Chapter 17 – Probing deep into matter (14 lessons including test)

Lesson Content Activities Homework

17.1 Antimatter, annihilation and pair production: the significance of conservation
Creation laws.
and Beta decay: neutrinos postulated to save conservation laws.
annihilation Leptons.
Pauli exclusion principle.
 Know the meaning of the terms matter, antimatter, pair creation,
annihilation.
 Understand how PET may be used to image the brain.
 Know that charge, momentum and mass-energy are conserved in
matter-antimatter annihilation.
 Apply conservation principles to electron-positron annihilation in PET
imaging and pair creation.
 Interpret bubble chamber photographs in the context of conservation
principles.
 Use the equations E = mc 2 and E = hc/λ to carry out calculations on
pair creation and annihilation.
Lesson 1-2: Introduce matter and antimatter, creation and annihilation via
discussion of PET imaging and, more briefly, bubble chamber photographs. Activity 10S ‘Bubble Reading 10T ‘The
Discuss the conservation of charge, momentum and energy in annihilation chamber pictures’ discovery of beta decay’
events, using DM30O and Qs 60M. Discuss running annihilation event in Qs 60M ‘Keeping Reading 40T ‘Quantum
reverse to create particle and antiparticle, noting that pair creation normally momentum and theory in the 20th century’
requires nucleus to carry away momentum. Go over sample calculations energy unchanged’ Qs 30S ‘Creation and
involving mass-energy conservation, so that Qs 30S can be attempted for annihilation’
homework. Qs 60M ‘Keeping
momentum and energy
unchanged’

 Understand that electrostatic forces arise from the exchange of

photons between the charged particles that interact.
 Interpret Feynman diagrams for the scattering of photons by
electrons and the interaction of two electrons.
 Appreciate how the overall probability for an event such as photon-
electron scattering is obtained by application of the “try many paths”
rule, summing all possible Feynman diagrams.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
 Classify common elementary particles as either fermions or bosons.
 Appreciate the consequences of the Pauli exclusion principle as
applied to fermions and bosons.
Lesson 3: This is one of the most conceptually difficult area of the whole
course (and mathematically way beyond me), but exam questions are Activity 30S Reading 50T ‘Where did
correspondingly very easy, so put a few of them into the lesson to reassure ‘Interactions in all the antimatter in the
students! Recap chapter 7 work on photons exploring all paths in light particle physics’ Universe go?’
propagation etc. Introduce quantum field effects, as per p192-194. See
Feynman “QED” for more details. Discuss simple Feynman diagram for a pair
of electrons scattering and an electron scattering a photon. Note that DM50
explains how forces arise through exchange of virtual photons. In the
discussion, stress that (1) space-time diagram is not a picture of the paths of
the particles, (2) the diagrams represent an event where definite particles
enter and leave, (3) each diagram has a phasor arrow associated with it, (4)
the phasor arrows for all diagrams must be added to get the total amplitude
and phase, (5) forces arise from exchange of virtual photons which act as
“force carriers”, (6) charge arises from strength of interaction between
electron and photon.
Illustrate (5) by running Activity 30S, noting that the number of photons
exchanged increases as the separation is reduced.
Introduce classification of particles as either fermions or bosons. Include Pauli
exclusion principle, and its macroscopic consequences, and also laser
radiation as example of bosons with same phase and polarization adding
together.

 Know the meaning of the terms baryon and lepton.

 Apply the conservation laws of charge, momentum, mass-energy,
baryon number and particle number to alpha decay.
 Understand how the energy spectrum of beta particles emitted during
beta decay implies the existence of another class of fundamental
particles and conservation law.
 Apply the conservation laws of charge, momentum, mass-energy,
particle number, baryon number and lepton number to beta-minus
decay.
 Apply conservation laws to beta-plus decay.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
Lesson 4: Recap conservation of charge, momentum and energy in nuclear
processes. Introduce baryon as particle family including both protons and Qs 40M ‘Particles and Qs 40M ‘Particles and
neutrons, stressing that the “top line” in the equation represents baryon interactions’ interactions’
number, another conserved property. Easiest to illustrate with an example of Qs 10S ‘Things that Qs 10S ‘Things that don’t
alpha decay, as this most simply illustrates the conservation of charge, don’t change’ change’
particle number and baryon number. Note that protons and neutrons are Qs 20S ‘Beta decay and
given baryon number of +1, antiprotons and antineutrons given baryon conservation’
number of -1. Do a beta plus decay
(Example: Uranium 238 decays to give thorium 234 plus an alpha particle) example to illustrate
Discuss beta decay of strontium 90, noting charge conservation and particle conservation rules in
number non-conservation. action.
Discuss energy spectrum of strontium 90, and what this implies about the Qs 50C ’Creation from
decay process having to involve yet another particle. (A simple “cannon and annihilation’
ball” two-particle decay event will give a specific energy for the emitted Qs student book p197
particle, not a range of energies, so a third particle is inferred.) The cloud Reading 60T ‘Symmetry
chamber picture on p196 shows very clearly that another “invisible” particle and conservation laws’
must have been produced in the decay. Go over properties of antineutrino Extension work: apply
(p196) implied from necessity to conserve properties, introducing lepton conservation laws to
number. Note the weak interaction of neutrinos with matter. Complete the “lesser spotted” processes
decay equation, checking that charge, baryon number and lepton number are such as proton emission,
all conserved. neutron emission and
(Example: Strontium 90 decays to give Yttrium 90 plus a beta particle and an electron capture.
antineutrino) Activity 40S ‘Time and the
Extension work: 1. Complete equation and check conservation properties for muon’
beta plus decay from proton rich nuclei such as oxygen 15 (giving nitrogen
15, a positron and a neutrino).
2. Complete equation and check conservation properties for the lesser
spotted decay of electron capture by beryllium 7 (giving lithium 7 and a
neutrino).
17.2 Rutherford scattering and the discovery of the nucleus.
Scattering Elastic scattering of electrons and the size of the nucleus. Approximately
and scale constant density of ‘nuclear matter’.
Deep inelastic scattering of electrons confirms existence of quarks within
nucleons. Quark model of protons and neutrons.
The strong interaction.
Importance of large international collaborations in particle physics.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
 Describe Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment and the principal
experimental results obtained.
 Investigate alpha scattering using software models.
 Explain the principal results of Rutherford’s alpha scattering
experiment in terms of the nuclear model of the atom.
Lesson 5: Discuss Rutherford scattering experiment qualitatively (student
book p198), noting the three types of scattering event, illustrating with Activity 80S ‘Probes Discuss likely effects of
software activities scattered by a target’ changing the alpha
A80S-A100S (see file “Rutherford”). The effect of the massive nucleus can be Activity 90S ‘Many particle energy, charge of
demonstrated by firing a ping pong ball at a golf ball and at another ping pong probes scattered by a scattering nuclei: can
ball, linking with Chapter 11 work on momentum. target’ investigate using software
For an excellent discussion of the Rutherford experiment, with animations, Activity 100S ‘Where models
see scattered probes go’
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/ruther14.swf Video 21/7
The work of lesson 6 can be incorporated into this lesson if short of time.

 Predict and explain the effects of changing alpha particle energy,

charge of scattering nucleus on the scattering pattern.
 Explain how to calculate the distance of closest approach of an alpha
particle to a gold nucleus, using the principles of KE-PE exchange.
 Calculate the distance of closest approach.
 Appreciate that the distance of closest approach gives an upper limit
on nuclear size.
Lesson 6: Discuss likely effects of changing the alpha particle energy, charge Qs 70S ‘Energy and Qs 70S ‘Energy and
of scattering nuclei (see p199), illustrating with Activity 80S part 2. Go through closest approach’ closest approach’
the “distance of closest approach treatment” as per p200. Use a marble on a Qs 80S ‘Directions of Qs 80S ‘Directions of
bent curtain track to illustrate climbing the potential hill. forces’ forces’
Reading 70T ‘Towards a
FPP June 08 Q3; Jan. nuclear atom’
08 Q6; June 07 Q2

 Know that scattering at higher energies probes smaller scales.

 Explain the advantages of electron scattering over alpha scattering in
probing nuclei.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
 Explain how electron diffraction can be used to measure nuclear
sizes accurately.
 Use the equations λ = h/p and p = E/c (or just λ = hc/E) to determine
the energy (in eV) of electrons that will show appreciable diffraction
effects when scattered by an atomic nucleus.
 Interpret electron diffraction curve data to determine the size of
atomic nuclei.
Lesson 7: Introduce the idea of scattering of higher energy particle beams
enabling the probing of smaller and smaller scales of matter. Discuss
advantages of electron scattering over alpha scattering (p201), and discuss Activity 110S ‘The Qs 90S ‘Electrons
diffraction by nucleus, comparing to diffraction of light (Chapter 7). Note that Livingston Curve’ measure the size of
high-energy alpha particles, because they feel the nuclear strong force, will Qs 90S ‘Electrons nuclei’
interact strongly with particles in a nucleus if they crash into it, so simple measure the size of Qs 100S ‘Scattering and
scattering does not take place. Do sample calculation using de Broglie nuclei’ scale’
relation and E = pc to work out that the electrons must have energies of 300 Qs 100S ‘Scattering
MeV. Qs 90S and 100S explore these relationships and ideas further. Data: and scale’
For silver, scattering minimum at 16.8 degrees when 300 MeV electrons
used.

 Deduce that the volume of a nucleus is proportional to the number of

nucleons in it.
 Understand the origin of the equation r = r0A1/3.
 Recall and use the equation r = r0A1/3 to determine nuclear sizes.
 Use the equations r = r0A1/3, V = 4/3πr3 and ρ = m/V to determine the
density of nuclear matter.
Lesson 8: Electron scattering gives information on nuclear size. Discuss
volume vs. number of nucleons graph of p203, either directly, or, if time, after Activity 130S ‘The Qs 90S ‘Electrons
exploration using spreadsheet Activity 130S. Discuss r=r 0A1/3 equation that density of nuclear measure the size of
follows from nuclear volume being proportional to number of nucleons. Go matter’ nuclei’
through sample nuclear density calculation, mentioning neutron stars. Qs 90S ‘Electrons
measure the size of
nuclei’

FPP Jan. 07 Q11

 Know the meaning of the term quark.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
 Know that an up quark has a charge of +2/3e, and that a down quark
has a charge of -1/3e.
 Know that the technique of deep inelastic scattering reveals the quark
structure of nucleons, as well as producing other particles such as
mesons.
 Combine up and down quarks, and their antiparticles, to produce
elementary particles such as protons, neutrons and various types of
mesons.
 Know that quarks are bound together in nucleons by the strong force,
which is carried by gluons.
 Know that the strong force is a very short range force that increases
with distance over the range of quark-quark interactions within a
nucleon.
 Know that exchange of gluons between quarks changes the quark
colour.
 Know that free quarks do not exist, and that trying to pull quarks apart
leads to the production of more quark-antiquark pairs.
Lesson 9: Introduce deep inelastic scattering (20GeV) as a means of probing
neutrons and protons within a nucleus. Discuss quark model of nucleons,
Qs 110S ‘Putting Qs 110S ‘Putting quarks
dealing with up and down flavour only, as outlined on p204. Discuss
quarks together’ together’
combinations of quarks in pairs to form mesons. Discuss strong force carried
Qs 120C ‘Finding parts of
by bosons called gluons, noting analogy with photons mediating electron-
FPP G495 Specimen protons’
electron interactions. Note however that quark-quark interaction gets stronger
Q1; June 08 Q6; June Reading 80T ‘Tracking
with distance like a rubber band.
07 Q 10(a) particles’
Discuss energy and scale relationship, including discussion of creation of new
Qs student book p208
particles in high energy collisions. Ensure that a sample calculation is done to
Recap AS work on wave-
show (a) that energies of at least 1 MeV are needed to strike nucleus; (b)
particle duality of
energy needed to meet de Broglie wavelength requirement that  must be
electrons (Ch. 7), standing
comparable to nuclear radius.
waves (Ch. 6), and
structure of atom from
GCSE.
17.3 The Standing wave model of atoms.
music of the Existence of discrete states and energy levels.
atoms Energy level differences and spectra.
Size of an atom.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
The hydrogen energy levels and spectrum.
 Review wave-particle duality as applied to electrons (AS Chapter 7).
 Review structure of atom.
 Review standing waves (AS Chapter 6)
 Explain the criterion for standing waves on a circle, namely: n = 2 r.
 Understand why, if electrons are considered to be waves, only certain
discrete electron energy levels are permitted in terms of the standing
wave criterion.
 Appreciate why KE is inversely proportional to wavelength2, using the
equations KE = p2/2m and p = h/λ.
 Understand why electrons confined to smaller-dimension energy
levels closer to the nucleus are associated with high KE and
momentum.
Lesson 10: {There are three key concepts to get across in lessons 10-12.
Activity 140E ‘
Firstly, the electron-as-a-wave quantum description of atoms to explain why
Standing waves for
they do not just collapse in on themselves. Secondly, the electron-as-a-
electrons’ Note that a
standing wave description applied to atoms to explain why only discrete
10 cm diameter
energy levels exist. Thirdly, how we calculate spectra from the pattern of
copper wire ring will
energy levels. You can ignore the “particle on a ring” formalism completely
give good standing
while dealing with the first concept, as it suffices to show that whatever the
wave patterns at
shape of the potential well, a small confinement region leads to a high KE.}
around 40 Hz.
Begin by recapping the classical picture of a hydrogen atom, as consisting of
an electron orbiting a nucleus like a planet orbiting the Sun. Introduce
Maxwell’s theory which states that an electron being accelerated in an electric
field will emit radiation, leading to the prediction that electrons should just
spiral into nuclei, leading to the collapse of matter to nuclear scales. Having
recognised the deficiencies of the classical atom, introduce the quantum
explanation by noting that a wave description of the electron must be
considered instead of a particle one. Recap wave-particle duality of electrons
(AS Chapter 7), recap structure of atom, recap standing waves (AS Chapter
6). The file “de Broglie” is useful here. Demonstrate standing waves with the
vibration generator (Activity 140E). Make the point that in the same way as
only certain wavelengths of standing wave are supported with the vibration
generator, electrons can occupy only certain discrete energy levels in atoms

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
(with each energy level having a different- standing wave associated with it).
Note, since KE = p2/2m and p = h/λ, that the smaller the dimension of the
energy level, the shorter the wavelength, and the higher the KE and
momentum.

 Appreciate the limitations of the guitar string atom model.

 Know that the stability of a simple one-electron atom for a particular
nucleus-electron distance can be modelled by computing the
potential energy (=-e2/4πε0r) and the kinetic energy (=h 2/2mλ2) and
then, summing them.
 Use a spreadsheet modelling activity to explain why an electron in
orbit around a nucleus cannot be confined too tightly and still remain
bound.
 Show using the spreadsheet model that there is a certain minimum
total energy (KE + PE) corresponding to the distance at which the
electron orbits the nucleus.
 Appreciate the consequences of the finite minimum sizes for atoms in
the context of the scale and density of matter.
 Understand why, if electrons are considered to be waves, only certain
discrete electron energy levels are permitted in terms of the standing
wave criterion.
 Understand why the energy levels of an atom have a dependence on
1/n2, where n is an integer, as a result of the standing wave criterion
being obeyed.
Lesson 11: Briefly discuss the “guitar string atom” model of an electron in a
box, pointing out its limitations. It may be useful to do Q9 on p220 on
carotene as an example of a system where the “guitar string atom” or “particle
in a box model” works.
Activity 150S ‘Sizing Qs 160S ‘How small could
Now do spreadsheet-based Activity 150S on ‘Sizing up a hydrogen atom’ to
up a hydrogen atom’ a hydrogen atom be?’
find minimum possible size for bound H atom, and also to find the distance at
Qs 160S ‘How small Qs 170S ‘Carrots and
which total energy is a minimum. Note that this model still uses a linear box
could a hydrogen guitar strings’
for electron confinement rather than a ring. The file “H atom stability 1 D”
atom be?’
gives annotated plots for this activity.)
Discuss main conclusions: if size of atom is too small, KE is too large, and so
FPP June 08 Q11
atom is not bound. Use the “funnel and marble” demo to support.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
Alternatively, do Qs 160S ‘How small could a hydrogen atom be?’ The formal
Bohr treatment of the hydrogen atom can then be considered, the key point
being that the standing wave condition applied to electrons on circular orbits
(n = 2r) leads to discrete energy levels (“nothing in between”) with E n = -
constant / n2. The JPEG files “how small is a hydrogen atom?” and “energy
levels in a hydrogen atom” should be printed off and issued to show the more
mathematically-inclined how the energy level expressions arise, although all
that needs to be appreciated is that the standing-wave condition results in
only energy levels with integer values of n.

 Know that atomic energy levels are measured relative to the level n =
∞, and that the energy required to ionise the atom is equal to the
difference in energy between the highest occupied level and n = ∞.
 Understand how discrete lines in atomic spectra arise from transitions
between different energy levels.
 Compute the energy levels of an atom using the equation E = -
constant/n2.
 Calculate the wavelength and/or frequency of electronic transitions
between atomic energy levels.
 Interpret electron scattering data in terms of excitation of electrons
between atomic energy levels.
Lesson 12: Discuss energy level structure of hydrogen atom, and equation E
= -13.6eV/n2. (See also file “hydrogen energy levels plot”.) Some atomic
emission spectra could then be demonstrated, observing with hand Qs 150S ‘Spectra and Qs 150S ‘Spectra and
spectroscopes. Follow with a discussion of how the spectra arise (E = hf = E in energy level’ energy level’
- Ef), including a sample calculation. Stress that for other atoms, analogous Qs 170S ‘Carrots and Qs 180S ‘The hydrogen
expressions exist to that for hydrogen energy levels, with different constant guitar strings’ spectrum’
term. Discuss also inelastic electron scattering from atoms as evidence of Qs 140C ‘How Niels Bohr
energy level structure (Franck-Hertz experiment), noting that if the electron FPP G495 Specimen began quantum theory’
energy is less than the energy difference between the highest occupied and Q3; Jan. 08 Q3; Jan. Qs 180D ‘Products of the
lowest unoccupied levels, elastic scattering only will occur. See relevant exam 07 Q8 big bang’
questions on this. Qs student book p216

17.4 Known The ‘Standard Model’. Quarks and leptons.

and Three generations of pairs of quarks and leptons.

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Lesson Content Activities Homework
unknown Four interactions: electromagnetic, weak, strong and gravitational.
Open questions: e.g. existence of three generations, origin of mass, possible
unification of interactions.
 Know the four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetic, nuclear
strong, nuclear weak, and the bosons which carry these forces:
graviton, photon, gluon, Z0, W+, W-.
 Know that most matter in our world is made of up quarks, down
quarks, electrons and electron neutrinos.
 Appreciate that there are also a second and third generation of
fundamental fermions, with larger rest masses, only observable in
higher energy experiments.
Lesson 13: Summarise matter as being made of quarks and leptons, which Reading 40T ‘Quantum
are both fermions. Extend to the second and third generations. Summarise theory in the 20th century’
interactions as involving exchange of force carrying particles, of four possible Reading 50T ‘Where did
types for the four forces (electromagnetic, weak, strong, gravity). Briefly all the antimatter in the
discuss “the unknown”, as per p218. See file “unify”. Universe go’
Qs 180D ‘Products of the
Big Bang’
Chapter 17 test. Qs student book p220

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