
resulted in the decrease of an occupational
This was soon followed by Massachusetts'
illness called phossy jaw, which caused swelling
requirement for factory inspections. Also, the
and pain in the jaw due to phosphorus
first Acts and Regulations pertaining to mining
exposure.
were introduced. Some safety measures were
adopted for other industries such as the There are six good reasons to prevent
railroads with the invention of air brakes and occupational accidents, injuries, illnesses, and
automatic couplers, which saved many lives and deaths:
amputations.
1. Destruction of human life is morally
During the first part of the 1900s, workers' unjustified.
compensation laws started appearing and were
2. Failure of employers or workers to take
finally deemed constitutional by the Supreme
precautions against occupational injuries and
Court in 1916.
illnesses makes them morally responsible for
Before this, most employers blamed their these incidents.
workers and held them responsible for
3. Occupational incidents limit efficiency and
workplace incidents, citing what were known as
productivity.
the "common laws," which stated the following:
4. Occupational accidents and illnesses produce
1. Employer is not responsible when a fellow
far-reaching social harm.
worker negligently causes your injury.
5. Safety techniques have produced reduction
2. Employer is not responsible if the worker is
of accident rates and severity rates.
injured due to his/her own negligence.
6. Recent cries and mandates have come forth
3. If an employee takes up a risky job knowing
at the state and federal levels to provide a safe
fully well the inherent hazards, the employer is
and healthy workplace.
not responsible.
Results from History

History that has resulted in the development of

our modern-day safety and health

- Catastrophic events
- Occupational injuries
- Occupational illness

OSH significant effects on workplace safety

and health.

65% workplace fatalities have gone down,

although employment has almost doubled,
since the inception of the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA).

There were about 38 worker deaths a day in

1970 as compared to 13 per day in 2011.

Occupation injury and illness rates have also

lowered noticeably. In 1972, the workforce
experienced about 10.9 incidents per 100
workers as compared to fewer than 4 per 100 in
2010.

These results are why there is a more organized

and professional approach to OSH today.