NOTES FOR

ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL

SAFETY

SUB: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

(23112)

SR. NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Environmental management system: EMS Audits ISO 14001:2015 , 3
Aspects and impact of Environment management , Environmental
policy Environment management programs , Administrative
procedure for Environmental clearances, Environmental impact
assessment (EIA),Process for methodologies , Air pollution and
control measures , water pollution and control measures, soil
pollution and control measures, plastic pollution and control

1
 measures, Ecosystem and their components of ecosystem.
Concept of common efficient treatment plants (CETP): Floating
aquatic plants system and us design and operation, sludge
characteristics and disposal methods, design and operation of
sludge drying bed, design and operation of treatment plants, trouble
shooting and trouble free operation.
Environmental important Regulations: Water and air acts and rules,
Environment protection acts and rules, public liability acts and
rules, Role of state pollution control board under the water and air
acts.
Environmental Monitoring: Environmental related terms/
2 definitions, Principles and practices for monitoring for air pollution, 36
water pollution and solid waste management ,cleaner
technologies , ambient air quality , Environmental Noise pollution,
Stack monitoring, efficient monitoring , efficient treatment , plant
key process, air pollution control devices , scrubber system ,
parameters of efficient monitored.
Waste Management: Statutory provisions for bio medical wastes,
E- waste management, battery waste management, treatment,
transportation and disposal. hazardous waste management ,
hazardous waste , PCB requirements and transportation of
3 hazardous wastes, Manifest , TREM card , solid waste management 146
, ETP and STP , Management of hazardous waste by industries , six
R- concepts Rethink , Refuse , Reduce, Recycle, Reuse and
Reprocessing co-processing of waste.
Global warming :Global emission atmospheric gases , Greenhouse
gases ,Kyoto protocol , acid rains , effect on human being , wild life
and natures mitigation measures of global warming ,Deforestation
4 Tree plantation , Bio-diversity , carbon credit , ozone depleting 161
substances and its impact on the environment , Restrictions for
development in coastal zone as per CRZ regulation.
Energy conservation: Key element of energy management system
ISO 50001, use of clean technologies, energy conservation
measures , water conservation and recycling, harvesting, power
5 saving measures , raw material saving , depletion of natural 185
resources, renewable energy, life cycle assessment (LCA),product
stewardship, green supply chain, Eco friendly environment , good
practices and innovations.
Sustainability Reporting :Elements of sustainability
reports ,Purpose and advantages of sustainability reporting, global
6 reporting initiative (GRI), G4 guideline , Eco systems, concept and 209
structure , Monitoring and analysis of industrial effluents, Green
building concept( GBC)

CHAPTER: 1
Environmental management system:
WHAT IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
values. The ISO 14001 standard states that an environmental policy is the organization’s overall
environmental performance intentions and direction formally expressed by top management.
What are the benefits of developing an environmental policy?
An organization can publicly advertise that it has considered its environmental performance and
has adopted best practice or is working towards improving its environmental performance. It's all
relative to the organization and the type of industry but the environmental policy can advertise the
environmental status and environmental objectives of the organization to all stakeholders.
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 Currently An environmental policy is a statement about an organization’s environmental position
and potential clients can read the statement and are able to determine whether they would like to
continue or start business with the organization. It also can provide clear direction to all
stakeholders about the organization’s environmental values.
WHO SHOULD DEVELOP AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
A senior manager or managing team should endorse the environmental policy but not necessarily
be directly responsible for developing the policy. They should appoint someone talented, familiar
with the organization and who has the ability of writing interesting factual statements.
There are already too many meaningless, unrealistic and dry environmental policies out there so
choose someone which can inspire and communicate the true environmental policy of the
organization. When an organization doesn't have any environmental programs to describe then
perhaps, they could develop them or develop an environmental management system so it has
something meaningful to discuss within the environmental policy.
WHAT IS THE USUAL PROCEDURE FOR MAINTAINING AN ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY?
Similar to an environmental management system environmental policies should be regularly be
reviewed. When there has been change or change is planned, or when there has been a significant
performance issue the environmental policy should be reviewed. Otherwise, more general reviews
should be occur periodically (e.g. annually).
WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
The ISO 14001 standard is probably the best reference standard for the development of an
environmental policy. In summary, an environmental policy must be:
appropriate to the organization;
include a commitment for continual improvement and prevention of pollution;
include a commitment to comply to relevant legal and other requirements; and,
provide the framework for setting and reviewing environmental objectives and targets.
Also, consideration should be given to the reader's expectations. From a customer perspective they
would like to clearly know:
WHAT THE ORGANISATION DOES AND HOW IT DOES IT (E.G. DO THEY FOLLOW
BEST PRACTICE AND EMBRACE CLEANER PRODUCTION, IF SO HOW?);
 Understand whether the organization is greener or browner than similar organizations;
 Understand whether the organization presents a direct environmental risk to their operations;
 Understand whether the organization presents a risk to public perception if they are engaged;
 Understand whether the organization present an environmental risk by not understanding and not
complying with legal & other requirements; and,
 Understand whether the organization has any environmental programs to them reduce
environmental impact and improve their environmental performance.
 The level of detail is up to the organization. Consideration however should be given to making it
meaningful as first impressions last.
WHAT SHOULD BE EXCLUDED FROM AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?
Really uninteresting or untruthful statements! The purpose is for the environmental policy to be
read and understood, not for the readers to turn off or to be misled.
Organizations should think about what the environmental policy says about it and if it's untrue or
cannot be proved it should be left out. Organizations should be prepared to be able to demonstrate
statements such as comply with legal requirements, reducing energy usage, no longer using toxic
chemicals in its products, etc. At the end of the day, organizations could be prosecuted for
misleading and untrue statements when it comes to their environmental performance and its
activities, products and services. (Having an effective ISO 14001 environmental management
system should help organizations prove that the environmental policy is truthful and current.)
Organizations should think about who their readers are such as customers, blue- and white-collar
personnel, the EPA if it causes damage to the environment and runs the risk of prosecution, the
public who are interested in a new development in their neighborhood, etc. The environmental
policy should be written for them as well as providing internal direction for the organization.

3
If it's too long then it should be cut down. Out of experience anything longer than three quarters of
a page should be redeveloped and reduced, otherwise the messages can be lost by its readers. Also
don't be afraid of redeveloping or even tearing up your existing environmental policy and starting
from scratch.
WHAT DO YOU NEED TO DO IF YOU REQUIRE HELP?
Developing a good environmental policy can be difficult. Have a read of other organizations’
environmental policies found on the internet and discover yourself what makes a good
environmental policy and what doesn't. Experienced and talented Environmental Consultants
could assist your organization with developing a suitable environmental policy.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
EU environment policy rests on the principles of precaution, prevention and rectifying pollution at
source, and on the ‘polluter pays’ principle. The precautionary principle is a risk management tool
that may be invoked when there is scientific uncertainty about a suspected risk to human health or
to the environment emanating from a certain action or policy. For instance, should doubts arise
about the potentially harmful effects of a product, and should — following an objective scientific
evaluation — uncertainty persist, instructions may be given to stop the distribution of the product
or to remove it from the market. Such measures must be non-discriminatory and proportionate,
and must be reviewed once more scientific information is available.
The ‘polluter pays’ principle is implemented by the Environmental Liability Directive, which aims
to prevent or otherwise remedy environmental damage to protected species or to natural habitats,
water and soil. Operators of certain occupational activities such as the transport of dangerous
substances, or of activities that imply discharge into waters, have to take preventive measures in
case of an imminent threat to the environment. If damage has already occurred, they are obliged to
take the appropriate measures to remedy it and pay for the costs. The scope of the directive has
been broadened three times to include the management of extractive waste, the operation of
geological storage sites, and the safety of offshore oil and gas operations respectively.
Furthermore, integrating environmental concerns into other EU policy areas has become an
important concept in European politics since it first arose from an initiative of the European
Council held in Cardiff in 1998 (the ‘Cardiff process’). In recent years, environmental policy
integration has made significant progress, for instance, in the field of energy policy, as reflected in
the parallel development of the EU’s climate and energy package or in the Roadmap for moving to
a competitive low-carbon economy by 2050. It shows how the sectors responsible for Europe’s
emissions — power generation, industry, transport, buildings and construction, as well as
agriculture — can make the transition to a low-carbon economy over the coming decades.
Basic framework

A. The Environment Action Programmes

Since 1973, the Commission has issued multiannual Environment Action Programmes (EAPs)
setting out forthcoming legislative proposals and goals for EU environment policy. In 2013, the
Council and Parliament adopted the 7th EAP for the period up to 2020, under the title ‘Living
well, within the limits of our planet’. Building on a number of strategic initiatives, the programme
sets out nine priority objectives, including: the protection of nature; stronger ecological resilience;
sustainable, resource-efficient and low-carbon growth; and the fight against environment-related
threats to health. The programme also stresses the need for better implementation of EU
environment law, state-of-the-art science, investment, and integration of environmental aspects
into other policies.
B. Horizontal strategies
In 2001, the EU introduced its Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS), thus complementing the
earlier Lisbon Strategy for promoting growth and jobs with an environmental dimension. Renewed
in 2006 to combine the internal and international dimensions of sustainable development, the
revised EU SDS strives for the constant improvement of the quality of life through fostering
prosperity, environmental protection and social cohesion. In line with these goals, the Europe 2020
strategy for growth aims at shaping ‘smart, inclusive and sustainable growth’. Under its umbrella,

4
the ‘flagship initiative for a resource-efficient Europe’ points the way towards sustainable growth
and supports a shift towards a resource-efficient, low-carbon economy. Furthermore, in 2011 the
EU committed itself to halting the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 2020 (EU
biodiversity strategy).
C. Environmental impact assessment and public participation: Certain projects (private or
public) that are likely to have significant effects on the environment, e.g. the construction of a
motorway or an airport, are subject to an environmental impact assessment (EIA). Equally, a range
of public plans and programmes (e.g. concerning land use, transport, energy, waste or agriculture)
are subject to a similar process called a strategic environmental assessment (SEA). Here,
environmental considerations are already integrated at the planning phase, and possible
consequences are taken into account before a project is approved or authorised so as to ensure a
high level of environmental protection. In both cases, consultation with the public is a central
aspect. This goes back to the Aarhus Convention, a multilateral environmental agreement under
the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) which entered
into force in 2001 and to which the EU and all its Member States are parties. It guarantees three
rights to the public: public participation in environmental decision-making, access to
environmental information held by public authorities (e.g. on the state of the environment or
human health where affected by the latter), and the right of access to justice where the other two
rights have been disregarded.
D. International environmental cooperation
The EU plays a key role in international environmental negotiations. It is a party to numerous
global, regional or sub-regional environmental agreements on a wide range of issues, such as
nature protection and biodiversity, climate change, and transboundary air or water pollution. For
instance, at the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in
Nagoya (Japan) in 2010, the EU made a major contribution to achieving an agreement on a global
strategy to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2020. Likewise, the Union participated in the decision to
develop the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for all countries which emerged from
the Rio+20 conference on sustainable development held in 2012. Traditionally, the EU has also set
standards during international climate negotiations under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The EU also acceded to the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to pursue its fight against wildlife crime at the
international level.
E. Implementation, enforcement and monitoring
EU environmental law has been built up since the 1970s. Several hundred directives, regulations
and decisions are in force today in this field. However, the effectiveness of EU environmental
policy is largely determined by its implementation at national, regional and local levels, and
deficient application and enforcement remain an important issue. Monitoring is crucial — both of
the state of the environment and of the level of implementation of EU environmental law.

EIA (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT)

EIA is a tool for decision-makers to identify potential environmental impacts of proposed
projects, to evaluate alternative approaches, and to design and incorporate appropriate prevention,
mitigation, management and monitoring measures.
Environmental impact assessment cannot be divorced from social impact of the project,
hence the latter is considered as a key dimension of the EIA process.
EIA PROCESS
• The environmental impact assessment (EIA) process is an interdisciplinary and multistep
procedure to ensure that environmental considerations are included in decisions regarding
projects that may impact the environment.
• The purpose of the EIA process is to inform decision-makers and the public of the
environmental consequences of implementing a proposed project.
• The EIA document itself is a technical tool that identifies, predicts, and analyzes impacts
on the physical environment, as well as social, cultural, and health impacts.

5
1. Identifying and Defining the Project or Activity:-
 This step may seem relatively simple; defining a “project” for the purposes of an EIA can
become complex and even controversial if a mining project is large, has several phases, or
involves multiple sites.
 The goal of this step is to define the project with enough specificity to accurately
determine the zone of possible impacts and to include activities that are closely connected
with the proposal so that the entire scope of environmental impacts is evaluated.
2. Screening:
 The screening process determines whether a particular project warrants preparation of an
EIA.
 The threshold requirements for an EIA vary from country to country – some laws provide a
list of the types of activities or projects that will require an EIA, others require an EIA for
any project that may have a significant impact on the environment or for projects that
exceed a certain monetary value
3. Scoping:
 Scoping is a stage, usually involving the public and other interested parties, that identifies
the key environmental issues that should be addressed in an EIA.
 Scoping may also reveal similar or connected activities that may be occurring in the
vicinity of a project, or identify problems that need to be mitigated or that may cause the
project to be canceled.
4. Preparing Terms of Reference:-
 The Terms of Reference serve as a roadmap for EIA preparation and should ideally
encompass the issues and impacts that have been identified during the scoping process.
5. Preparing Draft EIA: -
 A draft EIA is prepared in accordance with the Terms of Reference and the range of issues
identified during the scoping process.
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  The draft EIA must also meet the content requirements of the overarching EIA law or
regulations.
6. Public Participation:
 Best EIA practice involves and engages the public at numerous points throughout the
process with a two-way exchange of information and views.
 Public participation may consist of informational meetings, public hearings, and
opportunities to provide written comments about a proposed project.
7. Preparing Final EIA:

 This step produces a final impact assessment report that addresses the viewpoints and
comments of the parties that reviewed the draft EIA.
 These comments may prompt revisions or additions to the text of the draft EIA.
8. Decision:
 A decision to approve or reject a mining project is generally based on the final EIA, but in
some instances, an environmental clearance may be just one step in the mine permitting
process.
 The decision may be accompanied by certain conditions that must be fulfilled, such as
posting a reclamation bond or filing an Environmental Management Plan.
9. Administrative or Judicial Review:
 Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be opportunities for a party to seek administrative
and judicial review of the final decision and the EIA process.
10. Project Implementation:
 Provided all regulatory requirements are met and permits are obtained, mine development
will proceed following the project decision and once opportunities for administrative and
judicial review are exhausted.
11. Monitoring:
 Monitoring serves three purposes:
 Ensuring that required mitigation measures are being implemented.
 Evaluating whether mitigation measures are working effectively.
 Validating the accuracy of models or projections that were used during the impact
assessment process.
BENEFITS OF THE EIA PROCESS:
 Potentially screens out environmentally-unsound projects
 Proposes modified designs to reduce environmental impacts
 Identifies feasible alternatives
 Predicts significant adverse impacts
 Identifies mitigation measures to reduce, offset, or eliminate major impacts
 Engages and informs potentially affected communities and individuals
 Influences decision-making and the development of terms and conditions.

EIA Methodology:
 “EIA is necessary to understand the link between Environment and development.”

 It is used according to the two principal functions i.e.

 Planning tool to minimize adverse impacts caused by development activity &

 A decision making instrument to decide the acceptability of a project based on its

environmental costs.

 To approaches developed to identify, predict and value change of action.

 Reflected in the sequence of activities, steps as well on the range of environmental

issues.
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  The use of this method and techniques to quantify or to qualify those changes.

Objective:

• Understand the nature and location of the project.

• Preliminary identification of impacts and scoping.
• Baseline studies and evaluation in the project.
• Prediction and assessment of impacts.
• Monitoring and impacts management.
Matrices:
 In this methods identify interaction between various action and environmental parameters.
 Functions:
o Preliminary identification of impacts (scoping).
o Comparative analysis of alternatives.
o Impact assessment.
o Presentation of evaluation results.
 To identify indirect impacts, cumulative impacts or contributions to mitigation measures.
 It’s better to use colour codes and graphical symbols in Matrices.
 The development of a matrix does not imply that it needs to be used in the report.
 It may simply be an element of work.
Checklist:
 This is standard list of the type of impacts associated with a particular type of project.
 It is extensive and complete method which the main function is identify all possible
consequences of the proposal.
 This are 4 type :-

Simple Descriptive Scaling Scaling Weighting

A list of environmental
parameter: how they are
to be measured and
interpreted.
Identification of
environmental parameter
and guideline for measure
data on the particular
parameter.
Same to a descriptive Addition information
checklist but addition for the subjective
information on evaluation of each
subjective scaling of parameter with
the parameter. respect to all the
other parameter.

Advantages of checklist: -
 Structured list of key potential factors for analysis
or key impacts.
 The result from expert’s judgement published by
public / international organizations.
 Enable interdisciplinary discussions.
 Preparatory stage for matrix assessment.
Network:
• Network method is to study relationship of project activities and environmental
characteristics.
• It is useful in identification secondary impacts and impact hypothesis.
• To developing a network diagram the 1st step is to identify first order changes in
environmental components.
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 • 2nd step is result from 1st order changes then identified.
• 3rd step is result from secondary changes is identified.
 Advantages:-
• Useful in simplified form for checking the secondary impacts.
• Handles direct and indirect impacts.
• Disadvantage: -
• it became very complex.
• This method is explained overlays approach to impact assessment to identify, predict, and
assign relative significance in geographical reference.
Overlay method
• This method is explained overlays approach to impact assessment to identify, predict,
assign relative significance in geographical reference.
• This overlay method approach can accommodate both qualitative and quantitative data.
• The computer base method is more expensive and require more time to design.
GIS Method
• It maps the impact and display the pictorially.
• The construction or real world models based on
digital data.
• GIS show the how the natural resource will
affected by a decision.
• Environment can be assessed by integrating data
on land use with topographic and geological
information.

Elements of EIA:
 Proposal: in every project there is a need to clarify
that every objective must be directed for the decision
making but in major activities of government actions
higher expenditure is require for that such as public
works development, for public lands there is
development and management of plans and
requirement of permits for development and its
insurance.
 Exclusion: in each and every sector of government:
there is exclusion of actions from process in administration, judicial and legislative. For
example, recreation of minor projects such as maintenance of roadways.
 Assessment of Environment: every proposal of a projects and its local environment requires
depth examination and research by reducing adverse impacts from mitigation such as barriers of
noise.
 Screening: decision to require EI made by only authority. No consultation requirement at this
stage. Developer can apply for ruling as to whether ES required or not required. Reasons must
be given for decision not to require EIA only if interested party requests.
 Scoping: there is determination of initial meetings of stakeholders who are available and
decision makers: jurisdiction: it shows availability of subsisted data: need of required research in
particular field, responsibilities of work pressure. For designation of documents of EIA for this
there is responsibility of lead agency situated. 
 Draft EIS (DEIS) – description of the proposed actions which is included in documents those are
preliminary, and its available alternatives (one of available alternative is that action which is
none), upon the life of the particular project, assessment of the major impacts of environment
and baseline.
 Comment: substantive critique which declared by all parties those are affected by it and all
participants those are accomplished this particular study from their side, there is a requirement of
a statement which should be in the form of public hearing or written manner. Assessment of the

9
 sufficiency of the data is the main aim of it, analysis and alternative. Thus there is no chance of
opinion poll.
 Final EIS (FEIS) – in the period of comment there is introduction of the all issues those are
substantive and its responses and there is excess of additional research material and study. In the
FEIS there is identification which is presented by the lead agency only in that case where it is
not the DEIS.
 Decisions and its Record – on behalf of the explained clarification which is based on the law of
agency, resources which are available and available information through the process of the EIA,
the formal public decisions have made.
Key problems of EIA:
• In modern environment the process of EIA is widely accepted and regarding the use of this
decision making tool various issues are associated in entire process and with its results. These
issues consist of ; confusion of public, questioner step regarding the prediction of future,
occurrence of environmental cost and its effectiveness in entire process and for the decision
making process role of internet.
• The EIA process can be defined as a policy of information not as a substantive regulatory like
law of pollution. In the decision making process, various types of problems occurs then public
become confused when the process of EIA produces negative impact. At the beginning of the
process of EIA, it lacks when public take decision and also lack in collection of information
for the decision making process. 
• Individual ability is limited in the prediction of the future. In contrast after the direction of law
of pollution and authorities, in most of the EIS system, the impact of the forecast and
projection of entire process which presents numerical data, graphical representation and
drawing of maps and on behalf of that there is lack in quality factor in information which is
available for the public and decision makers. In the artificial presentation of the many EIAs,
scientists, environmentalists and decision makers always fells mistrust in that.
• There is very bad understanding available from outcomes which have obtained in terms of
socio-economic and actual physical from it. Instead of depth study of actual short and long
terms environmental outdoor, the main focus has given on outcomes that is available in terms
of documentary evidence. There is relation between the impact and effectiveness if mitigation
and serious questioner part in the EIS which is able to create new habit.
• There is no involvement of enforcement in the typical process of EIA. For further movement
of the process of EIA and its dimensions and decisions are based on the functions of internet.
There is no emergence of decision process which is transparent with full of potential and
distance collaborative and use of information technology. The major revolution has taken
place because of data evaluation, modeling which is interactive, during the draft review,
sharing of comments and because of the use of 3-D technology and visualization of action. 
WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?
Air pollution (say: po-loo-shun) occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or
odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a way that makes it harmful to humans, animals and
plant. This is because the air becomes dirty (contaminated or unclean). The Earth is surrounded by
a blanket of air (made up of various gases) called the atmosphere. The atmosphere helps protect
the Earth and allow life to exist. Without it, we would be burned by the intense heat of the sun
during the day or frozen by the very low temperatures at night. Any additional gas, particles or
odours that are introduced into the air (either by nature or human activity) to distort this natural
balance and cause harm to living things can be called air pollution.
Things that pollute the air are called pollutants. Examples of pollutants include nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, sulphur oxides (usually from factories), sand or dust
particles, and organic compounds that can evaporate and enter the atmosphere.
There are two types of pollutants:
Primary pollutants: are those gases or particles that are pumped into the air to make it unclean.
They include carbon monoxide from automobile (cars) exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the
combustion of coal.

10
Secondary pollutants: When pollutants in the air mix up in a chemical reaction, they form an
even more dangerous chemical. Photochemical smog is an example of this, and is a secondary
pollutant.
What causes air pollution?
Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions. Natural events that pollute the air
include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic
compounds and natural radioactivity. Pollution from natural occurrences is not very often.
Human activities that result in air pollution include:
1. Emissions from industries and manufacturing activities: Consider a typical manufacturing
plant: You will notice that there are long tubes (called chimneys) erected high into the air, with
lots of smoke and fumes coming out of it. Waste incinerators, manufacturing industries and power
plants emit high levels of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air. This
happens almost everywhere that people live. Petroleum refineries also release lots of hydrocarbons
into the air.
2. Burning Fossil Fuels: After the industrial age, transportation has become a key part of our
lives. Cars and heavy-duty trucks, trains, shipping vessels and airplanes all burn lots of fossil fuels
to work. Emissions from automobile engines contain both primary and secondary pollutants. This
is a major cause of pollution and one that is very difficult to manage. This is because humans rely
heavily on vehicles and engines for transporting people, good and services.
Fumes from car exhausts contain dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulates. On their own, they cause great harm to people who
breathe them. Additionally, they react with environmental gases to create further toxic gases.
3. Household and Farming Chemicals
Crop dusting, fumigating homes, household cleaning products or painting supplies, over
the counter insect/pest killers, fertilizer dust emit harmful chemicals into the air and cause
pollution. In many cases, when we use these chemicals at home or offices with no or little
ventilation, we may fall ill if we breathe them.
What are the common air pollutants around...?

 Carbon Monoxide (CO): Pollutants facts fuel combustion from vehicles and engines.
Pollutants facts reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the body’s organs and tissues;
aggravates heart disease, resulting in chest pain and other symptoms.
 Ground-level Ozone (O3): Pollutants facts secondary pollutant formed by chemical
reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and NOx in the presence of sunlight.
Pollutants facts decreases lung function and causes respiratory symptoms, such as coughing
and shortness of breath, and also makes asthma and other lung diseases get worse.
 Lead (Pb): Pollutants facts Smelters (metal refineries) and other metal industries;
combustion of leaded gasoline in piston engine aircraft; waste incinerators (waste burners),
and battery manufacturing. Pollutants facts Damages the developing nervous system,

11
 resulting in IQ loss and impacts on learning, memory, and behavior in children.
Cardiovascular and renal effects in adults and early effects related to anaemia.
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): Pollutants facts Fuel combustion (electric utilities, big industrial
boilers, vehicles) and wood burning. Pollutants facts Worsens lung diseases leading to
respiratory symptoms, increased susceptibility to respiratory infection.
 Particulate Matter (PM): Pollutants facts This is formed through chemical reactions, fuel
combustion (e.g., burning coal, wood, diesel), industrial processes, farming (plowing, field
burning), and unpaved roads or during road constructions. Pollutants facts Short-term
exposures can worsen heart or lung diseases and cause respiratory problems. Long-term
exposures can cause heart or lung disease and sometimes premature deaths.
 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Pollutants factsSO2 comes from fuel combustion (especially high-
sulfur coal); electric utilities and industrial processes as well as natural occurrences like
volcanoes. Pollutants facts aggravate asthma and makes breathing difficult. It also
contributes to particle formation with associated health effects.
Air pollution prevention, monitoring and solution:
Solution efforts on pollution is always a big problem. This is why prevention interventions
are always a better way of controlling air pollution. These prevention methods can either come
from government (laws) or by individual actions. In many big cities, monitoring equipment has
been installed at many points in the city. Authorities read them regularly to check the quality of
air. Let's see more below:
 Government (or community) level prevention : Pollutants facts: Governments throughout the
world have already taken action against air pollution by introducing green energy. Some
governments are investing in wind energy and solar energy, as well as other renewable
energy, to minimize burning of fossil fuels, which cause heavy air pollution.
 Governments are also forcing companies to be more responsible with their manufacturing
activities, so that even though they still cause pollution, they are a lot controlled.
 Car manufacturing companies are also building more energy efficient cars, which pollute
less than before.
 Individual Level Prevention: Encourage your family to use the bus, train or bike when
commuting. If we all do this, there will be fewer cars on the road and less fumes produced.
 Energy (light, water, boiler, kettle and fire woods) wisely. This is because lots of fossil fuels
are burned to generate electricity, and so if we can cut down the use, we will also cut down
the amount of pollution we create.
 Recycle and re-use things. This will minimize the dependence of producing new things.
Remember manufacturing industries create a lot of pollution, so if we can re-use things like
shopping plastic bags, clothing, paper and bottles, it can help.
WATER POLLUTION
What is water pollution?
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
and groundwater), very often by human activities.
Water pollution: Water pollution occur when pollutants (particles, chemicals or substances
that make water contaminated) are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without
enough treatment to get rid of harmful compounds. Pollutants get into water mainly by human
causes or human factors. Water pollution can be a Point-source, Non Point-source, or Trans
boundary in nature (Click here to learn more). Water pollution is the second most imperative
environmental concern along with air pollution.
Any change or modification in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water
that will have a detrimental consequence on living things is water pollution. The water pollution
problem Water covers over 70% of the Earth’s surface. It is a very important resource for people
and the environment. Water pollution affects drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the
world. In many developing countries, it is usually a leading cause of death, by people drinking
from polluted water sources.

12
 More to this, water pollution affects not only individual living species but also populations
and entire functioning ecosystems that exist in the waters. Humans have now realized the
importance of clean water as a foundation for life. In recent time, more and more organizations
and councils are working hard to educate, protect, restore waterways and encourage practices that
help keep waters from contamination, and also to preserve water ecosystems from destruction. In
this lesson, we shall learn all about water pollution, the types of water pollution, causes of water
pollution, effects and some preventive practices that we can all use to help deal with water
pollution. Use the menus on your left to learn more. Enjoy.
Prevention of water pollution.
 Dealing with water pollution is something that everyone (including governments and local
councils) needs to get involved with. Here are a few things you can do to help. Learning
about the issue (like you are doing) is the greatest and most important step to take. Here are
a few more:
 Never throw rubbish away anyhow. Always look for the correct waste bin. If there is none
around, please take it home and put it in your trash can. This includes places like the beach,
riverside and water bodies.
 Use water wisely. Do not keep the tap running when not in use. Also, you can reduce the
amount of water you use in washing and bathing. If we all do this, we can significantly
prevent water shortages and reduce the amount of dirty water that needs treatment.
 Do not throw chemicals, oils, paints and medicines down the sink drain, or the toilet. In
many cities, your local environment office can help with the disposal of medicines and
chemicals. Check with your local authorities if there is a chemical disposal plan for local
residents.
 Buy more environmentally safe cleaning liquids for use at home and other public places.
They are less dangerous to the environment.
 If you use chemicals and pesticides for your gardens and farms, be mindful not to overuse
pesticides and fertilizers. This will reduce runoffs of the chemical into nearby water
sources. Start looking at options of composting and using organic manure instead.
 If you live close to a water body, try to plant lots of trees and flowers around your home,
so that when it rains, chemicals from your home does not easily drain into the water.
 Governments, local councils and laws Many governments have very strict laws that help
minimize water pollution. These laws are usually directed at industries, hospitals, schools
and market areas on how to dispose, treat and manage sewage. Do you know the laws in
your country? This is the time to find out. Local authorities must be vigilant and quick and
to deal with water issues of their community to prevent danger. HERE is a serious example
from Flint, Michigan in the USA.
 In many developed cities, waste or sewage treatment is very efficient, and designed to
minimize pollution of water bodies. (The next page explains that process)
 There are also lots of organizations and groups that help educate people on the dangers of
water pollution. It is always great to join these groups, because they regularly encourage
other members of their communities to have a better attitude towards water.
SOIL POLLUTION - TYPES, EFFECTS, SOURCES AND CONTROL OF SOIL
POLLUTION
Soil pollution: It is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effect on living organisms”.
Composition of soil is listed below:
COMPONENT %
 Organic mineral matter 45%
 Organic matter 05%
 Soil water 25%
 Soil air 25%
TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution mainly occurs due to the following:
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  Industrial wastes
 Urban wastes
 Agricultural practices
 Radioactive pollutants
 Biological agents

 Industrial wastes – Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution
 Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as pulp and
paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel,
distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.
o Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of
soil. As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil
or water, disturb the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on
living organisms.
 Urban wastes – Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes
consisting of dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to
as refuse. Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish
materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibers, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel
residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured
products. Urban domestic wastes though disposed of separately from industrial wastes, can
still be dangerous. This happens because they are not easily degraded.
 Agricultural practices – Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent.
With the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
and weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes,
manure, slurry, debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to
cause soil pollution.
 Radioactive pollutants/ - Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear
testing laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes, penetrate
the soil and accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution. Ex: Radio nuclides of Radium,
Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon (C-14) are commonly found
in soil, rock, water and air. Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include
neutron, proton reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates
in Carbon metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings. Radioactive
waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine-129, Cesium-137 and
isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited in bones and tissues
instead of calcium.
 Biological agents – Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents. Ex: 1. Heavy application
of manures and digested sludge can cause serious damage to plants within a few years.
Control measures of soil pollution:
 Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Ex: Planting trees
on barren slopes
 Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps
arrest soil erosion in the long term.
 Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled
tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or
sports field.
 Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical
pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers.
Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of
throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.

14
  Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits. Ex:
Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
 Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to
educate people on health hazards by environmental education. Ex: Mass media,
Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
 Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper,
plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be
recycled and reused. Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
 Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT,
BHC, etc. which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal
of radioactive wastes should be banned.
PLASTIC POLLUTION: MEANING, CAUSES, EFFECTS AND
SOLUTIONS
Meaning of Plastic Pollution
Plastic pollution is the introduction of plastic products into the environment which then
upset the existing ecosystems in different ways. These pollutants cause environmental degradation
and also affect different living organisms and their habitats negatively.
When plastic products accumulate in the environment, they begin to cause problems for wildlife,
humans, and other living organisms. They create conditions that are not favorable for healthy
living and proper growth. This is what is essentially referred to as plastic pollution. Plastic
pollution is similar to any other type of environmental degradation, the only major difference here
being that the major pollutants are made from plastic. It can be prevented and the effects
minimized when the right measures are put in place. To know just how much this type of pollution
is dangerous, we can first of all look at the meaning of plastic and what it’s made up of.
WHAT IS PLASTIC?
A material that is made from plastic can easily be shaped or deformed. Plastics are
synthetic materials that are made from synthetic resins or organic polymers. Examples of these
polymers include nylon, PVC, and polyethylene. Plastics are categorized into two groups, those
that go through a chemical change process in their constituents when subjected to heat
(thermosetting polymers) and those that do not (thermoplastics). Examples of thermoplastics
include polypropylene and polyethylene. They are the most common types of plastics because they
are usually produced in large quantities but at very low costs. Most disposable items are packaged
in these. Supermarkets and a lot of other retail stores also use them to package goods bought.
Plastics are mainly composed of petrochemicals that when burnt or melted, cause environmental
pollution. Plastic pollutants can also be classified in terms of size. This creates three categories of
pollutants namely micro, meso, and macro debris.
How does Plastic Pollution Occur? These pollutants can build up in water sources and
make it difficult for marine life to move around freely in their habitat. They can also reduce the
flow of air within water bodies, a factor that endangers the lives of organisms that reside in these
habitats. Some marine organisms ingest micro debris made of plastics and suffer from poisoning
because of the chemical components. On the other hand, plastics can be an eyesore when they are
strewn all over the place. They can also trap water and act as breeding places for disease-causing
organisms like mosquitoes. Plastics that degrade in water sources can cause pollution by making
the water obtained from such places unfit for human consumption. The burning of materials made

of plastic also causes pollution. These are some of the ways in which plastic pollution occurs in
the environment.
Common Causes of Plastic Pollution
There are many reasons why plastic pollution takes place. The biggest contributing factor
has to be human activities because they are the ones that manufacture plastics and then introduce
them into the environment. Some of the common causes of this type of pollution include:
15
1. Plastic bags from shopping: When you buy items from the retail store, chances are that they’ll
be packaged in plastic bags. Most of them are thermoplastics that are produced in large quantities.
When these plastics have been used, they are usually thrown away or discarded because the next
time you go back to the store, your items will be packaged in new plastic bags. Many people shop
regularly and that means that the amount of plastic bags introduced into the environment also
increase at a faster pace. Since most of the plastics are also low cost and thin, they can only be
used a couple of times before they tear. These shopping bags are major polluters of the
environment and it’s common to see them thrown around.
2. Plastic Toys: Most toys are usually made of plastic. This is usually taken as a safety measure
because kids can easily injure themselves with metallic toys. As we all know, these young fellas
are not very responsible people and the toys are usually damaged almost immediately after they’ve
been purchased. A kid can go through many toys in a month unless the parent just decides to let
him or her play with the broken one. There are also companies that sell products such as cereals
and include free toys as part of marketing. Parents then feel obliged to buy them because they
come with gifts for the kids. When all these are summed up, we have ecosystems full of plastic
toys and with no proper place or method to dispose of them. What happens next is environmental
pollution.
3. Pet Bottles: Pet bottles are also common plastic pollutants. These bottles are normally used for
feeding or administering medication. They are changed regularly or when the one being used is
damaged. The damaged bottles are then disposed of and they end up polluting the environment in
one way or the other. Apart from the feeding bottles, there are also feeding plates or troughs made
of plastic.
4. Failure to recycle: Failure to recycle or reuse plastic materials is another major cause of plastic
pollution. As mentioned earlier, someone will use a plastic bag once and then throw it away
because he or she knows that she’ll get a new one on the next shopping trip. This results in so
many plastic papers in the environment. It doesn’t help that garbage collection companies do not
also encourage their clients to put recyclable waste separately from those that need to be disposed
of. The failure to recycle is one of the main reasons why plastic pollution is such a major concern
the world over because it seems that the more the world population increases, the bigger the
problem becomes.
5. Using Plastic Disposables: People who host parties and use plastic disposable cups, plates,
forks and knives are the main culprits here. As much as they make work easier because they
eliminate the need to wash utensils after the party, it’s also detrimental to the environment. These
plastic disposables are usually thrown away after the party and end up causing plastic pollution in
several ways.
6. Plastic Fishing Nets: Commercial fishing is a very important economic activity. This is
because fish is a source of white meat with numerous health benefits. Individuals, companies, and
even nations engage in commercial fishing because it is an important source of income and
revenue. The only problem is that in large scale fishing especially in trolling operations, the nets
are usually made of plastic materials. They remain submerged for long periods and leak toxins into
the ocean waters. They can also break apart and stay in the water causing more pollution in the
process.
7. Poor Disposal of Plastic Waste: Plastics do not degrade easily because of the type of materials
that they are made of. That’s the reason why when you dispose of a plastic bottle or paper bag in
your compound, chances are that even one year down the line it will still be there. We can use lots
of materials made of plastic but when we properly dispose of them, pollution is reduced. Poor

plastic waste disposal is, therefore, a major cause of pollution. Many people are very careless with
the way they dispose of their plastic wastes and that has presented a big challenge as far as having
a clean planet is concerned.
Preventive and Control Measures
The number one instigator of pollution has always been mankind. Our actions introduce
plastics into the ecosystem and cause pollution. That means that we can also be proactive and
enforce preventive and control measures so that we do not have to deal with the bad effects. What

16
then can we do so that we avoid the negative effects of plastic pollution? Here are some of the
preventive and control measures that can help reduce this menace:
1. Find Alternatives to Plastics: We can reduce plastic pollution by using alternatives to plastics.
People can actually stop using plastic bags and disposable utensils. Instead of going to the retail
store and having your purchases packaged in plastic bags, you can choose to carry your own bag
that is large enough and reusable. The business community can also play a vital role by using other
alternatives to plastics when packaging goods. Using bags made of paper is a smart way to reduce
plastic pollution. When we stop using plastics and find alternatives, we reduce the risk of pollution
and make the environment cleaner. It’s all about everyone being proactive enough to do what
needs to be done to conserve the environment.
2. Making use of Reusable Water Bottles: Using disposable water bottles is a major cause of
plastic pollution. They are thrown away after use and that just adds dirt in the ecosystem because
more bottles will have to be manufactured. An ideal thing to do would be to make use of reusable
water bottles. When the water in the container has been used up, it is taken to the respective
company for a refill. In this way, less number of plastics are manufactured and the environment is
conserved. There shouldn’t be much debate around this because using these types of bottles also
saves you a lot of money as opposed to buying new ones from the store. With one move, you
conserve the environment and reduce your monthly expenses. That is a really smart way to live.
3. Proper Waste Disposal: We looked at one of the main causes of plastic pollution as lack of
proper waste disposal methods. People just throwing around plastic materials without much
thought about the consequences of their actions. To stop this from happening, we can adopt proper
waste disposal methods. Individuals should strive to dispose of plastic materials only in designated
areas like dustbins. This prevents several problems like drainage blockage and air pollution.
Cultivating a culture of being responsible goes a long way in reducing the effects of pollution.
4. Recycling: Garbage processing is actually one of the best ways to ensure that unnecessary
waste materials are not loaded into the environment. Instead of throwing away plastic bottles, we
can collect them and give them to companies that engage in the recycling of plastics. At home,
people can have separate bins for collecting wastes. One of those can be dedicated to the collection
of waste products for recycling. Companies can also offer incentives by paying for these types of
garbage so that people are motivated to give them out for recycling.
5. Government Policies: Every business person’s major concern is to make profits. What happens
is that companies manufacture very thin plastic bags that tear easily because they are low cost and
are bought in bulk. This is the type of business that gives them high profits. The government can
play its role by banning the manufacture of such plastic bags and putting in place policies that
promote a clean environment. Thick bags that do not tear easily are expensive and that will
encourage people to reuse them. Companies can be compelled to adhere to certain standards
failure to which there would be penalties. This would also lead to retail stores opting for
alternative packaging methods like papers. Policies to encourage the recycling of wastes and
cleaning of the environment can also be helpful.
6. Community Education: Knowledge is power. A person is more likely to conserve the
environment when he or she is made aware of the dangers of not doing so. Educating people about
the effects of plastic pollution and ways in which it can be prevented or controlled is a step in the
right direction because it raises awareness. This can be done by community-based organizations or
government agencies tasked with environmental conservation. Another way in which this can be
achieved is by running ads in the media or campaigns that aim at sensitizing people about the

benefits of conserving the environment. At the family level, parents and their children can educate
one another about plastic pollution. They can then do what is necessary to prevent or control it.
ECOSYSTEM:
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to encompass the
interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a given site. The living
17
and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic components,
respectively. Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, “an unit
that includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and
material cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living, within the system”.
Components of Ecosystem:

(A) Abiotic Components:

Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors on an ecosystem. The non-living
factors are either resources or conditions. Important abiotic components can be listed as follows:
1. Physical factors: They sustain and limit the growth of organisms in an ecosystem.
a) Light: Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is the
energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of
photosynthesis; a process during which plants manufacture organic substances by combining
inorganic substances. The intensity of the light that reaches the earth varies according to the
latitude and season of the year and also effect geographical and seasonal vegetation distribution.
Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs) growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesis
optimally under very low light conditions because they are constantly overshadowed by tall,
canopied trees. Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet their photoperiodic
requirement for flowering.
b) Temperature: The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by extremes in
temperature.
c) Water: The life on earth originated in water and is unsustainable without water.

d) Atmospheric gases: The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration. Carbon dioxide
is used by green plants during photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain
bacteria and through the action of lightning.
e) Soil: Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and aggregation
determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils. These characteristics along

18
 with parameters such as pH, mineral composition and topography determine to a large extent the
vegetation in any area. This in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
2. Organic compounds: They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link
between the biotic and abiotic components. Examples are: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
humid substances.
(B)Biotic components:

The biotic components in an ecosystem include the living organisms. They are grouped in
to 3 classes based on the organism’s role in the flow of material and energy within the ecosystem:
1. Producers (autotrophs): Autotrophs produce organic compounds from carbon dioxide as a
carbon source. They take energy from the sun (or from inorganic sources in some cases) to convert
it into organic molecules or food, e.g., plants, algae, bacteria, etc. A portion of food synthesized, is
used by autotrophs for their growth and other biological functions and remaining is stored for
future use. This stored food in autotrophs is utilized as food by other organisms (called
heterotrophs).
2. Consumers (heterotrophs): They are called heterotrophs and they consume food synthesized
by the autotrophs. Based on food preferences they can be grouped into three broad categories.
Herbivores (e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.) feed directly on plants, carnivores are animals which
eat other animals (eg. lion, cat, dog etc.) and omnivore’s organisms feeding upon both plants and
animals e.g. human, pigs and sparrow.
3. Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms (often fungi or bacteria) that break down organic
materials to gain nutrients and energy. Decomposition is a natural process but decomposers
accelerate it. The role that decomposers perform in an ecosystem is extremely important. When an
organism dies, it leaves behind nutrients that are locked together. Decomposers unlock these
nutrient and release as raw nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium) in a form
which are usable for plants. Decomposers also convert organic carbon into Carbon dioxide, which
can be trapped by photosynthesizes.

CONCEPT OF CETP (COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT

PLANT (CETP)
The concept of effluent treatment, by means, of a collective effort, has assumed reasonable
gravity by being especially purposeful for cluster of small scale industrial units. Common effluent
treatment plant (CETP) not only helps the industries in easier control of pollution, but also act as a

19
step towards cleaner environment and service to the society at large. Small scale industries, by
their very nature of job cannot benefit much from economies of scale and therefore the burden of
installing pollution- control equipment, falls heavy on them. Realizing this practical problem,
under the policy statement for abatement of pollution the Govt. felt to extend the scheme for
promoting combined facilities for treatment of effluent and management of solid waste for clusters
of small scale industrial units and also to provide technical support to them. Accordingly, Ministry
of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India, had instructed various State Pollution Control Boards,
to examine the possibilities of establishing CETPs in various Industrial estates in the respective
states. The concerted approach of joint or common effluent treatment provisions has many
advantages. Wastewater of individual industries often contains significant concentration of
pollutants; and to reduce them by individual treatment up to the desired concentration, become
techno-economically difficult. The combined treatment provides a better and economical option
because of the equalization and neutralization taking place in the CETP. Other important issues for
the merit of common treatment include scarcity of land at the industry's level and a comparatively
easier availability of professional and trained staff for the operation of CETP, which can otherwise
be difficult, at the individual industry level. For the regulatory authorities also, common treatment
facility offers a comparatively easier means of ensuring compliance of stipulated norms. The
handling and disposal of solid- waste also becomes increasingly easier as the infrastructure is
created in the project itself. The concept of common treatment, based on feasibility, should be part
of the new industrial estates as essential component of infrastructure; In fact, the location of
industries should always be such that units with compatible nature of activity are located in a
cluster which in turn can facilitate in providing common treatment.
Floating Aquatic Plant Systems
Aquatic plant systems are engineered and constructed systems that use aquatic plants in the
treatment of industrial or domestic wastewater. They are designed to achieve a specific wastewater
treatment goal. Aquatic plant systems can be divided into two categories:
• Systems with floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth, duckweed, and pennywort
• Systems with submerged aquatic plants such as waterweed, water milfoil, and watercress
The use of aquaculture as a means of treating wastewater involves both natural and
artificial wetlands and the production of algae and higher plants (submersed and immersed) to
remove contaminants such as nitrogen compounds, BOD5, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals from
the wastewater. Floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and
duckweed (Lemna spp.) appear to be some of the most promising aquatic plants for the treatment
of wastewater and have received the most attention in this regard. Other plants are also being
studied, among them seaweed and alligator weed.
These systems are basically shallow ponds covered with floating plants that detain
wastewater at least one week. The main purpose of the plants in these systems is to provide a
suitable habitation for bacteria that remove the vast majority of dissolved nutrients. The design
features of such systems are summarized in Table 6.8.
These technologies are useful in areas where suitable plants are readily available. In areas
where they are not, any introduction of plants species must be undertaken with caution to
minimize the possibility of creating nuisance growth conditions. Even introducing them into
constructed enclosures should be done carefully, and with the foreknowledge that there is a strong
likelihood that they will enter natural water systems (especially because they must be harvested
from the treatment systems and disposed of). BOD COD TSS Nitrogen Phosphorus Source
Reduction.

20
Sluge characteristics
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH): Sludges studied in this analysis did not show much variation
in pH, varying slightly from neutral. The average was 7.3 and ranged from 6.7 to 8.0
Electrical conductivity: Considerable variation was observed in electrical conductivity readings
on sludges studied (Table 2.3). A significant difference was evident between sludge digestion
methods, with the anaerobically digested sludge showing significantly higher conductivity than
aerobically digested sludge (Table 2.4). The average conductivity of al1 sludges was 4.7 mS cm-',
with the anaerobically digested sludge having an average of 6.2 mS cm-' white the aerobically
digested showed an average of 2.7 mS cm-'. Electrical conductivity showed a significant
correlation with many other parameters determined in this study
Nutrient content of sewage sludge: Sewage sludge contains considerable amounts of nitrogen
and phosphorus and has significant inorganic fertilizer replacement value for these major plant
nutrients. The origin and treatment of sewage sludge affects bath the quantity and availability of
nutrients for crop growth. Micronutrients are also present to a variable extent based on origin and
treatments of sludge.
Nitrogen in sewage sludge: As mentioned earlier, the average nitrogen content of sewage sludge
is around 3.8%, which includes ammonium, nitrate and organic forms. Amounts of each form
depend mostly on the extent of treatment, which can alter the forms drastically (Sommers 1977).
Sommers (1977) reported that 50-9O0/0 of total N could be in organic form, depending on the
solids content of the sludge. The composition of the organic N compounds in the sludge included
amino acids, hexoamines and proteinaceous material. A major portion of the organic form was
hydrolyzable. During aerobic digestion, organic nitrogen is transformed into ammonium, and
depending on treatment, a variable part of the ammonium is converted into nitrate. Volatilization
losses of N during the aerobic treatment process can consequently be considerable (Sommes
1977). Losses of sewage sludge N can also be considerable after land application. Beuchamp et al.
(1978) measured 60% loss in inorganic N after surface application of anaerobically digested
sludge in the field. The fertilizer value of N from sewage sludge is variable depending on sludge
treatment and soi1 environment. Factors affecting utilization of nitrogen in soils are temperature,
rainfall, immobilization, and ammonia volatilization or denitrification processes.
Phosphorus in sewage sludge: In developed countries, annual P discharge into sewage systems is
about 1 kg per capita, largely from detergents (de Haan 1981). This number is likely to be much
higher in developing countries where rules for protection of the environment are not as strict as in
North America and Western Europe. With conventional treatment of sewage, up to 90% of P in
the treated effluent can be removed and ends up in the sludge. Precipitants used for sewage
treatment are mostly soluble salts of iron or aluminium, but also calcium [Ca(OH)2], or biological
methods can be used (Coker and Carlton-Smith 1986). Recent advances in sludge treatment have
made possible even more efficient P removal for recycling through advanced biological treatment
and subsequent chemical precipitation.
Total Solids content: solids were determined by drying sludge samples in an oven at 10S°C for
24 hrs (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1995). Representative samples (-120 g) were weighed into 500 mL
glass beakers and put in an oven previously set to desired temperature, and dried to a constant
weight.
21
Specific gravity: Specific gravity was determined using standard method for sludge (APHA,
AWWA, WEF 1995) by weighing out a known volume of sludge and cornparing it to the weight
of an equal volume of water at the same temperature.
Total carbon: Total C was determined using LECO SC-444 Sulphur and Carbon Analyzer
(LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, Mi.). Inorganic C was measured with the same instrument after
overnight (16 h) ashing of samples in a muffler furnace set at 475 OC.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS:
SLUDGE LAGOONS:
A lagoon is a shallow lake (or earth basin) usually located near a river or a sea. Lagooning
(disposal of sludge into lagoons) is a convenient method of sludge disposal if the treatment plant is
located at a remote place. In lagooning, the sludge is stabilized by anaerobic and aerobic
decomposition which is accompanied by release of objectionable odors. For this reason, lagoons
should be located away from dwelling areas and high ways to avoid nuisance conditions. The
stabilized solids of the sludge settle to the bottom of lagoon and accumulate. The sludge’s can be
stored indefinitely in lagoons or may be removed periodically.
Composting:
Composting basically involves the process of biological degradation of solid organic waste
material to stable end products. Although composting can be carried out under aerobic and
anaerobic conditions, aerobic composting is more frequently used. Thus, composting may be
considered as an aerobic microbiological process for converting solid organic wastes into stable
sanitary, nuisance free, humus like material that can be safely disposed into the environment.
Composting is a cost-effective and environment friendly process for stabilization and ultimate
disposal of sludge. The product of composting is useful for soil improvement and the production
of mushrooms. Thus, composting is ultimately helpful for reuse and recycling of organic waste
materials from domestic, agriculture and industry.

Organisms involved in composting:

A wide variety of organisms (both unicellular and multicellular) are involved in the process
composting. The bacteria make up 80-90% of the microorganisms found in the compost. These
bacteria possess a broad range of enzymes to degrade a wide range of organic compounds. The
other organisms actively involved in composting are actinomycetes (a filamentous type of
bacteria), fungi (molds, yeasts), and protozoa, besides earthworms, insects, mites and ants.
Anaerobic digestion:
Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial decomposition process that stabilises organic wastes and
produces a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide gas (biogas). The heat value of methane is the
same as natural petroleum gas, and biogas is valuable as an energy source. Anaerobic digestion is
usually carried out in a specially built digester, where the content is mixed and the digester
maintained at 35 oC by combusting the biogas produced. After digestion the sludge is passed to a
sedimentation tank where the sludge is thickened. Biogas is collected from the digester (Figure
33). The thickened sludge requires further treatment prior to reuse or disposal.
Anaerobic digestion can also be carried out at a slower rate in an unmixed tank or pond.  Covering
is usually by a UV resistant plastic sheet, because of the large area needed to be covered, and
biogas is collected from the top of the sheet.  Storage of biogas can be in a cylindrical tank with a
floating roof.  The cylindrical roof floats on water and its position is determined by the volume of
the gas stored under the pressure of the roof.  Biogas can also be stored in a balloon, but only
under low pressure.
Stabilisation:
Faecal sludge collected from bucket or vault latrines has a very high biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and is generally putrid and odorous. Primary and secondary sludges from an
activated sludge treatment plant also have a high BOD and may be difficult to dewater. Even
sludge from a septic tank, which has undergone bacterial decomposition over at least a year, still
has a high BOD. Stabilisation is the term used to denote the process of BOD reduction. The
stabilisation process can be carried out under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

22
Aerobic stabilisation of primary and secondary sludges can be carried out in an aeration tank in the
same manner as in an activated sludge process. Because of the high oxygen requirement, this
process is energy intensive and costs are high. Aerobic stabilisation requires less energy when
carried out as part of a composting process. For composting of sludge, its solids content should be
increased to at least 15 % so that it can be handled as a solid. Thickening and dewatering (see
below) of primary and secondary sludges are required to achieve the required solids content.
Faecal sludge may contain high enough solids. Mixing with dry materials such as dry sawdust may
assist with achieving the required solids content as well attaining the required carbon to nitrogen
ratio for composting.
Landfilling:
Landfilling is a method for the final disposal of sludge that is not useful any more. The
sanitary landfill method is most suitable for the disposal of solid domestic wastes. This involves a
low-cost anaerobic technology. In this method, the sludge or solid wastes are deposited in low-
lying and low value sites. The deposition is done almost daily and the deposits are covered with a
layer of soil (Fig. 58.4). With the coverage of the new waste deposits, nuisance conditions such as
bad odours and flies are minimized. It is desirable that the sludge is dewatered so that its
transportation becomes easy. Further, the generation of leachate (liquid that percolates out due to
leaching) is minimal from a dewatered sludge. At least two impermeable layers are built below the
landfill to prevent the leakage of leachate to the surrounding lands. The accumulated leachate can
be taken out and treated by appropriate methods. The complete filling of landfills may take several
months or even years, depending on the size of the site and the quantity of waste being deposited.
Landfills can be used for the generation of methane gas for commercial use. However, methane
production usually commences several months after the landfill is completely filled. In some
countries, there are strict regulations to use landfills for sewage disposal. These include the air-
and water tight sites to protect the environment.

SLUDGE DRYING BEDS DESIGN

Sludge drying bed (SDB) is the most widely used method for sludge dewatering. Sludge
drying involves natural ways of drying to mechanical ways of removing water content. SDB is
generally used for small and medium sized communities (TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003). The
selection of the technology will depend upon land availability, climatic factors, the quantity and
composition of the sludge. The construction of this is usually undertaken with civil structure.
The prediction of the drying rate is an empirical part of the designing the system. Drying of
the sludge can be divided in to two different stages, namely drainage and evaporation (CHAI
2007). The design of SDB is based mainly on site specifications, as well as environmental and
climatic factors. The sizing of the sludge drying beds should be done considering the worst case
scenario (CERONIO et al. 1999). The loading is based on per capita basis or on a unit loading of
pounds of dry solids per square foot per year (TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003).
There are mainly five types of sludge drying methods viz. conventional sand beds, paved
drying beds, artificial media beds, vacuum assisted and solar. The typical conventional SDB has
dimensions of 6 m width, 6 - 30 m length, with sand layer ranging from 230 – 300 mm depth. The

23
sand should have a uniformity coefficient of not over 4.0 and effective size of 0.3 to 0.75 mm. The
piping to the sludge drying beds should be designed for velocity of at-least 0.75 m/s
(TCHOBANOGLOUS et al. 2003). The sludge is placed on the bed in 20–30 cm layers and
allowed to dry. Sludge cake removal is manual by shovelling into wheel-barrows, trucks, scraper,
or front-end loader. The drying period is 10–15 days, and the moisture content of the cake is 60 –
70%. Sludge loading rate is 100–300 kg dry solids/ m2 /year for uncovered beds.
Multiple Units: Multiple units should be provided. Staged digestion design may be used,
provided the units can be used in parallel as well as in series. Where multiple units are not
provided, a lagoon or storage tanks should be provided for emergency use so that digestion tanks
may be taken out of service without unduly interrupting plant operation. Means of returning
sludge from the secondary digester unit to the primary digester should be provided. In large
treatment plants where digesters are provided, separate digestion of primary sludges should be
considered.
Depth: The proportion of depth to diameter should provide for the formation of supernatant liquor
with a minimum depth of 6 feet. Sidewall depth is generally about one-half the diameter of the
digester for diameters up to 60 feet, and decreases to about one-third the diameter for diameters
approaching 100 feet. Maintenance Provisions To facilitate emptying, cleaning, and maintenance,
the following features are required:
Slope: The tank bottom shall slope to drain toward the withdrawal pipe. A slope of between 1 inch
per foot and 3 inches per foot is recommended. (ii) Access Manholes At least two access manholes
should be provided in the top of the tank, in addition to the gas dome. One opening should be large
enough to permit the insertion of mechanical equipment to remove scum, grit, and sand. A
separate side wall manhole should be provided at ground level.
Safety: Nonspeaking tools, rubber-soled shoes, safety harness, gas detectors for flammable and
toxic gasses and the hose type or self-contained type breathing apparatus shall be provided. e. Pre-
thickening of sludge may be advantageous, but the solids content shall be less than 8% to ease
mixing problems.
Sludge Inlets and Outlets: Multiple sludge inlets and draw-offs and multiple recirculation suction
and discharge points should be provided to facilitate flexible operation and effective mixing of the
digester contents, unless adequate mixing facilities are provided within the digester. One inlet
should discharge above the liquid level and be located at approximately the center of the tank to
assist in scum breakup. Raw sludge inlet points should be located to minimize short-circuiting to
the supernatant draw off
TANK CAPACITY
a. General: Two cultures of bacteria are primarily involved in anaerobic digestion: acid formers
and methane formers. Capacity of the digester tank shall be based on the growth rate of the
methane-formers, as they have extremely slow growth rates.
b. Solids Basis: Where the composition of the sewage has been established, tank capacity should
be computed from the volume and character of sludge to be digested. The total digestion tank
capacity should be determined by rational calculations based upon factors such as volume of
sludge added, it’s percent solids and character, volatile solids loading, temperature to be
maintained in the digesters, and the degree or extent of mixing to be obtained. These detailed
calculations shall be submitted to justify the basis of design. Where composition of the sewage has
not been established, the minimum combined digestion tank capacity outlined below shall be
provided. Such requirements assume that the raw sludge is derived from ordinary domestic
wastewater; a digestion temperature is maintained in the range of 85° to 100° F, there is 40 to 50
percent volatile matter in the digested sludge, and that the digested sludge will be removed
frequently from the process.
Gas Collection System
a. General: All portions of the gas system, including the space above the tank liquor, storage
facilities, and piping shall be so designed that under all normal operating conditions, including
sludge withdrawal, the gas will be maintained under positive pressure. All enclosed areas where
any gas leakage might occur shall be adequately ventilated.

24
b. Safety Equipment: All necessary safety facilities shall be included where gas is produced.
Pressure and vacuum relief valves and flame traps, together with automatic safety shutoff valves,
are essential. Water-seal equipment shall not be installed on gas piping.
c. Gas Piping and Condensate Gas piping: It shall be of adequate diameter and shall slope to
condensation traps at low points. The use of float-controlled condensate traps is not permitted.
Condensation traps shall be placed in accessible locations for daily servicing and draining. Cast
iron, ductile iron, and/or stainless steel piping should be used.
d. Electrical Fixtures and Equipment: Electrical fixtures and equipment in enclosed places
where gas may accumulate shall comply with the National Board of Fire Underwriters'
specifications for hazardous conditions. Explosion-proof electrical equipment shall be provided in
sludge-digestion tank galleries containing digested sludge piping or gas piping and shall be
provided in any other hazardous location where gas or digested sludge leakage is possible.
e. Waste Gas: Waste gas burners shall be readily accessible and should be located at least 50 feet
away from any plant structure, if placed near ground level, or may be located on the roof of the
control building if sufficiently removed from the tank. Waste gas burners shall not be located on
top of the digester. The waste gas burner should be sized and designed to ensure complete
combustion to eliminate odors.
f. Ventilation and Cover: any underground enclosures connecting with digestion tanks or
containing sludge or gas piping or equipment shall be provided with forced ventilation. Tightly
fitting, self-closing doors shall be provided at connecting passageways and tunnels to minimize the
spread of gas. A floating cover should be provided instead of a fixed cover for increased
operational flexibility and safety.
g. Metering Gas meters: with bypasses should be provided to meter total gas production and
utilization.
H. Pressure Indication Gas piping lines: It is used for anaerobic digesters should be equipped
with closed-type pressure indicating gauges. These gauges should read directly in inches of water.
Normally, three gauges should be provided, one to measure the main line pressure, a second to
measure the pressure upstream of gas-utilization equipment, and the third to measure pressure to
waste burners. Gas-tight shutoff and vent cocks shall be provided. The vent piping shall be
extended outside the building, and the opening shall be screened to prevent entrance by insects and
turned downward to prevent entrance of rainwater. All piping shall be protected with safety
equipment.
i. Gas Utilization Equipment: Gas-burning boilers, engines, and other gas utilization equipment
should be located at or above ground level in well-ventilated rooms. Gas lines to these units shall
be provided with suitable flame traps.
Aerobic Sludge Digestion: Mixing and Aeration Aerobic sludge digestion tanks shall be designed
for effective mixing and aeration. Minimum mixing requirements of 20 cubic feet per minute per
1,000 cubic feet for air systems and 0.5 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet for mechanical systems
are recommended. Aeration requirements may be more or less than the mixing requirements,
depending on system design and actual solids loading. Approximately 2.0 pounds of oxygen per
pound volatile solids are needed for aeration. If diffusers are used, types should be provided to
minimize clogging and designed to permit removal for inspection, maintenance, and replacement
without dewatering the tanks, if only one digester is proposed.
Size and Number of Tanks: The size and number of aerobic sludge digestion tank or tanks
should be determined by rational calculations based upon such factors as volume of sludge added,
it’s percent solids and character, the degree of volatile solids reduction required and the size of
installation with appropriate allowance for sludge and supernatant storage. Generally, 40 to 50
percent volatile solids destruction is obtained during aerobic digestion. To ensure a stabilized
sludge which will not emit odors, the volatile solids content should be less than 60 percent in the
digested sludge. Calculations shall be submitted upon request to justify the basis of design. The
following design parameter ranges should be considered the minimum in designing aerobic
digestion facilities. a. Hydraulic Detention Time Hydraulic detention time at 20°C should be in the
range of 15 to 25 days, depending upon the type of sludge being digested. Activated sludge alone
requires the lower detention time and a combination of primary plus activated or trickling filter

25
sludges requires the high detention time. Detention times should be adjusted for operating
temperatures other than 20°C.
Volatile Solids: The volatile solids loading shall be in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 pound of volatile
solids per cubic foot per day. c. Dissolved Oxygen Design dissolved oxygen concentration should
be in the range of 1 to 2 mg/l. A minimum of 1.0 mg/l shall be maintained at all times.
Mixing Energy Energy input requirements for mixing should be in the range of 0.5 to 1.5
horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet where mechanical aerators are used; 20 to 35 standard cubic feet
of air per minute per 1,000 cubic feet of aeration tank where diffused air mixing is used on
activated sludge alone; and greater than 60 cubic feet per minute per 1,000 cubic feet for primary
sludge alone and primary plus activated sludge.
Storage Detention time should be increased for temperatures below 20°C. If sludge cannot be
withdrawn during certain periods, additional storage capacity should be provided. Plants smaller
than 75,000 gpd should have storage capacity of 2 cubic foot per population equivalent served.
Supernatant Separation Facilities should be provided for separation or decantation of
supernatant. Provisions for side stream treatment of supernatant should be considered.
SLUDGE DRYING BED OPERATION
Thickening: Sludge contains a high concentration of solids, but its water content is still
high. Combined primary and secondary sludge from an activated sludge treatment plant contains
about 2 % solids and hence 98 % water. One kg of dry sludge is associated with 49 L of water.
Thickening to 5 % solids means one kg of dry solids is associated with 19 L of water, thus 30 L of
water has to be removed.
Thickening is carried out in a sedimentation tank or in a sedimentation pond (Figure 34). The
latter is advantageous if land area is available, because the sludge can be allowed to settle over a
much longer period and a higher solids content of the thickened sludge is achieved. The water
removed from thickening needs treatment. It can be returned to the inlet of an off-site wastewater
treatment plant, or in the case of sludge from on-site units by an aerobic treatment process such as
lagooning.
Dewatering and drying: Dewatering aims to reduce the water content further so that the solids
content of the sludge is about 20 % (equivalent to 1 kg dry sludge with 4 L of water). The sludge
can then be handled like a solid. Dewatering can be done mechanically using a filter press
(employing pressure or vacuum), or a centrifuge. It can also be done using drying beds. A drying
bed consists of a 30 cm bed of sand with an under-drainage (Figure 35). Sludge is applied on the
sand bed and is allowed to dry by evaporation and drainage of excess water over a period of
several weeks depending on climatic conditions. Bacterial decomposition of the sludge takes place
during the drying process while moisture content is sufficiently high. During the rainy season the
process may take a longer time to complete and sizing the area of the drying beds should take this
into account.
Sludge reuse: Raw sludge from activated sludge treatment plants has been applied directly onto
agricultural land particularly in the United Kingdom. This practice is considered unsatisfactory
because of the presence of pathogens in the sludge in high numbers. There has been no thorough
study, however, which has shown that there is an increase in the risk of acquiring illnesses
associated with pathogens in the raw sludge when proper handling procedure and non-entry to the
land following application is observed.

26
Reuse of composted sludge as a soil conditioner in agriculture and horticulture returns carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and elements essential for plant growth back to the soil. Less chemical
fertilizers are required and the organic carbon helps to improve soil structure for soil aeration,
water percolation and root growth. The nitrogen and phosphorus are also released gradually for
plant uptake compared to the more soluble chemical fertilizers. The potential of leaching of the
nutrients to ground or surface water by rainfall run-off is much reduced. Pathogens and heavy
metals can, however, limit the reuse of sludge.
Pathogens should be reduced to levels that do not pose health hazards to workers handling
the sludge, potential health hazards from the spreading of helminth eggs and from horticultural
produce contaminated by pathogens. Composting of the sludge to attain a temperature of 55 oC for
two weeks followed by windrow maturation produces compost that meets these conditions.
Stabilised sludge, which has been dewatered and dried on sand beds to attain low moisture
content, can meet the same conditions.
Heavy metals and toxic chemicals are difficult to remove from sludge. Preventing these
chemicals from entering the wastewater or sludge should be the aim of wastewater management
for sludge intended for reuse in agriculture or horticulture. Reuse may still be possible for
purposes such as mine site rehabilitation, highway landscaping or for landfill cover. Sludge that
has been conditioned for reuse is called ‘biosolidsE/p>
Conversion of sludge, which is heavily contaminated by heavy metals or toxic chemicals, to oil is
technically feasible (Enersludge process). A full-scale plant is operating in Perth, Western
Australia (Bridle et al., 2000). The conversion is by a pyrolysis process, heating dried sludge to a
high temperature in the absence of oxygen or with a controlled amount of oxygen. Capital and
running costs of oil from sludge process are high.
Sludge disposal
Final or ultimate disposal of sludge, which cannot be reused, is by landfilling or
incineration. Since sludge for landfilling usually contains heavy metals or toxic chemicals, lining
of the landfill with clay or plastic liner may be required to prevent contamination of groundwater.
Incineration of sludge is by a multiple hearth furnace or fluidised bed furnace. Energy input is
required to dry the sludge before combustion is self-sustaining. Combustion flue gases usually
need treatment to meet air pollution control standards. Investment and operating costs are high.
Effluent Treatment Plant
Effluent Treatment Plant or ETP is one type of waste water treatment method which is
particularly designed to purify industrial waste water for its reuse and its aim is to release safe
water to environment from the harmful effect caused by the effluent.
Industrial effluents contain various materials, depending on the industry. Some effluents
contain oils and grease, and some contain toxic materials (e.g., cyanide). Effluents from food and
beverage factories contain degradable organic pollutants. Since industrial waste water contains a
diversity of impurities and therefore specific treatment technology called ETP is required.

27
 The ETP Plant works at various levels and involves various physical, chemical, biological
and membrane processes to treat waste water from different industrial sectors like chemicals,
drugs, pharmaceutical, refineries, dairy, ready mix plants & textile etc.
Benefits of ETP:
1. To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
2. To reduce the usage of fresh water in industries
3. To preserve natural environment against pollution
4. To meet the standards for emission of pollutants set by the Government & avoid heavy
penalty
5. To reduce expenditure on water acquisition
2. Industrial Effluent Treatment Process:
The treatment of different effluents varies with the type of effluent. Wastewater enters the
effluent or sewage treatment plant and goes through several processes before effluent goes into the
environment. Industrial effluent treatment plant process includes the following stages:
a. Preliminary Treatment: Its objective is physical separation of large sized contaminants. For
example cloth, paper, plastics, wood logs etc. This level/process includes:
 Screening: This is the first unit operation that occurs in waste water treatment plants. A
screen is a device with uniform openings and its purpose is to remove large floating solids.
 Sedimentation: It is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended
solids from water.
 Grit Chamber: The wastewater that moves into the grit chamber removes the dense
inorganic solids such as gravel, metal fragments and sand which have made their way into
the sewers. Removal of grit can prevent damaging of pumps & operational difficulties.
 Clarifiers: These are tanks built with mechanical means for continuous removal of solids
being deposited by sedimentation before biological treatment.
b. Primary Treatment: Its aim is removal of floating and settleable materials such as suspended
solids and organic matter. In this treatment both physical and chemical methods are used. It
includes:
 Flocculation: Flocculation is a physical process and does not involve the neutralization of
charge. It involves the addition of destabilized particles together into large aggregates so
that they can be easily separated from the water.
 Coagulation: is a process in which coagulants are added for the purpose of rapid
settlement of minute solid particles in a liquid into larger mass. It permits particle removal
by sedimentation and for filtration.
 Neutralization: The main purpose of this process helps in maintaining the pH range of 6-9
to meet the requirements of different processing units in ETP system.
 Primary Clarifiers: These are used to slow the velocity of the water to a point where
organic solids will settle to the bottom of the tank and it contain an equipment that is used
to remove floating solids and greases from the surface.
c. Secondary or Biological Treatment: The objective of this treatment is the further treatment of
the effluent from primary treatment to remove the suspended solids and residual organics. In this
step biological and chemical processes are involved.
 Activated Sludge Process: This is used for treating industrial waste water using air and a
biological floc composed of bacteria.
 Aerated Lagoons: Is a treatment pond provided with artificial aeration to promote he
biological oxidation of waste water.
 Trickling Filters: Trickling filters, also known as sprinkling filters, are commonly used
for the biological treatment of domestic sewage and industrial waste water.
 Rotating Biological Contactor: It involves allowing the wastewater to come in contact
with a biological medium in order to remove pollutants in the wastewater before discharge
of the treated wastewater to the environment.

28
 d. Tertiary/advanced/disinfection treatment: The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a
final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality to the desired level before it is reused, recycled or
discharged to the environment.
 Chemical Coagulation and sedimentation: It is used to increase the removal of solids
from effluent after primary and secondary treatment.
 Filtration: The clarified wastewater is first passed through the adjacent filtration plant
which contains large filter blocks to ensure high quality water.
 Reverse Osmosis: In this process, pressure is used to force effluent through a membrane
that retains contaminants on one side and allows the clean water to pass to the other side.
 UV Disinfection: It is considered as an ideal disinfectant for industrial waste water. It
leaves no residual disinfectant in the water by ensuring the water quality. It does not
produce any disinfection by-products.
STP (Sewage Treatment Plant Process)
Sewage Treatment Plant Process
Sewage is water that is discharged after residences, institutions, hospitals, industrial and
commercial use. Sewage treatment refers to the process of removing contaminants, micro-
organisms and other types of pollutants from wastewater influent. The main objective of sewage
treatment is to produce an effluent (treated waste water) and a solid waste/sludge suitable for
discharge into the natural environment. Treatment of sewage or wastewater protects public health
and prevents pollution, disease as well as hazards from sewage contaminants. Hence, sewage
treatment is required
Sewage Treatment Process:
 Pretreatment: Pretreatment removes all materials that can be easily collected from the raw
sewage before they damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of primary treatment clarifiers.
Objects commonly removed during pretreatment include trash, tree limbs, leaves, branches, and
other large objects.
The influent in sewage water passes through a bar screen to remove all large objects like
cans, rags, sticks, plastic packets etc. carried in the sewage stream.[6] This is most commonly
done with an automated mechanically raked bar screen in modern plants serving large populations,
while in smaller or less modern plants, a manually cleaned screen may be used. The raking action
of a mechanical bar screen is typically paced according to the accumulation on the bar screens
and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and later disposed in a landfill, or incinerated. Bar
screens or mesh screens of varying sizes may be used to optimize solids removal. If gross solids
are not removed, they become entrained in pipes and moving parts of the treatment plant, and can
cause substantial damage and inefficiency in the process.

29
 Grit removal: Pretreatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber, where the velocity of
the incoming sewage is adjusted to allow the settlement of sand, grit, stones, and broken glass.
These particles are removed because they may damage pumps and other equipment. For small
sanitary sewer systems, the grit chambers may not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at
larger plants. Grit chambers come in 3 types: horizontal grit chambers, aerated grit chambers and
vortex grit chambers. The process is called sedimentation.
 Flow equalization: Clarifiers and mechanized secondary treatment are more efficient under
uniform flow conditions. Equalization basins may be used for temporary storage of diurnal or
wet-weather flow peaks. Basins provide a place to temporarily hold incoming sewage during
plant maintenance and a means of diluting and distributing batch discharges of toxic or high-
strength waste which might otherwise inhibit biological secondary treatment (including portable
toilet waste, vehicle holding tanks, and septic tank pumpers). Flow equalization basins require
variable discharge control, typically include provisions for bypass and cleaning, and may also
include aerators. Cleaning may be easier if the basin is downstream of screening and grit removal.
 Fat and grease removal: In some larger plants, fat and grease are removed by passing the sewage
through a small tank where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers in the
base of the tank may also be used to help recover the fat as froth. Many plants, however, use
primary clarifiers with mechanical surface skimmers for fat and grease removal.
 Primary Treatment: In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks,
commonly called "pre-settling basins", "primary sedimentation tanks" or "primary clarifiers". The
tanks are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off.
Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually
drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is pumped to sludge
treatment facilities. Grease and oil from the floating material can sometimes be recovered for
saponification (soap making).
Secondary treatment :
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the
sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of
municipal plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. To be effective,
the biota require both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable
soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and

30
 bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as
fixed-film or suspended-growth systems.
Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters, constructed wetlands, bio-towers,
and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over
its surface. The fixed-film principle has further developed into Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors
(MBBR) and Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge (IFAS) processes. An MBBR system
typically requires a smaller footprint than suspended-growth systems.
Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the
sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than trickling filters that treat the same amount of
water. However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of
biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids
than suspended growth systems. Some secondary treatment methods include a secondary clarifier
to settle out and separate biological floc or filter material grown in the secondary treatment
bioreactor.
 Tertiary treatment
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to further improve
the effluent quality before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, wet lands,
ground, etc.). More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If
disinfection is practised, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing."
Filtration: Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated
carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins.
 Biological nutrient removal: Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is regarded by some as a type of
secondary treatment process, and by others as a tertiary (or "advanced") treatment process.
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release
to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause
an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable
and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of
the oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for
the bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce
toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to
remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Nitrogen removal: Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from
ammonia to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen
gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by
Nitrosomonas spp. ("nitroso" referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite
oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp.
(nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the
environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
 Phosphorus removal: Every adult human excretes between 200 and 1000 grams of
phosphorus annually. Studies of United States sewage in the late 1960s estimated mean per
capita contributions of 500 grams in urine and feces, 1000 grams in synthetic detergents, and
lesser variable amounts used as corrosion and scale control chemicals in water supplies. Source
control via alternative detergent formulations has subsequently reduced the largest contribution,
but the content of urine and feces will remain unchanged. Phosphorus removal is important as it
is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water systems. (For a description of the
negative effects of algae, see Nutrient removal). It is also particularly important for water reuse
systems where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream equipment
such as reverse osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus
removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs),
are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20
31
 percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated
water, these bio solids have a high fertilizer value.
 Disinfection: The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce
the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment for the
later use of drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the
quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used,
the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Cloudy
water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from
ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high
flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone,
chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water,
is not used in the treatment of waste water because of its persistence. After multiple steps of
disinfection, the treated water is ready to be released back into the water cycle by means of the
nearest body of water or agriculture. Afterwards, the water can be transferred to reserves for
everyday human uses.
 Chlorination: Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection in North
America due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that
chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be
carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be
capable of chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because
residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically
dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.
 Ultraviolet (UV) light: Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other
chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms
that later consume it, as may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the
genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of
reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp
maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target
microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated
effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is
becoming the most common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of
chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the
receiving water. Some sewage treatment systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for
their effluent water disinfection.
 Ozone (O3): Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential
resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and
reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many
pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike
chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release),
ozone is generated on-site as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products
than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation
equipment and the requirements for special operators.
 Fourth treatment stage
Micro pollutants such as pharmaceuticals, ingredients of household chemicals, chemicals
used in small businesses or industries, environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant (EPPP)
or pesticides may not be eliminated in the conventional treatment process (primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment) and therefore lead to water pollution. Although concentrations of those
substances and their decomposition products are quite low, there is still a chance to harm aquatic
organisms. For pharmaceuticals, the following substances have been identified as "toxicologically
relevant": substances with endocrine disrupting effects, genotoxic substances and substances that
enhance the development of bacterial resistances. They mainly belong to the group of
environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Techniques for elimination of micro pollutants
via a fourth treatment stage during sewage treatment are being tested in Germany, Switzerland
[citation needed] and the Netherlands. However, since those techniques are still costly, they are
32
not yet applied on a regular basis. Such process steps mainly consist of activated carbon filters that
adsorb the micropollutants. Ozone can also be applied as an oxidative method. Also the use of
enzymes such as the enzyme laccase is under investigation. A new concept which could provide
an energy-efficient treatment of micro pollutants could be the use of laccase secreting fungi
cultivated at a wastewater treatment plant to degrade micro pollutants and at the same time to
provide enzymes at a cathode of a microbial biofuel cells. Microbial biofuel cells are investigated
for their property to treat organic matter in wastewater. To reduce pharmaceuticals in water
bodies, also "source control" measures are under investigation, such as innovations in drug
development or more responsible handling of drugs.
Odor control: Odors emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or
"septic" condition. Early stages of processing will tend to produce foul-smelling gases, with
hydrogen sulfide being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban
areas will often treat the odors with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses
of chlorine, or circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the noxious gases.[30]
Other methods of odor control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium
nitrate, etc. to manage hydrogen sulfide levels. High-density solids pumps are suitable for
reducing odors by conveying sludge through hermetic closed pipework.
Energy requirements: For conventional sewage treatment plants, around 30 percent of the annual
operating costs is usually required for energy. The energy requirements vary with type of
treatment process as well as wastewater load. For example, constructed wetlands have a lower
energy requirement than activated sludge plants, as less energy is required for the aeration step.
Sewage treatment plants that produce biogas in their sewage sludge treatment process with
anaerobic digestion can produce enough energy to meet most of the energy needs of the sewage
treatment plant itself. In conventional secondary treatment processes, most of the electricity is
used for aeration, pumping systems and equipment for the dewatering and drying of sewage
sludge. Advanced wastewater treatment plants, e.g. for nutrient removal, require more energy than
plants that only achieve primary or secondary treatment.
Sludge treatment and disposal: The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must
be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the
amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids.
The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and
composting. Incineration is also used, albeit to a much lesser degree.
Sludge treatment depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific
conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-
sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations. The sludge is sometimes
passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners
include centrifugal sludge thickeners rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.
Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an
agricultural soil amendment.

33
 Environment related terms
Abatement
Reducing the degree of intensity of , or eliminating, pollution. (Source: US EPA)
Acid
A corrosive solution with a Ph of less than 7 (Source: US EPA)
Air pollution
Air is made up of a number of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen and, in smaller amounts, water
vapour, carbon dioxide and argon and other trace gases. Air pollution occurs when harmful
chemicals and particles are emitted to the air – due to human activity or natural forces – at a
concentration that interferes with human health or welfare or that harms the environment in other
ways. 
Air quality
A measure of the level of pollution in the air.
Algae
Simple rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in proportion to the amount of available nutrients.
They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are
food for fish and small aquatic animals. (Source: US EPA)
Algal Blooms
Sudden spurts of algal growth, which can affect water quality adversely and indicate potentially
hazardous changes in local water chemistry. (Source: US EPA)
Alternative energy sources
Energy that does not come from fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, gas), for example wind, flowing
water, solar energy and biomass.
Amenities
Benefits of a property, such as nearby playgrounds, swimming pools, community centres or parks.
Atmosphere
The mass of air surrounding the Earth.

34
B
Backyard burning
An illegal method of getting rid of household waste, possibly in an attempt to save on bin charges,
that releases levels of pollutants into the air, so harming air quality and risking the health of those
burning the waste and of their neighbours.
BER
Short for Building Energy Rating, which says how much energy a home needs for heating,
lighting and hot water. Homes are placed on a scale from A to G. A-rated homes need the least
amount of energy while G-rated need the most. Since 1 January 2009, all homes being sold or
rented must have a BER certificate. BER ratings are carried out by BER Assessors registered with
the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland.
Biodegradable waste
Organic waste, typically coming from plant or animal sources (for example food scraps and
paper), which other living organisms can break down.
Biodiversity
A short form of the phrase ‘biological diversity’, which means the variety of life on this planet and
how it interacts within habitats and ecosystems. Biodiversity covers all plants, animals and micro-
organisms on land and in water. See also ecosystem, habitat and organism.
Bioenergy
All types of energy derived from biomass, including biofuels.
Biofuels
Liquid transport fuels made from biomass.
Biomass
A source of fuel made from living and recently-dead plant materials such as wood, leaves and the
biodegradable part of industrial and municipal waste.
Biosphere
The portion of Earth and its atmosphere that can support life (Source: US EPA)
Black bin (grey bin)
A wheelie bin used in certain local authorities to collect waste that cannot be recycled or
composted.
Bring bank
A place where you can bring materials for recycling, for example glass, newspapers, heavy
cardboard and textiles. See also recycling centre and civic amenity site.
Brown bin
A wheelie bin used in some local authorities to collect organic waste such as food and light garden
waste (for example grass cuttings).
Bye-law
A rule made by a local authority to govern activities within the area it controls. Examples include
bye-laws covering waste disposal, traffic or public events or signs.
Carbon count
A measure of the amount of carbon dioxide you produce through your lifestyle every day, for
example through driving or using electrical appliances and lighting.

35
Carbon credit
A unit of carbon dioxide bought to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. See carbon offset.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
A colourless gas that is naturally produced from animals and people in exhaled air and the decay
of plants. It is removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis in plants and by dissolving in
water, especially on the surface of oceans. The use of fossil fuels for energy is increasing the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is believed to contribute to global
warming. See also greenhouse gases and photosynthesis.
Carbon emissions
In the context of climate change, carbon dioxide released when substances, especially oil, gas, and
coal, are burned by vehicles and planes, by factories and by homes.
Carbon footprint
A measure of the impact our activities have on the environment, especially climate change, often
reported as the units of tonnes (or kg) of carbon dioxide each of us produces over a given period of
time.
Carbon monoxide
A highly poisonous, odourless, tasteless and colourless gas that is formed when carbon material
burns without enough oxygen. Carbon monoxide is toxic when inhaled because it combines with
your blood and prevents oxygen from getting to your organs. If a person is exposed to carbon
monoxide over a period, it can cause illness and even death. Carbon Monoxide has no smell, taste
or colour. This is why it is sometimes called the “Silent Killer”. The most common causes of
carbon monoxide poisoning in the home are house fires, faulty heating appliances such as boilers,
blocked chimney or flues, and rooms not properly ventilated. Carbon Monoxide alarms can be
used as a backup to provide a warning to householders in the event of a dangerous build up of
carbon monoxide.
Carbon neutral
A situation that arises when the amount of carbon dioxide released into the air equals the amount
of carbon dioxide removed from the air, for example by planting trees, or the amount saved by
using renewable energy sources to produce the same amount of energy. See also renewable
energy.
Carbon offset
A unit, equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, that individuals, companies or governments buy to
reduce short-term and long-term emissions of greenhouse gases. The payment usually funds
projects that generate energy from renewable sources such as wind or flowing water. Individuals
can choose whether to buy an offset (for example to compensate for air travel), but governments
and large industries are sometimes required to buy them to meet international targets aimed at
reducing greenhouse gases.
Carbon tax
A tax on fuels according to their carbon content, which aims to encourage people and businesses
to use fuels with less carbon and reduce the amount of energy they use.
Carpooling
Sharing a car to a destination to reduce fuel use, pollution and travel costs.
CFCs
Short for ‘chloroflurocarbons’, which are chemicals used in manufacturing and, in the past, in
aerosol cans and refrigerators, which can damage the ozone layer.

36
CFL bulbs
Short for ‘compact fluorescent lamp’ bulbs, which are light bulbs that use a fraction of the energy
of traditional filament bulbs and last up to five times longer. CFL bulbs will completely replace
filament bulbs in Ireland by 1 September 2012.
‘Change’ campaign
The Government’s campaign to change how people in Ireland think about climate change and
encourage us to change how we behave. It includes a website,  www.change.ie, which has carbon
calculators that can calculate the carbon foootprint of individuals, businesses and local authorities.
Civic amenity site
A public or private facility that accepts recyclable and non-recyclable materials such as garden and
household waste and certain hazardous wastes such as paints, batteries and electrical and
electronic devices. See also bring bank, recycling centre and WEEE.
Climate
The pattern of weather in a particular region over a set period of time, usually 30 years. The
pattern is affected by the amount of rain or snowfall, average temperatures throughout the year,
humidity, wind speeds and so on. Ireland has a temperate climate, in which it doesn’t get too hot
or too cold.
Climate change
A change in the climate of a region over time due to natural forces or human activity. In the
context of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, it is the change in climate caused
by higher levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities as well as natural
climate changes. See also global warming, and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Compost
A rich soil-like material produced from decayed plants and other organic matter, such as food and
animal waste, that decomposes (breaks down) naturally. Most food waste can be put into compost,
but you should not include meat, bones, cheese, cooking oils and fish. These may take a long time
to break down and attract unwanted pests.
Compostable
Material from plants or animals that can be used to create compost because it will decompose
naturally over time.
Composting
The process of deliberately allowing food, garden and other suitable organic wastes to break down
naturally over time to produce compost.
Conservation
Preserving or protecting animals and resources such as minerals, water and plants through planned
action (such as breeding endangered species) or non-action (such as not letting taps run
unnecessarily).
Cryptosporidium
A tiny parasite that can infect people if it is present in drinking water.
Back to Top
D
Deforestation
The reduction of trees in a wood or forest due to natural forces or human activity such as burning
or logging.

37
Development plan
A public plan that sets out the development objectives and policies of a local authority for its area.
It covers a six-year period and states the local authority’s goals for a range of areas such as
maintaining and improving roads and parks, preserving and enhancing amenities (such as
playgrounds or swimming pools), zoning land for homes, businesses, factories and farming and
providing services and facilities such as waste disposal and sewerage. Members of the public have
opportunities to make submissions on the plan before it is agreed.
Dioxins
Highly toxic chemicals that can be formed in small amounts from forest fires or volcanoes but
more often are produced unintentionally from industrial activities and from incinerating waste and
burning fossil fuels.
Disposal, dispose of
In this guide, getting rid of waste by discarding it into a bin and, when it is collected, by
incincerating it or sending it to landfill.
Domestic charges
Fees paid to local authorities for providing services such as collecting domestic waste.
Domestic waste
Waste produced within the home, including garden waste. See also household waste.
Draught proofing
A way to stop heat from escaping a home, for example by sealing window frames and using
draught excluders under doors.
Dumping
Disposing of waste illegally by not using bins or official recycling centres, civic amenity sites or
landfills.
Ecosystem
A community of organisms that depend on each other and the environment they inhabit.
Ecotourism
Small-scale tourism in fragile and protected areas that aims to have a low impact on the
environment, benefit local communities and enable tourists to learn more about the natural and
cultural history of the place. See also sustainable tourism.
Effluent
Liquid wastes such as sewage and liquid waste from industries.
Electric vehicle
A vehicle that is driven by an electric motor or battery and is generally less noisy and less
polluting than common combustion engine vehicles.
Emissions
In the context of the atmosphere, gases or particles released into the air that can contribute to
global warming or poor air quality.
Emissions projections
Forecast of emissions into the future taking into account current and future economic and policy
developments

38
Emssions Trading Allowance
Pemission to emit to the atmosphere, one tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent, during a specific
trading period. The allowance is only valid for the purpose of the Directive and can only be
transferred in accordance with the Directive.
End-of-life vehicle
A vehicle such as a car or small van that is scrapped and sent for recycling.
Energy efficiency
Actions to save fuels, for example better building design, changing production processes,
developing better transport policies, using better road vehicles and using insulation and double
glazing in homes.
Energy rating
A rating given to electrical appliances such as ovens, washing machines, dishwashers and
refrigerators according to how much energy they use. Ratings are on a scale from A to G, with A-
rated appliances using the least energy and G-rated needing the most. The less energy an appliance
uses, the better it is for the environment and the more you will save on your bill.
Energy Star®
A voluntary international label that identifies appliances that meet certain standards of energy
efficiency. Within the European Union, the label relates to office equipment such as computers
and photocopiers.
Environmental impact statement
A statement about the expected effects on the environment of a proposed project or development
such as a new road or waste water treatment plant, including how any severe effects on the
environment will be addressed.
F
Flora and fauna
The plants and animals that are native to a particular area or period of time.
Fossil fuels
Fuels – such as coal, gas, peat and oil – that are formed in the ground over a long time from dead
plants and animals and are used up once they are burned for energy.
Fuel poverty
Being unable to heat a home to a safe and comfortable level because of low household income or
having to spend more than 10% of household income to heat a home to a comfortable level
because the home is not energy efficient.
G
Global warming
The gradual increase in temperature of the Earth’s surface caused by human activities that cause
high levels of carbon dioxide and other gases to be released into the air.
Green bin
A wheelie bin used in certain local authorities to collect dry cardboard, paper, tins and other
recyclable waste, including certain plastics.
Green design
A design, usually of a building, that includes environmentally-friendly features such as solar
panels, skylights or recycled building materials.

39
Greener Homes Scheme
A system run by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEI) to provide grants to
homeowners who intend to install in their existing homes a new renewable energy heating system,
for example heat  pumps, solar panels or wood chip or pellet boilers. For more information, visit
the  Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland or lo-call 1850 734 734.
Greenhouse effect
The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere caused by increasing levels of gases, such as water vapour
and carbon dioxide. These gases absorb radiation emitted naturally from the ground, so slowing
down the loss of energy from Earth. The greenhouse effect has always existed; without it, Earth
would be too cold for plants, animals and people to survive. But because of the increase in
greenhouse gas emissions in recent years, the greenhouse effect is a lot stronger, so leading to
global warming. See also global warming, greenhouse gases and radiation.
Greenhouse gases
Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, which tend to trap heat radiating from the Earth’s
surface, so causing warming in the lower atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases that cause
climate change are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (NO2). See also
greenhouse effect and global warming.
Ground water
Water that collects or flows underground in the small spaces in soil and rock. It might be a source
of water for springs and wells and then used for drinking water.
Habitat
The area occupied by a community or species (group of animals or plants), such as a forest floor,
desert or sea shore.
Hazardous waste
Waste that poses a risk to human health or the environment and needs to be handled and disposed
of carefully. Examples include oil-based paints, car batteries, weed killers, bleach and waste
electrical and electronic devices.
Home Energy Saving Scheme
A scheme operated by the Sustainable Energy Authority of  Ireland to provide grants to certain
homeowners to improve the energy efficiency of their home. For more information, see the 
Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland or lo-call 1850 927 000.
Household waste
Waste that contains paper, cardboard, textiles (for example fabric or carpet), timber, food, garden
clippings, glass, plastic and other manufactured materials.
I
Incinerator
A furnace that is designed to burn waste at very high temperatures under controlled conditions and
is licensed by national regulatory authorities. Most modern and efficient incinerator generate heat
and energy from burning waste.
Insulation
In this guide, material such as foam or glass wool that is used in homes and other buildings to
prevent heat loss, reduce noise and improve comfort.

40
There are no terms starting with the letter J.
Kyoto Protocol, Kyoto agreement
An international agreement signed in Japan in 1997, attached to the UN Framework Convention
on Climate Change. Under the agreement, which has been in force in Ireland since 2005,
industrialised countries promised to reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions to at least 5
percent below 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012.  See also UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change.
L
Landfill
A site that is specially designed to dispose of waste and operates with a licence granted by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA reviews licences and, with local authorities,
monitors landfills around the country for emissions.
Litter
Waste that is thrown away carelessly, mainly made up of plastic, metal, glass, paper or food.
Common examples are chewing gum and cigarette butts.
M
MBT
Short for ‘mechanical biological treatment’, which is a way of sorting and treating waste. The
waste is first sorted mechanically into materials that can and cannot be recycled. Any waste that
can be recycled is then broken down biologically, often through composting, while the rest is
usually sent to landfill.  See also composting.
Mulch
Leaves, straw or compost used to cover growing plants to protect them from the wind or cold.
Municipal waste
Waste produced in urban areas, mainly made up of household waste but also some small
commercial waste that is similar to household waste.
N
Noise pollution
Noises that disturb the environment and people’s ability to enjoy it, for example continually
sounding house alarms, loud music, air conditioning or other electrical units and aircraft or motor
engines.
NPWS
Short for National Parks and Wildlife Service, which works under the Department of the
Environment, Heritage and Local Government to manage and maintain State-owned national parks
and nature reserves and protect and preserve Ireland’s native animals and plants.
NSS
Short for National Spatial Strategy, which is the Government’s 20-year plan to balance population
growth and social and economic development between different regions in Ireland. By matching
where people work more closely to where they live, the strategy aims to improve people’s quality
of life and sense of community, enhance local investment and create a better environment.
Noxious gases
Poisonous gases that can harm people and the environment. Some gases have a strong smell, for
example sulphur dioxide and methane, while others, such as carbon monoxide, do not have any
smell at all.

41
Oil spill
The harmful release of oil into the environment, usually through water, which is very difficult to
clean up and often kills birds, fish and other wildlife.
Organic food
Plants and animals that are grown or reared without the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides or
hormones.
Organic
In this guide, matter from living, or once-living, things.
Organism
Any living thing, from bacteria and fungi through to insects, plants, animals and humans.
Ozone layer
The thin protective layer of gas 10 to 50km above the Earth that acts as a filter for ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun. High UV levels can lead to skin cancer and cataracts and affect the growth
of plants.
Particulate matter
Fine solid or liquid particles that pollute the air and are added to the atmosphere by natural and
man-made processes at the Earth’s surface. Examples of particulate matter include dust, smoke,
soot, pollen and soil particles.
Pay by weight
A system in which the amount you pay for bin collections depends on the amount of waste you
throw away. The more waste you reduce, reuse, recycle or compost, the less you pay for waste
disposal.
Pesticides
A general term for any chemicals that are used to kill weeds, fungi, insects or other pests.
Permits
In the context of waste, certificates or other documents granted by local authorities to private
companies to collect and manage waste or to operate waste management facilities such as
recycling centres.
Planning permission
Permission granted by a local authority for new buildings or for extensions, once nobody objects
to the plans.
Plastic bag levy
An environmental tax that customers must pay when they accept a plastic or laminated bag from a
retailer. There is no tax on small bags, such as those for fresh meat or loose fruit and vegetables.
Money raised from the tax is put into a special fund that is used to protect the environment.
Post-consumer waste
Waste collected after a consumer has disposed of it, for example sweet wrappers or packaging
from small electronic goods such as mobile phones or MP3 players.

42
Q
There are no terms starting with the letter Q.
R 
Radiation
A form of energy that is transmitted in waves, rays or particles from a natural source, such as the
sun and the ground, or an artificial source, such as an x-ray machine. Radiation can be ionising or
non-ionising. Ionising radiation includes ultraviolet rays, radon gas and X-rays. Too much
exposure to ionising radiation can be harmful, leading to increased risk of cancer. Non-ionising
radiation includes visible light, radio waves and microwaves. This type of radiation is less risky to
health because it contains less energy, but it can still be harmful at high levels for a long time.
Radioactive
A material is said to be radioactive if it emits radiation.
Radon
A common radioactive gas emitted from ordinary soils and rock. Radon has no smell, taste or
colour and can seep into homes, building up to dangerous levels if there is not enough ventilation.
Being exposed to high levels of radon gas over a long period of time increases the risk of
developing lung cancer.  For more information on how to check radon levels see our radiation
section.
Recycle
To break waste items down into their raw materials, which are then used to re-make the original
item or make new items.
Reforestation
The process of planting trees in forest lands to replace those that have been cut down.
Refuse
Another name for waste.
Renewable energy
Energy from renewable resources such as wind power, solar energy or biomass.
Renewable resource
A resource that can be used again and again without reducing its supply because it is constantly
topped up, for example wind or sun rays.
Reuse
To use an item more than once for the same purpose, which helps save money, time, energy and
resources.
River basin
The portion of land drained by a river and the streams that flow into it. The quality of a river basin
affects the quality of water, so efforts to protect and improve water quality must often include
plans for managing river basins.
S
Sewage
Liquid wastes from communities, which may be a mixture of domestic effluent from homes and
liquid waste from industry.

43
Smog
Air pollution consisting of smoke and fog, which occurs in large urban and industrial areas and is
mainly caused by the action of sunlight on burned fuels, mostly from car exhausts. Smog can
cause eye irritations and breathing problems and damage plant life.
Smokeless fuel
Solid fuel, such as charcoal, that does not release smoke when it is burned.
Solar panel
A panel fixed to the roof of a building that uses special cells to collect energy from the sun and
convert it to electricity to heat the building and/or power the lights, appliances or equipment.
Standing charges
Fixed fees that must be paid for a certain period, often a year, to continue receiving a service. 
Examples include standing charges for bin collections or gas supply. Other charges may apply
depending on the use of the service over a given period of time.
Surface water
Water that is collected on the ground or in a stream, river, lake, wetland or ocean.
Sustainable development
Development using land or energy sources in a way that meets the needs of people today without
reducing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable tourism
A form of tourism that meets the needs of current tourists and host communities while protecting
and enhancing tourism for the future by balancing economic and social needs with a respect for
different cultures and the environment. See also ecotourism.
T
Toxic
Poisonous or harmful to the body (ecotoxic relates to damage to the environment).
Toxin
A poisonous substance that can either be natural (produced by plants, animals or bacteria) or
manufactured. 
Traffic calming, traffic management
Policies, rules or actions by a local authority designed to reduce traffic speed or limit the amount
of traffic in an area at certain times of day. 
Tidy towns
An annual competition run by the Department for the Environment, Heritage and Local
Government to reward large and small towns around the country for their efforts to maintain and
improve their area. Towns can choose whether to take part and are given marks under a number of
headings, such as landscaping, litter control, roads and footpaths, wildlife and natural amenities
and residential areas.
U
Utility (public)
A company that provides the public with essentials such as electricity or water.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
An international treaty joined by 192 countries that has the goal of preventing ‘dangerous’ human
interference with the climate system and sets general rules for tackling climate change. 
44
UNESCO World Heritage Site
A natural or man-made site that has outstanding universal value and meets at least one of 10
conditions decided by UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation. Ireland has two World Heritage Sites: the pre-historic sites of Newgrange, Knowth
and Dowth in Co. Meath and Skellig Michael, a religious settlement from the 7 th century off the
coast of Co. Cork.
V
Ventilation
In this guide, the movement of air between the inside and outside of a building usually through
windows, doors and air vents built into the building’s walls or ceilings.
 
W 
Warmer Homes Scheme
A scheme, run by Sustainable Energy Ireland, that aims to improve the energy efficiency of
private owned or rented homes occupied by low income households. The scheme trains and offers
grants to community organisations to carry out work such as attic insulation, draught proofing,
installing lagging jackets and so on. For more information, see the  Sustainable Energy Authority
of Ireland or freephone 1800 250 204.
Waste management
The management of waste collection, handling, processing, storage and transport from where it is
produced to where it is finally disposed. See waste prevention.
Waste prevention
An aspect of waste management that involves reducing the amount of waste we produce and
minimising the potential harm to human health or the environment from packaging or ingredients
in products.
Water vapour
Water in its gas form – instead of liquid or solid (ice).
WEEE
Short for Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), which are any unwanted devices
with a plug or battery – from a remote control or digital camera to a vacuum cleaner or fridge
freezer. These devices must be disposed of carefully to avoid damage to the environment. To get
rid of an unwanted device, you can bring it to a civic amenity site or leave it with a retailer when
you are buying a new device. All WEEE left in retail outlets and civic amenity sites are collected
for recycling.
Wind energy
Energy harnessed from the wind at wind farms and converted to power.  See also wind turbine.
Wind turbine
An engine or machine, usually mounted on a towe, that captures the force of the wind and
converts it to electricity.
Zero emissions
An engine, motor or other energy source that does not produce any gas or release any harmful
gases directly into the environment
Ambient air quality

45
 Most frequently occurring pollutants in an urban environment are particulate matters
(suspended particulate matter i.e. SPM and respirable suspended particulate matter i.e. RSPM),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone
(O3) and photochemical oxidants.
The recommended criteria for siting the monitoring stations
 The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the monitoring
programs.
 The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of air quality
standards.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air pollution sources.
 Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to accidental release of
chemicals.
 Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.
Type of ambient monitoring stations 

Station type Description

Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in

congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic
Type A
flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height
2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but

not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles
Type B
per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Residential population exposure station – In the midst of the residential areas

Type C or sub-urban areas but not in central business districts. The station should be
more than 100 m away from any street.

Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect meteorological and air

Type D quality data at upper elevation; main purpose to collect the trend of data
variations not human exposure.

Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no industrial

Type E activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis. 
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Specialized source survey stations – to determine the impact on air quality at

Type F specified location by an air pollution source under scrutiny. 
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

46
Frequency of data collection
Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring
Particulates: once every three days
Number of stations
Minimum number is three.
The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant wind directions and
speed.
One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two must at downstream
pre dominant wind direction.
More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of coverage.
Components of ambient air sampling systems
Four main components are:
Inlet manifold
Air mover
collection medium
flow measurement device
Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to collection medium or analytical
device in an unaltered condition. The manifold should not be very long. Air mover provides force
to create vacuum or lower pressure at the end of sampling systems. They are pumps. The
collection mediums are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or chamber for air
analysis (automatic instruments). The flow device like rotameters measure the volume of air
sampled.
Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems
Five main characteristicss are:
 collection efficiency
 sample stability
 recovery
 minimal interference
 understanding the mechanism of collection
The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for SO2, the sorbent should be such that at ambient
temperature it may remove the SO2 from ambient atmosphere 100%. Sample must be stabled
during the time between sampling and analysis. Recovery i.e. the analysis of particular pollutant
must be 100% correct.
 Basic considerations for sampling
 Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be studied.
 Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis.
 The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.
 Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels i.e.
whether 1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling.
 Continuous sampling is preferred.
 Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
 Errors in sampling by HVS
 Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold – so not too long or too twisted manifold
must be used.
 If ’isokinetic’ conditioned are not maintained, biased results may be obtained for
particulate matters.
 Advantages of HVS
 High flow rate at low pressure drop
 High particulate storage capacity
 No moisture regain
 high collection efficiency
 Low coast
 Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance
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  Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as fine as 0.3 µm
 Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting the gases
Principles of Sampling and Analysis
The components of an air pollution monitoring system include the
 -collection or sampling of pollutants both from the ambient air and from specific sources,
 -the analysis or measurement of the pollutant concentrations, and
 -the reporting and use of the information collected.
Emissions data collected from point sources are used to determine compliance with air pollution
regulations, determine the effectiveness of air pollution control technology, evaluate production
efficiencies, and support scientific research.
The EPA has established ambient air monitoring methods for the criteria pollutants, as well as for
toxic organic (TO) compounds and inorganic (IO) compounds.
The methods specify precise procedures that must be followed for any monitoring activity related
to the compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act.
These procedures regulate sampling, analysis, calibration of instruments, and calculation of
emissions.
The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per unit volume, usually micrograms per cubic
meter (µg/m3).
Particulate Monitoring
 Particulate monitoring is usually accomplished with manual measurements and subsequent
laboratory analysis.
 A particulate matter measurement uses gravimetric principles. Gravimetric analysis refers
to the quantitative chemical analysis of weighing a sample, usually of a separated and dried
precipitate.
 In this method, a filter-based high-volume sampler (a vacuum- type device that draws air
through a filter or absorbing substrate) retains atmospheric pollutants for future laboratory
weighing and chemical analysis. Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters
are weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant. The weight of the filter with
collected pollutants minus the weight of a clean filter gives the amount of particulate
matter in a given volume of air.
 Chemical analysis can be done by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), atomic
fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), inductively couple plasma (ICP) spectroscopy, and X-
ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy.
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)
 AAS is a sensitive means for the quantitative determination of more than 60 metals or
metalloid elements.
 Principle: This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the atomic state of the
analyte. For example, AAS is used to measure lead in particulate monitoring.
 Particles are collected by gravimetric methods in a Teflon (PTFE) filter, lead is acid-
extracted from the filter.
 The aqueous sample is vaporized and dissociates into its elements in the gaseous state. The
element being measured, in this case lead, is aspirated into a flame or injected into a
graphite furnace and atomized.
 A hollow cathode or electrode less discharge lamp for the element being determined
provides a source of that metal's particular absorption wavelength.
 The atoms in the unionized or "ground" state absorb energy, become excited, and advance
to a higher energy level.
 A detector measures the amount of light absorbed by the element, hence the number of
atoms in the ground state in the flame or furnace.
 The data output from the spectrometer can be recorded on a strip chart recorder or
processed by computer.
 Determination of metal concentrations is performed from prepared calibration curves or
read directly from the instrument.
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 Gaseous pollutant monitoring
 Gaseous pollutant monitoring can be accomplished using various measurement
principles.
 Some of the most common techniques to analyze gaseous pollutants include
 -Spectrophotometry,
 -Chemiluminescence,
 -Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID),
- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and
- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).
 With all sampling and analysis procedures, the end result is quantitative data.
 The validity of the data depends on the accuracy and precision of the methods used in
generating the data.
 The primary quality control measure is calibration.
 Calibration checks the accuracy of a measurement by establishing the relationship
between the output of a measurement process and a known input.

Variable
Method Principle
Measured
Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the
Gravimetric PM10, PM2.5 filters are weighed to determine the volume of the
pollutant.
more than 60
Atomic absorption metals or This technique operates by measuring energy changes
spectrometry metalloid in the atomic state of the analyte.  Emitted radiation is
(AAS) elements (e.g. a function of atoms present in the sample.
Pb, Hg, Zn)
Measure the amount of light that a sample absorbs. 
Spectrophotometry SO2, O3 The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of
analyte present in the sample.
Based upon the emission spectrum of an excited
Chemiluminescenc
SO2, O3 species that is formed in the course of a chemical
e
reaction.
Gas
chromatography
Responds in proportion to number of carbon atoms in
(GC) - flame VOC
gas sample.
ionization detector
(FID)
Gas
Mass spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-
chromatography-
VOC charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to
mass spectrometry
separate them from each other.
(GC-MS)
Fourier Transform
Infrared CO, VOC, Sample absorbs infrared radiation and difference in
Spectroscopy CH4 absorption is measured.
(FTIR)

Spectrophotometry
 A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample absorbs.
 The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample and measuring the
intensity of light reaching a detector.
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  Spectrophotometry commonly used to measure sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations.
 The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of sulfur dioxide present in the sample.
Gas Chromatography (GC)
 Gas chromatography (GC) coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) is employed for
qualitative identification and quantitative determination of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in air pollution monitoring.
 The GC, consists of a column, oven and detector. In the gas chromatograph, a sample goes
to the column, separates into individual compounds and proceeds through the hydrogen
flame ionization detector.
 The flame in a flame ionization detector is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and
air.
 When a sample is introduced, hydrocarbons are combusted and ionized, releasing
electrons.
 A collector with a polarizing voltage located near the flame attracts the free electrons,
producing a current that is proportional to the amount of hydrocarbons in the sample.
 The signal from the flame ionization detector is then amplified and output to a display or
external device.
 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) instruments have also been used for
identification of volatile organic compounds. Mass spectrometers use the difference in
mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other.
Mass spectrometry is useful for quantification of atoms or molecules and also for
determining chemical and structural information about molecules.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
 FTIR can detect and measure both criteria pollutants and toxic pollutants in ambient air
 FTIR can directly measure more than 120 gaseous pollutants in the ambient air, such as
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone.
 The technology is based on the fact that every gas has its own "fingerprint," or absorption
spectrum.
 The FTIR sensor monitors the entire infrared spectrum and reads the different fingerprints
of the gases present in the ambient air.
 Carbon monoxide is monitored continuously by analyzers that operate on the infrared
absorption principle.
 Ambient air is drawn into a sample chamber and a beam of infrared light is passed through
it.
 CO absorbs infrared radiation, and any decrease in the intensity of the beam is due to the
presence of CO molecules.
 This decrease is directly related to the concentration of CO in the air.
 A special detector measures the difference in the radiation between this beam and a
duplicate beam passing through a reference chamber with no CO present.
 This difference in intensity is electronically translated into a reading of the CO present in
the ambient air, measured in parts per million.
Noise Pollution
What is Noise Pollution?
Sound is essential to our daily lives, but noise is not. Noise is generally used as an
unwanted sound, or sound which produces unpleasant effects and discomfort on the ears.
noise pollution for kids Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities
such as sleeping, conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one’s quality of life. Not all noise can be
called noise pollution. If it does not happen regularly, it may be termed as 'Nuisance'. Scientists
also believe that it’s not only humans who are affected. For example, water animals are subjected
to noise by submarines and big ships on the ocean, and chain-saw operations by timber companies
also create extreme noise to animals in the forests.
Generally, noise is produced by household gadgets, big trucks, vehicles and motorbikes on
the road, jet planes and helicopters hovering over cites, loud speakers etc.
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Noise (or sound) is measured in the units of decibels and is denoted by the dB. Noise which is
more than 115 dB is tolerant. The industrial limit of sound in the industries must be 75 dB
according to the World Health Organization.
Noise is considered as environmental pollution, even though it is thought to have less
damage on humans than water, air or land pollution. But people who are affected by severe noise
pollution know that it is a massive issue that needs attention.
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing
large amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipment’s like compressors, generators, exhaust
fans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have seen
workers in these factories and industries wearing ear plugs to minimize the effect of noise.
2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play a
vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent fights
over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the environment of society.
3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties,
pub, disc or place of worship, people normally flout rules set by the local administration and create
nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which makes the
condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people selling clothes via
making loud noise to attract the attention of people.
4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes flying over houses,
underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that. The
high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person loses the ability to hear properly.
5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,
dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities take place every day as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate
more people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is that these construction equipment
are too noisy.
6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our
daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing
machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that is
produced but it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way. While this form of
pollution may seem harmless, it in fact has far reaching consequences. The adverse effects on the
health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlife affected by the pollution,
humans also face a number of problems due to it.

Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause
problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting damaged.
Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehicles can be too
loud for our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the
damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears
pick up unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.
2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites,
bars and even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrence
of aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can be
linked to excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe and chronic health issues
later in life.
3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to
irritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems related
to fatigue and your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is therefore
recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.
4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heart
problems are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure and

51
increases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a manageable level
depends on our understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.
5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two people to
communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficult understanding
the other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional
balance.
6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollution
since they are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since
their survival depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react more
aggressively in households where there is constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In nature,
animals may suffer from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and leads to dwindling
populations. Others become inefficient at hunting, disturbing the balance of the eco-system.
Species that depend on mating calls to reproduce are often unable to hear these calls due to
excessive man made noise. As a result, they are unable to reproduce and cause declining
populations. Others require sound waves to echo-locate and find their way when migrating.
Disturbing their sound signals means they get lost easily and do not migrate when they should. To
cope up with the increasing sound around them, animals are becoming louder, which may further
add to the pollution levels. This is why understanding noise pollution can help us lower the impact
it has on the environment. As of now, there do not exist many solutions to reduce sound pollution.
On a personal level, everybody can help reducing the noise in their homes by lowering the volume
of the radio, music system and the television. Listening to music without headphones is also a
good step forward. Removal of public loudspeakers is another way in which the pollution can be
countered.
Noise pollution prevention and control tips
 Below are a few things people and governments can do to make our communities and living
laces quieter:
 Noise and nuisance Construction of soundproof rooms for noisy machines in industrial and
manufacturing installations must be encouraged. This is also important for residential building
—noisy machines should be installed far from sleeping and living rooms, like in a basement or
garage.
 Noise and nuisance Use of horns with jarring sounds, motorbikes with damaged exhaust pipes,
noisy trucks to be banned.
 Noise and nuisance Noise producing industries, airports, bus and transport terminals and
railway stations to sighted far from where living places.
 Noise and nuisance Community law enforcers should check the misuse of loudspeakers,
worshipers, outdoor parties and discos, as well as public announcements systems.
 Noise and nuisance Community laws must silence zones near schools / colleges, hospitals etc.
Noise and nuisance Vegetation (trees) along roads and in residential areas is a good way to
reduce noise pollution as they absorb sound.
What is Stack?
Stack is nothing but chimney which is used to disperse the hot air at a great height, emissions
& particulate matters that are emitted from the various types of stacks like boiler, flue gas etc.
At these heights the polluted air disperse in a very large area so that concentrations at ground
are within permissible limits and not harmful for humans, animals and vegetation.
There are several types of flue-gas stack based on fuel injections. Eg. DG set stack, flue gas
stack, process stack, furnace stack, boiler stack, chimney etc.
What are Requirements of Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing?
Perfect Pollucon Services is a stack emission testing company having more than 30 years of
experienced experts. They know how to carry out these tasks in efficient manner.
• To determine the quality and quantity of air pollutants emitted by the source
• To measure effectiveness of pollutants controller equipment before and after installation
• To measure effectiveness of pollutants controller equipment for given condition
• To compare results with emission standards to take required action
52
• To compare changes in emission with the changes in processes or raw materials.
tack Monitoring Kit or Equipment
• Stack Monitoring kit used to find gaseous pollutants in emission from stationary source such as
Boiler Chimney, Process outlets, Scrubber outlets Etc by stack emission testing companies.
• It also can be used to determine physical parameters such as exit emission velocity from stack,
temperature & flow of Air emission.
• Determination of total particulate matter using isokinetic Sampling Technique.
• Analysis of gaseous contaminants like SO2, SO3, NOx, Cl2, HCL, NH3 etc by using gas
monitoring system.
Stack emission monitoring Equipment is divided into Four Parts
Velocity Measuring Kit
Consist of inclined manometer, Digital Temperature Indicator, ‘S’ type Pitot tube &
thermocouple.
Particulate Sampling Train
Thimble Holder & set of nozzles, condenser, Rotameter, Dry Gas Meter, Time indicator & power
source for synchronizing vacuum pump with sampling train.
Multigas Sampling Train
Consists four glass impingers housed in FRP casing with Rotameter for gaseous sampling
Vacuum pump
Diaphragm type vacuum pump of suitable capacity.
Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing Procedure
Measurements of these pollutants follow specific predefined stack emission testing procedures and
protocols to ensure accurate and representative data of total amount of pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere from a given source in given time is collected.
Stack Emission Measurements
Collected Sample then tested and analysed in laboratory for components (Stack Emission
Monitoring Parameters) NOx (Oxides of Nitrogen), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), CO (carbon
monoxide), SO2 (sulphur dioxide), VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) etc.
Also you can use our online Stack monitoring calculators to calculate Velocity head and Velocity
of gaseous flow in Stack.
Recently in Stack Emission Monitoring below mentioned two technologies introduced to measure
online stack emissions:
Piezoelectric Monitor – Stack Monitoring Equipment
In this equipment particles are electrostatically deposited on to a piezoelectric sensor by stack
emission testing companies.
Beta Attenuation Monitor – Stack Monitoring Equipment
In this equipment particulate sample is filtered using a continuous filter tape and the mass of
particulates filtered out is determined by measuring its radiations.
Stack Emissions Monitoring & Testing Services by our Company
Perfect Pollucon Services offers Stack emission testing services to keep check on industrial
waste stream that being released into the atmosphere.
Every industry or manufacturing company has to notify their stack emission levels to
pollution control board. We carry out various tests to determine pollutants concentrations,
emission rate or parameter. We also offer testing for benzene testing, toluene testing, heavy metal
testing in air, VOC emission monitoring and VOC Testing and analysis.
Air pollution control devices
Air pollution control devices are a series of devices that work to prevent a variety of
different pollutants, both gaseous and solid, from entering the atmosphere primarily out of
industrial smokestacks. These control devices can be separated into two broad categories - devices
that control the amount of particulate matter escaping into the environment and devices that
control acidic gas emissions. It is important to understand that the extraction methods for each
specific type of pollutant can differ, so the only the major methods are discussed. Although
complex, these devices have shown to be effective in the past with the overall levels of emissions
for many pollutants dropping with the implementation of these control devices.

53
 Particulate Control
Specific machinery is used to remove particulate matter from flue gases. Much of this
separation uses physical means of separation and not chemical separation techniques simply
because particulate matter is large enough to be "caught" in this manner. Below are some of the
basic ways that particulate matter can be extracted.
Electrostatic Precipitators
An electrostatic precipitator is a type of filter that uses static electricity to remove soot and
ash from exhaust fumes before they exit the smokestacks.[2] Unburned particles of carbon in
smoke are pulled out of the smoke by using static electricity in the precipitators, leaving clean, hot
air to escape the smokestacks.[2] It is vital to remove this unreacted carbon from the smoke, as it
can damage buildings and harm human health - especially respiratory health.
Cyclone Separators
A cyclone separator is a separation device that uses the principle of inertia to remove
particulate matter from flue gases.[3] In these separators, dirty flue gas enters a chamber
containing a vortex, similar to a tornado. Because of the difference in inertia of gas particles and
larger particulate matter, the gas particles move up the cylinder while larger particles hit the inside
wall and drop down. This separates the particulate matter from the flue gas, leaving cleaned flue
gas.
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are one fairly simple method that can be used to remove dust from flue gases.
In some gases they can also remove acidic gases if they utilize basic compounds. This method
simply uses some sort of fabric - generally felt is used as a woven cloth would allow dust to make
its way through - is placed so that flue gasses must pass through it before exiting the smokestacks.
When the gas passes through, dust particles are trapped in the cloth.
Gas Control
More intense chemical methods of separation are generally required to separate polluting
gases from the flue gas. However, this extraction is important as many acidic gases in flue gas
contribute to acid rain. Below are some of the basic ways that gases can be extracted.
Scrubbers
Scrubbers are a type of system that is used to remove harmful materials from industrial
exhaust gases before they are released into the environment. These pollutants are generally
gaseous, and when scrubbers are used to specifically remove SOx it is referred to as flue gas
desulfurization. There are two main types of scrubbers, wet scrubbers and dry scrubbers. The main
difference is in the type of material used to remove the gases. By removing acidic gases from the
exhaust before it is released into the sky, scrubbers help prevent the formation of acid rain.
Incineration
Incineration is used to convert VOC emissions into carbon dioxide and water through
combustion. The incineration generally takes place in a specialized piece of equipment known as
an afterburner, which is built to create the conditions necessary for complete combustion (such as
sufficient burn time and a high temperature). Additionally, the incinerated gas must be mixed to
ensure complete combustion.
Carbon Captuxide can theoretic cally also be captured and stored underground or in
forests and oceans to prevent it from entering the atmosphere. Carbon capture and storage refers to
the process of capturing this carbon dioxide and storing it below ground, pumping it into geologic
layers. This process is rarely being used, but is talked about extensively as a way to limit
greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change.
Scrubber
This article is about the pollution control device. For other uses, see Scrubber
(disambiguation). Scrubber systems (aka Chemical Scrubbers, Gas Scrubbers) are a diverse group
of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from
industrial exhaust streams. The first air scrubber was designed to remove carbon dioxide from the
air of an early submarine, the Ictineo I, a role for which they continue to be used till today.
Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash
unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term has also been used to describe systems
54
that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers
are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can
also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation. They are also used for the
high flows in solar, PV, or LED processes.
 Combustion
 Combustion is sometimes the cause of harmful exhausts, but, in many cases, combustion
may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the temperature is high enough and enough oxygen is
available.
 Wet scrubbing
 The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered harmful to the
environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize those. A wet scrubber is used for
cleaning air, fuel gas or other gases of various pollutants and dust particles. Wet scrubbing works
via the contact of target compounds or particulate matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions
may simply be water (for dust) or solutions of reagents that specifically target certain
compounds.Process exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble toxic and/or corrosive gases like
hydrochloric acid (HCl) or ammonia (NH3). These can be removed very well by a wet scrubber.
Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time in the scrubber or by
the increase of surface area of the scrubber solution by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or
an aspirator. Wet scrubbers may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible
stack plume, if the gas is sent to a stack.Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot
gases by flue-gas condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from the
scrubber drain is circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of the scrubber. The hot gas
enters the scrubber at the bottom. If the gas temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially
cooled by evaporation of water drops. Further cooling cause water vapors to condense, adding to
the amount of circulating water.The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low
temperature heat (more than 2 gigajoules (560 kWh) per ton of water [citation needed]), that can
be recovered by the cooler for e.g. district heating purposes. Excess condensed water must
continuously be removed from the circulating water. The gas leaves the scrubber at its dew point,
so even though significant amounts of water may have been removed from the cooled gas, it is
likely to leave a visible stack plume of water vapor.
 Dry scrubbing: A dry or semi-dry scrubbing system, unlike the wet scrubber, does not
saturate the flue gas stream that is being treated with moisture. In some cases no moisture is
added, while in others only the amount of moisture that can be evaporated in the flue gas without
condensing is added. Therefore, dry scrubbers generally do not have a stack steam plume or
wastewater handling/disposal requirements. Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases
(such as SO2 and HCl) primarily from combustion sources. There are a number of dry type
scrubbing system designs. However, all consist of two main sections or devices: a device to
introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas stream and a particulate matter control device
to remove reaction products, excess sorbent material as well as any particulate matter already in
the flue gas. Dry scrubbing systems can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSIs) or as spray
dryer absorbers (SDAs). Spray dryer absorbers are also called semi-dry scrubbers or spray dryers.
Dry scrubbing systems are often used for the removal of odorous and corrosive gases from
wastewater treatment plant operations. The medium used is typically an activated alumina
compound impregnated with materials to handle specific gases such as hydrogen sulfide. Media
used can be mixed together to offer a wide range of removal for other odorous compounds such as
methyl mercaptans, aldehydes, volatile organic compounds, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl
disulfide. Dry sorbent injection involves the addition of an alkaline material (usually hydrated
lime, soda ash, or sodium bicarbonate) into the gas stream to react with the acid gases. The sorbent
can be injected directly into several different locations: the combustion process, the flue gas duct
(ahead of the particulate control device), or an open reaction chamber (if one exists). The acid
gases react with the alkaline sorbents to form solid salts which are removed in the particulate
control device. These simple systems can achieve only limited acid gas (SO2 and HCl) removal
efficiencies. Higher collection efficiencies can be achieved by increasing the flue gas humidity
(i.e., cooling using water spray). These devices have been used on medical waste incinerators and
55
a few municipal waste combustors. IN spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an
absorbing tower (dryer) where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry. Acid
gases are absorbed by the slurry mixture and react to form solid salts which are removed by the
particulate control device. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets,
leaving a non-saturated flue gas to exit the absorber tower. Spray dryers are capable of achieving
high (80+%) acid gas removal efficiencies. These devices have been used on industrial and utility
boilers and municipal waste incinerators.
 Absorber: Many chemicals can be removed from exhaust gas also by using absorber
material. The flue gas is passed through a cartridge which is filled with one or several absorber
materials and has been adapted to the chemical properties of the components to be removed.[6]
This type of scrubber is sometimes also called dry scrubber. The absorber material has to be
replaced after its surface is saturated.
 Mercury removal: Mercury is a highly toxic element commonly found in coal and
municipal waste. Wet scrubbers are only effective for removal of soluble mercury species, such as
oxidized mercury, Hg2+. Mercury vapor in its elemental form, Hg0, is insoluble in the scrubber
slurry and not removed. Therefore, an additional process of Hg0 conversion is required to
complete mercury capture. Usually halogens are added to the flue gas for this purpose. The type of
coal burned as well as the presence of a selective catalytic reduction unit both affect the ratio of
elemental to oxidized mercury in the flue gas and thus the degree to which the mercury is
removed.
 Scrubber waste products: One side effect of scrubbing is that the process only moves the
unwanted substance from the exhaust gases into a liquid solution, solid paste or powder form. This
must be disposed of safely, if it cannot be reused. For example, mercury removal results in a waste
product that either needs further processing to extract the raw mercury, or must be buried in a
special hazardous wastes landfill that prevents the mercury from seeping out into the environment.
As an example of reuse, limestone-based scrubbers in coal-fired power plants can produce
synthetic gypsum of sufficient quality that can be used to manufacture drywall and other industrial
products.

56
 What Is E-Waste
These EOL electronic devices, also known as e-waste and e-scrap, include such items as dated
computer equipment, stereos, televisions and mobile phones. Such items can often be refurbished
or recycled, yet a large amount still finds its way to the landfill. Current Low Recycling Rates
Combined with the rapid growth, recent recycling rates are still inadequate.
Why Is Electronics Recycling Important?
One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boards from the electronic wastes.
The circuit boards contain such precious metals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals
as copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is by melting circuit boards, burning
cable sheathing to recover copper wire and open- pit acid leaching for separating metals of value.
[55] Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding and separation but the recycling
efficiency is low. Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition have been studied for
printed circuit board recycling, and some other methods are still under investigation. Properly
disposing of or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems, reduce greenhouse-gas
emissions, and create jobs. Reuse and refurbishing offer a more environmentally friendly and
socially conscious alternative to down cycling processes.
 Rich Source of Raw Materials Internationally, only 10-15 percent of the gold in e-
waste is successfully recovered while the rest is lost. Ironically, electronic waste contains
deposits of precious metal estimated to be between 40 and 50 times richer than ores mined
from the earth, according to the United Nations.
 Solid Waste Management Because the explosion of growth in the electronics industry
combined with short product life cycle has led to a rapid escalation in the generation of
solid waste.
 Toxic Materials Because old electronic devices contain toxic substances such as lead,
mercury, cadmium and chromium, proper processing is essential to ensure that these
materials are not released into the environment. They may also contain other heavy metals
and potentially toxic chemical flame retardants.
 International Movement of Hazardous Waste The uncontrolled movement of e-waste
to countries where cheap labor and primitive approaches to recycling have resulted in
health risks to local residents exposed to the release of toxins continues to an issue of
concern.
 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency encourages electronic recyclers to become
certified by demonstrating to an accredited, independent third party auditor that they meet
specific standards to safely recycle and manage electronics. This should work so as to
ensure the highest environmental standards are being maintained. Two certifications for
electronic recyclers currently exist and are endorsed by the EPA. Customers are
encouraged to choose certified electronics recyclers. Responsible electronics recycling
reduces environmental and human health impacts, increases the use of reusable and
refurbished equipment and reduces energy use while conserving limited resources. The
two EPA-endorsed certification programs are Responsible Recyclers Practices (R2) and E-
Stewards. Certified companies ensure they are meeting strict environmental standards
which maximize reuse and recycling, minimize exposure to human health or the
environment, ensure safe management of materials and require destruction of all data used
on electronics. Certified electronics recyclers have demonstrated through audits and other
means that they continually meet specific high environmental standards and safely manage
used electronics. Once certified, the recycler is held to the particular standard by continual
oversight by the independent accredited certifying body. A certification board accredits
and oversees certifying bodies to ensure that they meet specific responsibilities and are
competent to audit and provide certification.

57
 Some U.S. retailers offer opportunities for consumer recycling of discarded electronic
devices. In the US, the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) urges consumers to
dispose properly of end-of-life electronics through its recycling locator at
www.GreenerGadgets.org. This list only includes manufacturer and retailer programs that
use the strictest standards and third-party certified recycling locations, to provide
consumers assurance that their products will be recycled safely and responsibly. CEA
research has found that 58 percent of consumers know where to take their end-of-life
electronics, and the electronics industry would very much like to see that level of
awareness increase. Consumer electronics manufacturers and retailers sponsor or operate
more than 5,000 recycling locations nationwide and have vowed to recycle one billion
pounds annually by 2016, a sharp increase from 300 million pounds industry recycled in
2010.
 The Sustainable Materials Management Electronic Challenge was created by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Participants of the Challenge are
manufacturers of electronics and electronic retailers. These companies collect end-of-life
(EOL) electronics at various locations and send them to a certified, third-party recycler.
Program participants are then able publicly promote and report 100% responsible recycling
for their companies. The Electronics TakeBack Coalition[64] is a campaign aimed at
protecting human health and limiting environmental effects where electronics are being
produced, used, and discarded. The ETBC aims to place responsibility for disposal of
technology products on electronic manufacturers and brand owners, primarily through
community promotions and legal enforcement initiatives. It provides recommendations for
consumer recycling and a list of recyclers judged environmentally responsible.
 The Certified Electronics Recycler program for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive,
integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual
improvement elements for quality, environmental and health and safety (QEH&S)
performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on promoting human
health and addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in technologies.
The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization
dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling
standards in importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade" principles.
Take Back My TV is a project of The Electronics Take Back Coalition and grades
television manufacturers to find out which are responsible and which are not.
 The e-Waste Association of South Africa (eWASA) has been instrumental in building a
network of e-waste recyclers and refurbishes in the country. It continues to drive the
sustainable, environmentally sound management of all e-waste in South Africa. E-Cycling
Central is a website from the Electronic Industry Alliance which allows you to search for
electronic recycling programs in your state. It lists different recyclers by state to find reuse,
recycle, or find donation programs across the country. Ewasteguide.info is a Switzerland-
based website dedicated to improving the e-waste situation in developing and transitioning
countries. The site contains news, events, case studies, and more. StEP: Solving the E-
Waste Problem This website of StEP, an initiative founded by various UN organizations to
develop strategies to solve the e-waste problem, follows its activities and programs.
 The Certified Electronics Recycler program for electronic recyclers is a comprehensive,
integrated management system standard that incorporates key operational and continual
improvement elements for quality, environmental and health and safety (QEH&S)
performance. The grassroots Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition focuses on promoting human
health and addresses environmental justice problems resulting from toxins in technologies.
The World Reuse, Repair, and Recycling Association (wr3a.org) is an organization
dedicated to improving the quality of exported electronics, encouraging better recycling
58
standards in importing countries, and improving practices through "Fair Trade" principles.
Take Back My TV is a project of The Electronics Take Back Coalition and grades
television manufacturers to find out which are responsible and which are not.
 The e-Waste Association of South Africa (eWASA) has been instrumental in building a
network of e-waste recyclers and refurbishers in the country. It continues to drive the
sustainable, environmentally sound management of all e-waste in South Africa. E-Cycling
Central is a website from the Electronic Industry Alliance which allows you to search for
electronic recycling programs in your state. It lists different recyclers by state to find reuse,
recycle, or find donation programs across the country. Ewasteguide.info is a Switzerland-
based website dedicated to improving the e-waste situation in developing and transitioning
countries. The site contains news, events, case studies, and more. StEP: Solving the E-
Waste Problem This website of StEP, an initiative founded by various UN organizations to
develop strategies to solve the e-waste problem, follows its activities and programs.
 Processing techniques
 Recycling the lead from batteries.
 In many developed countries, electronic waste processing usually first involves
dismantling the equipment into various parts (metal frames, power supplies, circuit boards,
plastics), often by hand, but increasingly by automated shredding equipment. A typical
example is the NADIN electronic waste processing plant in Novi Iskar, Bulgaria—the
largest facility of its kind in Eastern Europe. The advantages of this process are the
human's ability to recognize and save working and repairable parts, including chips,
transistors, RAM, etc. The disadvantage is that the labor is cheapest in countries with the
lowest health and safety standards.
 In an alternative bulk system, a hopper conveys material for shredding into an
unsophisticated mechanical separator, with screening and granulating machines to separate
constituent metal and plastic fractions, which are sold to smelters or plastics recyclers.
Such recycling machinery is enclosed and employs a dust collection system. Some of the
emissions are caught by scrubbers and screens. Magnets, eddy currents, and Trommel
screens are employed to separate glass, plastic, and ferrous and nonferrous metals, which
can then be further separated at a smelter.
 Leaded glass from CRTs is reused in car batteries, ammunition, and lead wheel weights,
or sold to foundries as a fluxing agent in processing raw lead ore. Copper, gold, palladium,
silver and tin are valuable metals sold to smelters for recycling. Hazardous smoke and
gases are captured, contained and treated to mitigate environmental threat. These methods
allow for safe reclamation of all valuable computer construction materials. Hewlett-
Packard product recycling solutions manager Renee St. Denis describes its process as: "We
move them through giant shredders about 30 feet tall and it shreds everything into pieces
about the size of a quarter. Once your disk drive is shredded into pieces about this big, it's
hard to get the data off".[76] An ideal electronic waste recycling plant combines
dismantling for component recovery with increased cost-effective processing of bulk
electronic waste. Reuse is an alternative option to recycling because it extends the lifespan
of a device. Devices still need eventual recycling, but by allowing others to purchase used
electronics, recycling can be postponed and value gained from device use.

MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste is any unwanted material the disposal of which poses a threat to
the environment, i.e. it is explosive, flammable, oxidising, poisonous/infectious,
radioactive,

59
corrosive and/or toxic/ecotoxic. Sources of hazardous waste in New Zealand include
hospitals, timber treatment, petrol storage, metal finishing, paint manufacture, vehicle
servicing, tanneries, agriculture/horticulture, electricity distribution and dry cleaning.The
waste can be treated chemically (i.e. by neutralisation, oxidation, reduction,hydrolysis,
precipitation), physically (encapsulation, separation), biologically (using microorganisms)
or thermally (incineration). Most treated waste is then deposited in landfills.
The Waste Management Hierarchy
In deciding on the best method for managing any waste there is a hierarchy for decision
making which addresses issues such as sustainability, cleaner production, health, safety,
and Environmental protection. It is applied to existing or proposed practices, examining
and testing these at each level, starting at the top of the hierarchy.
For hazardous waste the hierarchy is as follows:
 Eliminate the production of hazardous waste
 Where elimination is not possible apply methods to reduce the quantity or
hazard involved
 Minimise amount of waste for disposal by recycling, reuse and/or recovery. This
includes the recovery of energy which may be available from the waste.
 Treat waste to stabilise, immobilise, contain or destroy hazardous properties.
 Dispose of residues with a minimum of environmental impact.
 Appropriately contain, isolate and store hazardous waste for which no
acceptable treatment or disposal option is currently available.

Cleaner Production
Cleaner production refers to a precautionary approach which includes the goal of
preventing the generation of hazardous waste. Minimising the amount of hazardous waste
produced would be one of the objectives of a cleaner production programme. In many
cases the introduction of cleaner production measures brings economic benefits in addition
to savings in waste disposal costs.

TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

Methods Available
The purpose of treating hazardous waste is to convert it into nonhazardous
substances or to stabilize or encapsulate the waste so that it will not migrate and present a
hazard when released into the environment. Stabilization or encapsulating techniques are
particularly necessary for inorganic wastes such as those containing toxic heavy metals.
Treatment technologies exist for most if not all hazardous wastes but some are not
currently available in New Zealand. Commercial facilities are available locally to
effectively treat all hazardous wastes arising except for organ chlorines such as PCBs,
DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin etc. This type of hazardous waste is referred to as intractable or
problem waste and will be discussed further later. Treatment methods can be generally
classified as chemical, physical and/or biological. Examples of methods currently available
in New Zealand will be briefly discussed below:
Chemical Methods
 Neutralization
Waste acid with an alkali e.g. sulfuric acid with sodium carbonate:
H2SO4 + CO32- → SO42- + CO2 + H2O
 Oxidation
Using common oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide or calcium
hypochlorite e.g. cyanide waste with calcium hypochlorite:
60
 CN-+ OCl- → OCN-+ Cl
OCN-+ H3O+→ CO2 + NH3
 Reduction
Used to convert inorganic substances to a less mobile and toxic form e.g. reducing
Cr (VI) to Cr(III) by the use of ferrous sulphate:
14H++ Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

 Hydrolysis
Decomposition of hazardous organic substances e.g. decomposing certain
organ phosphorus pesticides with sodium hydroxide. Precipitation Particularly
useful for converting hazardous heavy metals to a less mobile, insoluble form prior
to disposal to a landfill e.g. precipitation of cadmium as its hydroxide by the use of
sodium hydroxide:
Cd2+(aq) + 2OH- → Cd(OH)2(s)
Physical Methods
 Encapsulation
Immobilizing hazardous materials by stabilization and incorporation within a solid matrix
such as cement concrete or proprietary organic polymers prior to and filling. e.g.
encapsulating beryllium in concrete
 Filtration/Centrifuging/Separation
Physically separating phases containing hazardous substances from other nonhazardous
constituents e.g. separation of oils from ship bilges waters.
 Biological Methods
These involve the use of microorganisms under optimised conditions to mineralise
hazardous organic substances e.g. the use of pseudomonas under aerobic conditions break
down phenols.
 Thermal Methods
These are the treatment processes which involve the application of heat to convert the
waste into less hazardous forms. It also reduces the volume and allows opportunities for
the recovery of energy from the waste.
 High Temperature Incineration
In North America and Europe the treatment method most commonly used to destroy
hazardous organic wastes, including organ chlorines such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), is high temperature incineration. Incineration is the controlled combustion process
which can be used to degrade organic substances. For a simple hydrocarbon, involving
complete combustion, for example the chemical reaction can be illustrated as follows:
CxHy + (x + ¼y)O2 → xCO2 + ½yH2O.
 Combustion Parameters
Incinerators for the treatment of hazardous waste must be carefully designed and operated
if they are to achieve the efficiency of destruction required. Combustion of organics occurs
in two stages. In the primary stage, volatile matter is driven off leaving the remainder to
burn to ash. The volatiles are combusted in the secondary stage. Incinerators are designed
accordingly. High temperatures are required, for most wastes 800-900 oC is sufficient but
for materials with high thermal stability 1100oC or higher is required. This temperature
must be maintained for sufficient time to allow for complete combustion. For example, two
seconds at 1200oC would be suitable for most organic waste. As well as temperature and
time, sufficient air must be provided to supply the oxygen required for combustion. The
process should be designed to ensure that the air is provided in appropriate locations and in
a manner so as to promote the turbulence necessary to achieve effective mixing with the
combustible materials
61
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR OCCUPIER/WASTE GENERATOR FOR HANDLING
OF HAZARDOUS WASTES:
“Occupier” in relation to any factory or premises, means a person who has,
control over the affairs of the factory or the premises. Occupier is the overall
responsible person while handling the hazardous waste. He should ensure that the
waste handled should not create any imbalance to environment, by creating
accidents and damage to human beings. He should also require to ensure that the
persons working on the site with hazardous waste Should be trained and equipped
necessary to ensure their safe working.
The four main ingredients of hazardous waste transportation are
1. Authorization
2. Packaging
3. Labeling
4. Transportation
 AUTHORIZATION
Authorization required from state pollution control board/pollution control committee for
everyone, who engaged in waste management, which includes processing, treatment,
package, transportation, collection, conversion, sale and use of hazardous waste. To obtain
such authorization from SPCB/PCC the concerned person should make application inform
1 of the rules. The hazardous waste shall be collected, stored or re processed only in
authorized facility, by the SPCB/PCC.
 PACKAGING
The container which carries the hazardous waste should withstand the handling and retain
integrity for a minimum period of six months. Container requirements for packaging
hazardous waste enclosed in annexure 1 During transportation the container should not
break open or defective. It should be packed and sealed to prevent spillage of waste during
transportation. The packaging material should not affect from the contents of the waste.
 LABELLING: There are two types of labeling requirements:
Labeling of individual transport containers (ranging from a pint-size to a tank) Labeling of
transport vehicles.
• It should be marked clearly on the container with details of contents of the waste.
• Labeling of container shall be provided with a general label as per Form 12 of the Rules.
• It must be irremovable, waterproof and firm to the container.
• Containers that contain hazardous waste shall be labelled with the words “HAZARDOUS
WASTE” in Vernacular language, Hindi / English.
• Emergency contact phone numbers shall be prominently displayed.
• The information on the label must include the code number of the waste, the waste type,
the origin (name, address, telephone number of generator), hazardous property (e.g.
flammable), and the symbol for the hazardous property (e.g. the red square with flame
symbol).
TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTES:
Transportation is not only the responsibility of waste generator; it also includes the co-
processor, who utilizes the waste and transporter, who transport the waste from generator
to co-processor. The waste generator should ensure that wastes are packaged in a manner
suitable for safe handling, storage and transport. Labeling on packaging is readily visible
and material used for packaging shall withstand physical conditions and climatic factors.
The transport of hazardous waste containers shall be in accordance with the provisions of
the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Trans boundary Movement) Rules,
2008, (herein after referred as HW (M, H & TBM) Rules) and the rules made by the

62
Central Government under the Motor Vehicle Act, 1988 and other guidelines issued from
time to time.
1. In case of transportation of hazardous waste through a State other than the State of
origin or destination, the occupier should intimate the concerned State Pollution Control
Board, before handing over the hazardous waste to the transporter.
2. The occupier shall provide the transporter with relevant information in Form 11 (i.e.
Transport Emergency (TREM) Card) of the HW (M, H & TBM) Rules regarding the
hazardous nature of the wastes and measures to be taken in case of an emergency.
3. All hazardous waste containers shall be provided with a general label as given in Form
12 of the HW (M, H & TBM) rules.
4. The occupier of the hazardous waste should ensure that the waste are packed and sealed
in manner good for handling and transportation.

SIX R Concepts:

63
 Rethink

Reprocessing Refused

SIX R

Reuse Reduce

Recycle

The six R’s

There is a common mantra that many of us were taught as children but do not always think
of on a daily basis. The mantra is reduce, reuse, and recycle, otherwise known as the three Rs.
Over the last half century, the amount of waste created per person in the United States has almost
doubled. The concept and promotion of the three Rs was created to help combat the drastic
increase in solid waste production.
 Reduce
Let's start with the first R, which is reduce. The three Rs are really a waste management
hierarchy with reduce being the most important strategy. In order to reduce the amount of waste
produced, it is essential to focus on the source of the waste, or where the waste is originally
coming from. Source reduction is when products are designed, manufactured, packaged, and used
in a way that limits the amount or toxicity of waste created.
The first goal of source reduction is simply to reduce the overall amount of waste that is
produced. The second goal is to conserve resources by not using raw, virgin materials. In other
words, by following source reduction, fewer raw materials will have to be used to produce
products.
Some common industrial examples of source reduction include the creation of merchandise
using fewer materials. For example, the waste created from disposable diapers, which has
contributed a large amount of volume to landfills over the years, has been reduced by making
diapers with 50% less paper pulp. As technology increased, absorbent gel was created that was
able to replace the paper pulp.
Aluminum cans are also a good example of source reduction because they are now made
with 1/3 less aluminum than they were twenty years ago. Both of these examples not only reduce
the amount of overall waste created, but they also conserve the natural resources, aluminum and
paper pulp, that are used in the manufacturing.
Although most examples of source reduction take place on the manufacturing side, there
are several actions an individual can take to reduce the overall amount of solid waste they
produce. Some examples include sending emails instead of tradition mail, canceling unwanted
catalogs subscriptions, and fixing products instead of throwing them out.
 Reuse
The second most important strategy of the three Rs is to reuse, which is when an item is
cleaned and the materials are used again. This concept can be difficult because we currently live in
a world with many disposable items, and it takes some imagination and creativity to see how items
can be reused.
There are two main ways that the concept of reusing can be applied to reduce waste. First,
when purchasing a new item, you can look for a product that can be used repeatedly instead of a
version that is only used once and thrown away. The second way to reuse is to buy an item
secondhand, borrow, or rent an item, instead of buying the product new.
Although the items you reuse may eventually end up being waste, by reusing them you are
reducing the overall amount of waste produced by giving the item a second function and

64
 expanding the typical lifespan of the item. The process of reusing can also be fun because it gives
you the opportunity to take an old or used item and turn it into something new to you.
There are many ways that you, as an individual, can reuse items. Some common examples
include shopping at thrift stores or yard sales for second hand items. You can also donate items
you no longer need to thrift stores so that someone else can use them. Another common method of
reuse is to bring your own reusable shopping bags instead of using plastic or paper bags provided
at the store.
In addition to individual actions, there are also some industries that implement the process
of reuse. Some smaller beverage companies use glass bottles to hold their products and promote
consumers returning the bottles. The company then cleans and refills the bottles for sale. It is
estimated that the average glass beverage bottle can make about 15 round-trips between the
manufacturer and the consumer before it must be recycled due to damage.
 Recycle
The third R in the hierarchy is for recycle, which in terms of waste is the reprocessing of
disposed materials into new and useful products. Items that are commonly recycled include glass,
plastic, paper, and metal. When recycled, some of these materials are used to create more of the
same original product, while other materials are used to create entirely different products after
recycling. In the 1960s, the United States only recycled around 6% of waste! As of 2010, the
United States recycled approximately 25% of the municipal solid waste produced. Although this
percentage may seem small in comparison to other countries, such as Switzerland and Japan that
recycle around 50% of waste, the current amount recycled in the United States is a drastic
improvement.
 Rethink Waste
a) Using a product to its full extent conserves natural resources, saves energy and reduces
pollution. It also extends the life of the product.
b) Reducing, reusing and recycling also extends the life of our landfills since generating less
garbage mean less space required to “store” our waste.
c) Keeping waste out of landfills reduces the greenhouse gases that are released from as the
material breaks down.
d) Diverting waste reduces collection and disposal costs.
e) It’s the right thing to do – for our own health and well-being and for generations to come.
 Refuse:
All materials must be at the curb on every day of service. If refuse materials are not
properly prepared, the garbage hauler will tag item(s) and leave them at the curb. Trash allotment
in the curbside rubbish program is based on typical one household weekly activity. No eviction,
clean-out or move-out set outs allowed. For removal of materials not covered by MMWA's
residential solid waste service, look in the Yellow Pages under "Rubbish" for a commercial refuse
hauler.
 Unlimited number of bags or cans of household-generated garbage allowed each week.
 Refuse must be in bags or cans no larger than 35 gallons or 50 lbs. each; bags must be
securely fastened.
 Set out weekly at curb by 7 a.m. on your assigned service day. Call municipality for
assigned service day.
 Do NOT place any refuse materials in cardboard boxes. All boxes must be flattened and cut
to 2'x3'.
 Reprocessing
A hazardous secondary material is recycled if it is used or reused (e.g., as an ingredient in a
process), reclaimed, or used in certain ways including used in a manner constituting disposal and
burned for energy recovery. A material is reclaimed if it is processed to recover a usable product
or if it is regenerated (e.g., regeneration of spent solvents).
A material is used or reused if it is either employed as an ingredient in an industrial process
to make a product (e.g., distillation bottoms from one process used as feedstock in another
process) or if it is employed as an effective substitute for a commercial product (e.g., spent pickle
liquor used as a sludge conditioner in wastewater treatment).
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 "Use constituting disposal" is recycling that involves the direct placement of wastes or
products containing wastes (e.g., asphalt with petroleum-refining wastes as an ingredient) on the
land. "Burning for energy recovery" is recycling that involves burning a hazardous waste for its
fuel value (either directly or when it is used to produce a fuel).
Hazardous waste recycling is not only good for the environment, but can benefit an
organization’s bottom line. Reprocessing hazardous waste can increase production efficiency and
reduce costs associated with purchasing raw materials and waste management. By recycling
hazardous materials, a business may be able to eliminate the generation of hazardous waste and
avoid RCRA regulatory requirements altogether. A business may also benefit from the positive or
"green" image associated with hazardous waste recycling efforts For example; a company who
values strong corporate stewardship can increase goodwill with shareholders and consumers and
further distinguish itself from its competitors.

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 CHAPTER: 4

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming, also referred to as climate change, is the observed century-scale rise in the
average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of
scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. Many of the observed changes since
the 1950s are unprecedented in the record which extends back to the mid-19th century, and in pale
climate proxy records covering thousands of years.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report
concluded that "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century."The largest human influence has been the emission
of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Climate model
projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century, the global surface
temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in the lowest emissions scenario,
and 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in the highest emissions scenario. These findings have been
recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not
disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing. Future climate change and
associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe. Anticipated effects include
increasing global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion of deserts
in the subtropics. Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in
the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely changes
include more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, heavy rainfall with
floods and heavy snowfall; ocean acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature
regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop
yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels. Because the climate
system has a large "inertia" and greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere for a long time,
many of these effects will persist for not only decades or centuries, but for tens of thousands of
years to come. Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions
reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future
climate engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic
climate change. Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are requiredand
that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) compared to pre-industrial
levels, with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Public reactions to global warming
and concern about its effects are also increasing. A global 2015 Pew Research Center report
showed that a median of 54% of all respondents asked consider it "a very serious problem".
Significant regional differences exist, with Americans and Chinese (whose economies are
responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions) among the least concerned.
Global Emissions atmospheric gases
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
 Properties of Carbon Dioxide
 Chemical Formula: CO2
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: See below*
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 1

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. In 2015,
CO2 accounted for about 82.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.
Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the
natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human

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activities are altering the carbon cycle–both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere and by
influencing the ability of natural sinks, like forests, to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. While
CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible
for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution.
The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
oil) for energy and transportation, although certain industrial processes and land-use changes also
emit CO2. The main sources of CO2 emissions in the United States are described below.
Electricity. Electricity is a significant source of energy in the United States and is used to power
homes, business, and industry. In 2015 the combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity was
the largest single source of CO2 emissions in the nation, accounting for about 35 percent of total
U.S. CO2 emissions and 29 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. The type of fossil fuel
used to generate electricity will emit different amounts of CO2. To produce a given amount of
electricity, burning coal will produce more CO2 than oil or natural gas.
Transportation. The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and
goods was the second largest source of CO2 emissions in 2015, accounting for about 32 percent of
total U.S. CO2 emissions and 26 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. This category
includes transportation sources such as highway vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and
rail.
Industry. Many industrial processes emit CO2 through fossil fuel combustion. Several processes
also produce CO2 emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve combustion; for
example, the production and consumption of mineral products such as cement, the production of
metals such as iron and steel, and the production of chemicals. Fossil fuel combustion from
various industrial processes accounted for about 15 percent of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 12
percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2015. Note that many industrial processes also
use electricity and therefore indirectly cause the emissions from the electricity production.
Carbon dioxide is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land surface as it
is both produced and absorbed by many microorganisms, plants, and animals. However, emissions
and removal of CO2 by these natural processes tend to balance. Since the Industrial Revolution
began around 1750, human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding
CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere.
Methane Emissions

 Properties of Methane
 Chemical Formula: CH4
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: 12 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 25
In 2015, methane (CH4) accounted for about 10 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from
human activities. Methane is emitted by natural sources such as wetlands, as well as human
activities such as leakage from natural gas systems and the raising of livestock. Natural processes
in soil and chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere.
Methane's lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more
efficient at trapping radiation than CO2. Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 is more
than 25 times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period.
Globally, over 60 percent of total CH4 emissions come from human activities.1 Methane is
emitted from industry, agriculture, and waste management activities, described below.
Energy and Industry: Natural gas and petroleum systems are the largest source of CH4 emissions
in the United States. Methane is the primary component of natural gas. Methane is emitted to the
atmosphere during the production, processing, storage, transmission, and distribution of natural
gas. Because gas is often found alongside petroleum, the production, refinement, transportation,
and storage of crude oil is also a source of CH4 emissions. For more information, see the

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Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks sections on Natural Gas Systems and
Petroleum Systems.
Agriculture: Domestic livestock such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats produce large amounts of
CH4 as part of their normal digestive process. Also, when animals' manure is stored or managed in
lagoons or holding tanks, CH4 is produced. Because humans raise these animals for food and
other products, the emissions are considered human-related. When livestock and manure
emissions are combined, the Agriculture sector is the primary source of CH4 emissions. For more
information, see the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks Agriculture chapter.
Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes and in
the treatment of wastewater. Landfills are the third largest source of CH4 emissions in the United
States. For more information, see the U.S. Inventory's Waste chapter.
Nitrous Oxide Emissions

 Properties of Nitrous Oxide

 Chemical Formula: N2O
 Lifetime in Atmosphere: 114 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year): 298
In 2015, nitrous oxide (N2O) accounted for about 5 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions
from human activities. Nitrous oxide is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth's
nitrogen cycle, and has a variety of natural sources. However, human activities such as agriculture,
fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes are increasing the
amount of N2O in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for an average
of 114 years before being removed by a sink or destroyed through chemical reactions. The impact
of 1 pound of N2O on warming the atmosphere is almost 300 times that of 1 pound of carbon
dioxide.
Globally, about 40 percent of total N2O emissions come from human activities.1 Nitrous oxide is
emitted from agriculture, transportation, and industry activities, described below.
Agriculture: Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of
synthetic fertilizers. Agricultural soil management is the largest source of N 2O emissions in the
United States, accounting for about 75 percent of total U.S. N 2O emissions in 2015. Nitrous oxide
is also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine, which contributed
to 5 percent of N2O emissions in 2015.
Fuel Combustion: Nitrous oxide is emitted when fuels are burned. The amount of N2O emitted
from burning fuels depends on the type of fuel and combustion technology, maintenance, and
operating practices.
Industry: Nitrous oxide is generated as a byproduct during the production of nitric acid, which is
used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid, which is used to
make fibers, like nylon, and other synthetic products.
Fluorinated Gases

 Properties of F-gases
 Chemical Formula:
 HFCs, PFCs, NF3, SF6
 Lifetime in Atmosphere:
 HFCs: up to 270 years
 PFCs: 2,600–50,000 years
 NF3: 740 years
 SF6: 3,200 years
 Global Warming Potential (100-year):
 HFCs: up to 14,800
 PFCs: 7,390–12,200
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  NF3: 17,200
 SF6: 22,800
Unlike many other greenhouse gases, fluorinated gases have no natural sources and only come
from human-related activities. They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes such as
aluminum and semiconductor manufacturing. Many fluorinated gases have very high global
warming potentials (GWPs) relative to other greenhouse gases, so small atmospheric
concentrations can have large effects on global temperatures. They can also have long atmospheric
lifetimes—in some cases, lasting thousands of years. Like other long-lived greenhouse gases, most
fluorinated gases are well-mixed in the atmosphere, spreading around the world after they are
emitted. Many fluorinated gases are removed from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed
by sunlight in the far upper atmosphere. In general, fluorinated gases are the most potent and
longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities.
There are four main categories of fluorinated gases—hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per
fluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). The largest
sources of fluorinated gas emissions are described below.
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: Hydro fluorocarbons are used as refrigerants,
aerosol propellants, and foam blowing agents, solvents, and fire retardants. The major emissions
source of these compounds is their use as refrigerants—for example, in air conditioning systems in
both vehicles and buildings. These chemicals were developed as a replacement for
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because they do not deplete
the stratospheric ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons and HCFCs are being phased out under an
international agreement, called the Montreal Protocol. HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with
high GWPs, and they are released into the atmosphere during manufacturing processes and
through leaks, servicing, and disposal of equipment in which they are used. Newly developed
hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) are a subset of HFCs and are characterized by short atmospheric
lifetimes and low GWPs. HFOs are currently being introduced as refrigerants, aerosol propellants
and foam blowing agents.
Industry: Per fluorocarbons are compounds produced as a byproduct of various industrial
processes associated with aluminum production and the manufacturing of semiconductors. PFCs
generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs. Sulfur hexafluoride is used in
magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for leak
detection. HFC-23 is produced as a byproduct of HCFC-22 production.
Transmission and Distribution of Electricity: Sulfur hexafluoride is used in electrical transmission
equipment, including circuit breakers. The GWP of SF6 is 22,800, making it the most potent
greenhouse gas that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has evaluated.
The Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global warming is occurring and (b) it is
extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it. The Kyoto
Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997 and entered into force on February
16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew effective December 2012) to the
Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Art. 2). The Protocol is based on
the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current

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emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current
levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second commitment
period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37
countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus,
Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan and
Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the
Amendment with second round targets. Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in
Kyoto's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other
developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto
Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol). As of July 2016,
66[9] states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptances
of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, 7 have ratified.
Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on
measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015
adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto protocol.
Background

The view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global
mean temperature ("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of
current scientific thinking. Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue
throughout the 21st century and beyond. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC,
2007) has produced a range of projections of what the future increase in global mean temperature
might be. The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections, meaning that they assume no future
efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time period
from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century. The "likely" range (as
assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert
judgment) is a projected increase in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1
and 6.4 °C. The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future
greenhouse gas emissions. Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and
economic development (e.g., economic growth, population level, energy policies), which in turn
affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The range also reflects uncertainty
in the response of the climate system to past and future GHG emissions (measured by the climate
sensitivity).
Objectives

The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e.,
human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in
GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty follows the main
principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. According to the treaty, in
2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled their obligations of
greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period
(2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol. The
Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007). The Protocol establishes a
structure of rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for
negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period.The
first period emission reduction commitments expired on December 31, 2012. The ultimate
objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. “Even if
Annex I Parties succeed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission
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 reductions will be required in future to stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations. For each of the
different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet
the objective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations). Carbon dioxide
(CO2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration of CO 2 in the
atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

 Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it
established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I
Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC
negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to
prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries.
In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms
available, such as joint implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading,
in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
 Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate
change.
 Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
 Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments
under the Protocol.
 Signing vs. Ratification
 While almost every country in the world has signed the Kyoto Protocol, the signature alone is
symbolic; a token gesture of support. Ratification carries legal obligations and effectively becomes
a contractual arrangement.
 169 countries have ratified the agreement. Of the signatories, only 2 refused to ratify Kyoto up
until December of 2007 - Australia and the USA.
 Australia negotiated hard when the Kyoto Protocol was being developed; in fact it was to be
allowed an 8% increase in emissions. Even so, Australia refused to ratify the agreement until a
change in government in late 2007. The excuse - it will be bad for Australia's economy, the same
reasoning the USA uses.
 I seem to remember the same sorts of fears in regards to the computer age, but regardless of even
that, in order to have a healthy economy, you need a reasonably healthy environment to support it.
What makes the USA and Australia's (previous) position even more untenable is that the USA, as
seen above, is currently the largest emitter of carbon dioxide in total of any country. Australia
holds the shameful record for the highest amount of carbon dioxide emissions per person.
Kyoto - success or failure?
The Kyoto Protocol, while well intentioned, would appear to be doomed to failing its objectives
even before the 2008-2012 averaging period commences. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
are rising at a frightening rate with no sign of slowing. Global temperatures are continuing to rise.
The science behind Kyoto was shaky due to the limited availability of crucial data and knowledge
at the time; particularly in regard to positive feedback loops in nature being revealed that amplify
warming and prevent carbon dioxide from being absorbed. Scientists studying global warming are
finding Nature fighting back in ways they never contemplated daily.
Without the USA ratifying the protocol or recently emerging economic powerhouses such as
China reducing emissions drastically; the targets will likely not be met.
Even the "permissible" degree of global warming generated by target levels (if reached) will have
far greater environmental impact that was originally envisioned. Kyoto should be viewed as a
stepping stone to more drastic action. And that action is required now.
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Beyond Kyoto
Politicians and diplomats will continue to argue finger point and delay massive action due to a silo
mentality. Many elected officials are concerned only with the careers, their political parties, the
term of office or winning the next election. The patriots are concerned only with their countries.
They have not been trained to think globally in terms of the environment.
The scientific community has made it abundantly clear. We are in deep trouble. This is a global
issue that does not care about race, color or creed, nonpolitical affiliation, although ironically the
people who produce the least emissions will be the ones to suffer the most. That's always been the
way of humanity.
It's down to us as individuals to not only do what we can to reduce our own carbon emissions, but
to raise the awareness of others until collectively our shouts are such a mighty voice that no
politician can ignore it. Better they hear the shouts of protest now than the screams of agony from
wars over natural resources or the wailing of starvation in the future .. and it may well be their
own voices amongst the anguish; that's how little time we have left.
ACID RAIN
What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or
dry forms.  This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.  
Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid rain. But, it
is mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
1. Natural Sources: The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes
emit acid producing gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of
precipitation such as fog and snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of
residents within the surrounding. Decaying vegetation, wildfires and biological processes within
the environment also generate the acid rain forming gases. Dimethly sulfide is a typical example
of a major biological contributor to sulfur containing elements into the atmosphere. Lightning
strikes also naturally produce nitric oxides that react with water molecules via electrical activity to
produce nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.
2. Man-made sources: Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and
nitrogen are the primary contributors to acid rain. The activities include air pollution sources
emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases like factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In
particular, use of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous
emissions leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also release high scores of gaseous
emissions on daily basis into the air, especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions
with large numbers of car traffic. These gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and
other chemicals to form various acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and
nitric acid. As a result, these areas experience exceedingly high amounts of acid rain. The existing
winds blow these acidic compounds over large areas across borders and they fall back to the
ground in the form of acid rain or other forms of precipitation. Upon reaching the earth, it flows
across the surface, absorbs into the soil and enters into lakes and rivers and finally gets mixed up
with sea water. The gases i.e. i.e. sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primarily
gases occurring from electric power generation by burning coal and responsible for acid rain.
Forms of Acid Deposition
Wet Deposition
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Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain.  The sulfuric and nitric acids
formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.  

Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of moisture as dry
deposition.  The acidic particles and gases may deposit to surfaces (water bodies, vegetation,
buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric transport to form larger particles that can be
harmful to human health. When the accumulated acids are washed off a surface by the next rain,
this acidic water flows over and through the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as
insects and fish. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry
deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives.  For example, in desert areas the
ratio of dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain each year.
Measuring Acid Rain
Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a
substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH (greater than 7), the
more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
(CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid.  Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and
4.4.
Policymakers, research scientists, ecologists, and modelers rely on the National Atmospheric
Deposition Program’s (NADP) National Trends Network (NTN) for measurements of wet
deposition. The NADP/NTN collects acid rain at more than 250 monitoring sites throughout the
US, Canada, Alaska, Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Unlike wet deposition, dry deposition is
difficult and expensive to measure. Dry deposition estimates for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants are
provided by the Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET). Air concentrations are
measured by CASTNET at more than 90 locations.

When acid deposition is washed into lakes and streams, it can cause some to turn acidic. The
Long-Term Monitoring (LTM) Network measures and monitors surface water chemistry at over
280 sites to provide valuable information on aquatic ecosystem health and how water bodies
respond to changes in acid-causing emissions and acid deposition.
Effects of Acid Rain:
Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off the
forests, roads and fields to flow into streams, rivers and lakes. Over a period of time, acids get
accumulated in the water and lower the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and
animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the
conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life. Acid rain tendency of altering pH and
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aluminum concentrations greatly affects pH concentration levels in surface water, thereby
affecting fish as well as other aquatic life-forms. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot
hatch. Lower pHs can also kill adult fish. Acid rain runoff from catchment areas into rivers and
lakes has also reduced biodiversity as rivers and lakes become more acidic. Species including fish,
plant and insect types in some lakes, rivers and brooks have been reduced and some even
completely eliminated owing to excess acid rain flowing into the waters.
Effect on Forests: It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects by
destroying their leaves, damaging the bark and arresting their growth. Forest damage due to acid
rain is most evident in Eastern Europe – especially Germany, Poland and Switzerland.
Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology. It means, soil
microbes and biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are
damaged or reversed due to the effects of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH
level for the continuity of biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher
soil pH, which damages or reverses soil biological and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil
microorganisms that cannot adapt to changes in pH are killed. High soil acidity also denatures
enzymes for the soil microbes. On the same breadth, hydrogen ions of acid rain leach away vital
minerals and nutrients such as calcium and magnesium.
Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid rain on soil and high levels of dry
depositions have endlessly damaged high altitude forests and vegetation cover since they are
mostly encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on
ecological harmony have lead to stunted growth and even death of some forests and vegetation
cover.
Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with
limestone, react with the minerals and corrode them away. This leaves the building weak and
susceptible to decay. Modern buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by
acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage buildings.
Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their
particulate matter derivatives like sulfates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause accidents,
leading to injuries and deaths. Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because acid rain
water is too dilute to cause serious health problems. However, the dry depositions also known as
gaseous particulates in the air which in this case are nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can cause
serious health problems when inhaled. Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the air
can cause lung and heart problems such as bronchitis and asthma.
Other Effects: Acid rain leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of
paints on surfaces. Buildings and structures made of marble and limestone are the ones especially
damaged by acid rain due to the reactivity of the acids in the rain and the calcium compounds in
the structures. The effects are commonly seen on statues, old grave stones, historic monuments,
and damaged buildings. Acid rain also corrodes metals like steel, bronze, copper, and iron.
WHAT CAN BE DONE?
The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants that cause it. This means
burning fewer fossil fuels. Many governments have tried to curb emissions by cleaning up
industry smokestacks and promoting alternative fuel sources. These efforts have met with mixed
results. But even if acid rain could be stopped today, it would still take many years for its harmful
effects to disappear.
Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving energy. The less electricity people use in
their homes, the fewer chemicals power plants will emit. Vehicles are also major fossil fuel users,
so drivers can reduce emissions by using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply
walking wherever possible.
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Wildlife and natures mitigation measures of global warming
The challenges associated with climate change due to global warming are negatively affecting
both the physical and biological elements of nature. The impacts of sea-level rise associated with
climate change alone present not only an ecological challenge, but also a social, economic and
cultural threat exceeding anything mankind has ever faced. These physical changes and other
observed impacts are discussed in this section. Physical Changes The Earth’s climate system is
extremely responsive to changes in temperature. As a result, global warming is affecting climate
patterns and has already changed the physical world. For example, as a result of rising
temperatures, lakes are freezing later, spring ice is breaking up earlier, glaciers are retreating and
the Arctic ice cap is melting. The polar region has seen the greatest rise in temperature and is
already suffering the most extreme climate impacts. In recent years, the Arctic has experienced a
dramatic decline of sea ice, especially during summer. The increased flow of fresh water into the
oceans via surface runoff from melting snow and ice has caused sea levels to rise globally,
although at different rates geographically. The greatest rise is on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of
North America. Rising sea levels and increasing storm and wave intensity are claiming coastal and
salt marsh habitats. Salt marsh habitats along shorelines in the temperate zone are increasingly
inundated. As a result, the ability of many areas to function and sustain critical ecosystem services
is compromised. Other changes in the physical world not directly attributed to global warming, but
correlated with temperature increases and decreased precipitation, are the increased incidence and
intensity of storms and wildfires. In the western United States, for example, the incidence and
intensity of wildfires are increasing following longer, hotter and drier summers and earlier
snowmelt. The frequency and intensity of hurricanes are also showing strong correlation to
increased land and sea surface temperatures. Arctic and Boreal Impacts Alaska clearly represents
“ground zero” for global warming in North America, according to Glenn Juday of the University
of Alaska and Deborah Williams of Alaska Conservation Solutions. Loss of sea ice is particularly
evident, threatening the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) and other ice-dependent species. Ice-
dependent species lose both the quality and quantity of physical seaice habitat. They can also lose
access to their prey. For example, polar bears rely on the ice platform to hunt ringed and bearded
seals (Phocidae). Seals frequent the thin edges and openings in the ice—breathing holes—where
polar bears lie in wait. Now, however, due to the rise in surface and sea temperatures, less ice is
forming, making it more difficult for bears to hunt and requiring them to expend more energy to
swim between widely separated ice packs in search of prey. It is also increasingly difficult for
female polar bears to acquire food and to successfully reproduce and rear their young. Loss of sea
ice also affects prey species. For seals, sea ice interacts with oceanography to enhance prey
production in cold marine environments. As sea ice declines, so do the numbers within fish
populations that sustain these seal populations. Seals either move farther out to sea or decline in
numbers. These impacts of global warming are causing a cascading collapse of this Arctic
system.
HOW GLOBAL WARMING AFFECTS WILDLIFE

The key impact of global warming on wildlife is habitat disruptions, whereby ecosystems that animals have
spent millions of years adapting to rapidly transform in respond to climate change, reducing their ability to
fulfill the species' needs. These habitat disruptions often are due to changes in high temperatures, low
temperatures, or water availability, and often a combination of the three. In response, growing conditions
change, and the vegetation community shifts. Affected wildlife populations can sometimes move into new
spaces and continue to thrive.

But concurrent human population growth means that many land areas that might be suitable for such
“refugee wildlife” are fragmented and already cluttered with residential and industrial development. Our
cities and roads can be obstacles preventing plants and animals from moving into these alternative spots. A
recent report by the Pew Center for Global Climate Change suggests creating “transitional habitats” or
“corridors” that help migrating species by linking natural areas that are otherwise separated by human
settlement. 

SHIFTING LIFE CYCLES AND GLOBAL WARMING

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Beyond habitat displacement, many scientists agree that global warming is causing a shift in the timing of
various natural cyclical events in the lives of animals - a pattern called phenology. Many birds have altered
the timing of long-held migratory and reproductive routines to better sync up with a warming climate. And
some hibernating animals are ending their slumbers earlier each year, perhaps due to warmer spring
temperatures.
To make matters worse, recent research contradicts the long-held hypothesis that different species
coexisting in a particular ecosystem respond to global warming as a single entity. Instead, different species
sharing like habitat are responding in dissimilar ways, tearing apart ecological communities millennia in the
making.

GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS ON ANIMALS AFFECT PEOPLE TOO

And as wildlife species go their separate ways, humans can also feel the impact. A World Wildlife
Fund study found that a northern exodus from the United States to Canada by some types of warblers led to
a spread of mountain pine beetles that destroy economically productive balsam fir trees. Similarly, a
northward migration of caterpillars in the Netherlands has eroded some forests there.

WHICH ANIMALS IS HARDEST HIT BY GLOBAL WARMING?

According to Defenders of Wildlife, some of the wildlife species hardest hit so far by global warming
include caribou (reindeer), arctic foxes, toads, polar bears, penguins, gray wolves, tree swallows, painted
turtles and salmon. The group fears that unless we take decisive steps to reverse global warming, more and
more species will join the list of wildlife populations pushed to the brink of extinction by a changing
climate. Earth Talk is a regular feature of E/The Environmental Magazine. Selected Earth Talk columns
are reprinted on About Environmental Issues by permission of the editors of E.

Observed Changes in Wildlife and Ecosystems:

Changes in range: Wildlife and plants that are able to adjust are shifting their ranges northward or
to higher altitudes to adjust to warming temperatures. Wildlife that already live at high altitudes or
latitudes, such as the American pika or polar bears in the Arctic, may find themselves with
nowhere to go.
Changes in timing of natural events: Many species take their cues about when to migrate, flower,
nest or mate from seasonal changes in temperature, precipitation and daylight (phenology). Global
warming is confusing those signals. The changes in the climate force wildlife to alter life cycle
and seasonal events. Sometimes they might get out of synch with other species in their ecosystem
or with other natural events. For example, some animals are laying eggs, migrating, or emerging
from hibernation much earlier than they used to, only to find that the plants or the insects they
need for food have not yet emerged.
Widespread forest loss: In the western U.S., warming and drought stress are causing trees to die
and making them more vulnerable to pine beetle and other insect infestations. Higher temperatures
and increased fuel from dead trees have led to more wildfires.
Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching occurs when colorful algae that live in corals die or are expelled
from corals under stress. The algae live symbiotically with coral polyps, providing them with
nutrients and oxygen. If the algae die and are not replaced, the corals will also die. Scientists
believe that the biggest cause of coral bleaching is warm sea surface temperatures caused by
global warming. If coral reef bleaching continues, many other marine organisms that depend on
coral reefs will also be in jeopardy.
Melting of Arctic sea ice: Arctic ice is melting at a faster pace than was predicted even a few years
ago. Some scientists are now saying that the Arctic could be ice free in the late summer as early as
2012. Many Arctic mammals, such as polar bears, walrus, and seals depend on sea ice for their
survival.
Additional Threats to Wildlife from Global Warming
Loss of wetlands: Higher temperatures will lead to drier conditions in the Midwest’s Prairie
Pothole region, one of the most important breeding areas for North American waterfowl.
Sea-level rise: Sea-level rise will inundate beaches and marshes and cause erosion on both coasts,
diminishing habitat for birds, invertebrates, fish, and other coastal wildlife.

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Invasive species and disease: Higher average temperatures and changes in rain and snow patterns
will enable some invasive plant species to move into new areas. Insect pest infestations will be
more severe as pests such as mountain pine beetle are able to take advantage of drought-weakened
plants. Pathogens and their hosts that thrive in higher temperatures will spread to new areas.

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Deforestation can have a negative impact on the environment. The most dramatic impact is a
loss of habitat for millions of species. Eighty percent of Earth’s land animals and plants  live in
forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their homes.
Deforestation also drives climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection from
sun-blocking tree cover, they quickly dry out. Trees also help perpetuate the  water cycle by
returning water vapor to the atmosphere. Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest
lands can quickly become barren deserts.
Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during
the day, and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme temperature swings
that can be harmful to plants and animals.
Trees also play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer
forests means larger amounts of gases entering the atmosphere—and increased speed and
severity of global warming.
The most feasible solution to deforestation is to carefully manage forest resources by eliminating
clear-cutting to make sure forest environments remain intact. The cutting that does occur should
be balanced by planting young trees to replace older trees felled. The number of new tree
plantations is growing each year, but their total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested
land.
Tree planting: A key weapon against global warming:

Tree-planting activities - reforestation and afforestation - have come in for criticism in recent
times, giving rise to a debate over whether planting new forests in order to combat climate
change is worthwhile, and whether it can be accurately reflected in a system of economic
credits.
The criticisms focus on:
The validity and accuracy of methods used to calculate the climate change benefits,
The ethics of ‘offsetting’, that is, compensating for emissions rather than eliminating them at
source, and
The social and environmental impacts of plantations.
Carbon Positive believes strongly that tree-planting can and will make a valuable contribution to
the fight against global climate change, as well as providing a host of wider environmental and
socio-economic benefits. We further believe that carbon markets in their various forms are key
to providing an effective means of financing tree-planting activities on the scale needed to make
a difference globally. There are indeed a number of pitfalls to be avoided, by both project
developers and buyers of the
carbon credits which finance climate-related plantation projects. But these are not by and large
fundamental to the planting of trees, and can largely be avoided through responsible practices
and adherence to appropriate standards.
So what are the benefits of planting trees?
Planting trees is hugely beneficial to the world in the face of accelerating climate change.
There is now a strong international scientific consensus that human activity is causing global
warming. A substantial reduction in the planet’s forest cover over recent centuries is a major
contributor to this climatic change.
As trees grow they absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), the main 'greenhouse gas' responsible for
global warming, thereby reducing the concentration of this gas in the atmosphere. Forests are
referred to as 'carbon sinks' for this function of CO2 absorption and storage. Planting trees to
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bolster carbon sink area, an example of what’s termed ‘carbon sequestration’, helps offset the
loss of native forests and fights global warming.
At a local level, tree-planting on deforested lands creates further environmental benefits. Forests
play a vital role in regulating water supplies, helping to minimise both water shortages in times
of drought and damaging floods in heavy rains. Trees also reduce soil erosion, thereby
conserving soil quality upstream and water quality downstream. Forests also provide habitats for
a wide array of plant and animal species, a number of which are threatened with extinction by
deforestation.
Socio-economic benefits of reforestation projects include direct employment, infrastructure
development, skills-transfer and the creation of markets for related products and services.
Certain plantation forest models may also provide local communities with additional products
such as fuel-wood, fruit, nuts and herbs, and opportunities for agricultural activities (inter-
cropping, livestock grazing) within the forest area.
Finally, sustainable forestry can provide additional climate change and local environmental
benefits in the longer term. Once harvested, the wood from the trees may be used either as a
source of renewable energy, thereby reducing the use of fossil fuels, or for construction
materials or furniture-making, thereby reducing deforestation elsewhere.
GLOBAL WARMING EFFECT ON BIODIVERSITY
Many changes have been reported in the distribution of species. In general, many species have
expanded their ranges poleward in latitude and upward in elevation. Evidence of contraction in
species’ distribution is limited, however, possibly due to reporting difficulties and time lag in such
contractions due to a wide variety of possible mechanism such as population dynamics.
Populations of many species have declined, and although in some cases climate change is believed
to have contributed to the decline, attributing this is fraught with difficulty as it is likely to be only
one driver amongst many.
At the species level, changes observed that can be attributed to climate change involve those
surrounding phenology (the timing of events). Many birds and insects are showing changes, such
as earlier onset of migration, egg-laying and breeding.  In terms of ecosystems, there has been
some evidence on changes in distribution. e.g. desert ecosystems have expanded, and tree lines in
mountain systems have changed. Changes in the composition of ecosystems have also been
observed (e.g. increased lianas in tropical forest). Such changes may affect ecosystem function and
the ecosystem services they provide. Changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services due to
climate change are not all negative, with some species either thriving or adapting.
Most of these observed changes are modest, which is possibly due to the limited change in climate
that has occurred. However, future projected changes in climate are much larger. IPCC AR4
suggests that approximately 10% of species assessed so far will be at an increasingly high risk of
extinction for every 1°C rise in global mean temperature, within the range of future scenarios
modelled in impacts assessments (typically <5°C global temperature rise). Aquatic freshwater
habitats and wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, arctic and alpine ecosystems, and cloud forests are
particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Montane species and endemic species
have been identified as being particularly vulnerable because of narrow geographic and climatic
ranges, limited dispersal opportunities, and the degree of non-climate pressures. Potential impacts
of climate change on genetic diversity are little understood, though it is thought that genetic
diversity will increase the resilience of species to climate change.
Modeling studies on the potential impact of climate change on species indicates poleward shifts
and changes in altitude, range expansions or contractions corroborating the current evidence in the
most part. However, such studies highlight the individualistic nature of species’ responses to
climate change, which is likely to have a large impact on future composition of ecosystems.
Structure of ecosystems may also change. Models suggest this may have an impact on ecosystem
function. For example, modeling suggests increases in net primary production in northern Europe
but decreases in areas where water is a limiting resource.

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Changes in productivity are likely to change services such as nutrient cycling due to changes in
litter fall. Other potential changes to ecosystem services due to climate change, include changes to
the provisioning services (e.g. food, fiber, timber), carbon storage and sequestration, water
regulation and disease regulation.
Changes to ecosystems as a result of climate change are likely to have significant and often
negative social, cultural and economic consequences. However, there is still uncertainty about the
extent and speed at which climate change will impact biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the
thresholds of climate change above which ecosystems are irreversibly changed and no longer
function in their current form.
Tipping points are points at which a system passes from one steady state to another. These are
used for either climate tipping points or ecosystem tipping points. An example of the latter is
Amazon forest dieback.
There are several methods and tools to assess the impact of climate change on biodiversity and
ecosystem services. Vulnerability assessments have particular meaning in the natural hazards and
socio-economic fields but are used more loosely and encompass a variety of methods in the field
of biodiversity and climate change.
Climate envelope modelling is by far the most common tool used to assess potential impacts (and
to infer vulnerability) on species. Although these suffer a number of limitations, they do provide a
first cut assessment of the likely magnitude and direction of change. Dynamic models, population
models and mechanistic models are other modelling tools that have been used to assess future
impact and vulnerability on both species and ecosystems, though ecosystem service modeling is
still in its infancy. These latter models need to become more prominent as climate envelop
modeling mainly provide species exposure to climate change and thus only one facet of
vulnerability. Indeed vulnerability is defined as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive
capacity.
What are Carbon Credits
In order to work out just what exactly carbon credits are, where they come from and how they
work, we could use the analogy of our own credit cards which most of us still take for granted.
Now, ask anyone who has fallen prey to not managing their finances properly about the
consequences of this. Essentially, credit, when used responsibly, can achieve a great number of
positive things in our lives, such as financing and paying off our dream hybrid or college tuition
fees. But the danger is always there that this form of credit can be abused and when it is, the
consequences can be quite dire, reversing the quality of life immeasurably. There’s another old
saying which says; give credit where it is due. In the context of global warming and climate
change, this philosophy has become ironic.
It is ironic because giving (carbon) credit is largely overdue and time is rapidly running out in
order to address the long-overdue balance. It needs to be paid back as soon as possible. There is no
longer an available period of grace. Forget about main purposes for now, and let’s look at a brief
summary of what carbon credits are.
Permission – Permission is granted to a country, company or organization to produce a certain
number of emissions which can be traded in, if not used.
License to trade – Another explanation says that a certificate is issued giving the prospective
emitter the right to produce up to one ton of CO2 or its equivalent.
Another common term – Another widely used term refers to a carbon offset as a financial tool to
reduce (not increase) carbon emissions by storing carbons for future or later use.
So, in a nutshell, carbon credit (often called carbon offset) is a credit for greenhouse emissions
reduced or removed from the atmosphere from an emission reduction project, which can be used,
by governments, industry or private individuals to compensate for the emissions they are
generating.
How It Works

Emissions limits and trading rules vary country by country, so each emissions-trading market
operates differently. For nations that have signed the Kyoto Protocol, which holds each country to
its own C02 limit, greenhouse gas-emissions trading is mandatory. In the United States, which did
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not sign the environmental agreement, corporate participation is voluntary for emissions schemes
such as the Chicago Climate Exchange. Yet a few general principles apply to each type of market.
Under a basic cap-and-trade scheme, if a company’s carbon emissions fall below a set allowance,
that company can sell the difference — in the form of credits — to other companies that exceed
their limits. Another fast-growing voluntary model is carbon offsets. In this global market, a set of
middlemen companies, called offset firms, estimate a company’s emissions and then act as brokers
by offering opportunities to invest in carbon-reducing projects around the world. Unlike carbon
trading, offsetting isn’t yet government regulated in most countries; it’s up to buyers to verify a
project’s environmental worth. In theory, for every ton of C02 emitted, a company can buy
certificates attesting that the same amount of greenhouse gas was removed from the atmosphere
through renewable energy projects such as tree planting.
Why It Matters Now
Industry watchers say carbon markets will continue to grow at a fast clip — especially in the
United States, where Fortune 500 powerhouses such as DuPont, Ford, and IBM are voluntarily
capping and trading their emissions. Even though a national cap on carbon emissions doesn’t yet
exist in the United States, most consider it inevitable, and legislators are already pushing the issue
in Congress. It’s not just governments who are demanding emissions compliance — consumers
want it, too. The commitment a company makes to curb its pollutant output is an increasingly
public aspect of strategy. More and more employees are taking these factors into account when
deciding where to work. A recent study from MonsterTRAK found that 80 percent of young
professionals want their work to impact the environment in a positive way, and 92 percent prefer
to work for an environmentally friendly company.
Why It Matters to You
Let’s say a company can’t afford to modify its operations to reduce C02. Purchasing carbon
credits or offsets buys it time to figure out how to operate within C02 limits. For others, it can be a
cost-effective tool to help lower emissions while earning public praise for the effort. Each credit a
company buys on the Chicago Climate Exchange — usually for about $2 — means another
company will remove the equivalent of one metric ton of carbon.
The Advantages

Companies in different industries face dramatically different costs to lower their emissions. A
market-based approach allows companies to take carbon-reducing measures that everyone can
afford. “The private sector is better at developing diversified approaches to manage the costs and
risks [of reducing emissions],” says Jesse Fahnestock, spokesman at Swedish power company
Vattenfall, which is a member of a global Combat Climate Change coalition.
Reducing emissions and lowering energy consumption is usually good for the core business. For
example, in 1997 British Energy Company BP committed to bring its emissions down to 10
percent below 1990 levels. After taking simple steps like tightening valves, changing light bulbs,
and improving operations efficiency, BP implemented an internal cap-and-trade scheme and met
its emissions goal by the end of 2001 — nine years ahead of schedule. Using the combined C02
reduction strategy, BP reported saving about $650 million.
Then there’s the long-term investment angle: Buying into the carbon market boom now suggests
significant dividends later on. Carbon credits are relatively cheap now, but their value will likely
rise, giving companies another reason to participate.
The Disadvantages
As with any financial market, emissions traders are vulnerable to significant risk and volatility.
The EU’s trading scheme (EU-ETS), for instance, issued so many permits between 2005 and 2007
that it flooded the market. Supply soared and carbon prices bottomed out, removing incentives for
companies to trade. Enforcement of trading rules can be just as unpredictable, though Fahnestock
says the EU is working to correct the problems. Carbon offsets have their own drawbacks, which
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reflect a fast-growing and unregulated market. Some offset firms in the United States and abroad
have been caught selling offsets for normal operations that do not actually take any additional C02
out of the atmosphere, such as pumping C02 into oil wells to force out the remaining crude. In
2008 the Climate Group, the International Emissions Trading Association, and the World
Economic Forum will work to develop a Voluntary Carbon Standard to verify that offsetting
projects are beyond business-as-usual and have lasting environmental value.
The lack of offset regulations has also made marketing problematic. Recently, companies have
taken to declaring themselves “carbon neutral.” But until the Federal Trade Commission
determines the guidelines for such terms, it’s unclear which companies actually merit the
distinction. Already Vail Resorts, the organizers of the Academy Awards, and other organizations
have taken heat for touting their investments in carbon offset projects that were not entirely
environmentally sound.

Ozone-Depleting Substances
Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) generally contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon,
and hydrogen in varying proportions and are often described by the general term halocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform are important human-
produced ozone-depleting gases that have been used in many applications including refrigeration,
air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics components, and as solvents. Another
important group of human-produced halocarbons is the halons, which contain carbon, bromine,
fluorine, and (in some cases) chlorine and have been mainly used as fire extinguishers.
These substances are effective ozone-depleters for two reasons. The first is that they do
not break down in the lower atmosphere - they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years
or more. Unlike most chemicals released into the atmosphere at the Earth's surface, ozone-
depleting substances are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed by other chemicals,
which means they drift up into the stratosphere. The second is that they contain either/both
chlorine and/or bromine and thus help the natural reactions that destroy ozone. Once they reach
the stratosphere, ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks up these molecules into chlorine (for example,
from CFCs, methyl chloroform, or carbon tetrachloride) or bromine (for example, from halons or
methyl bromide) which, in turn, break up ozone (O3).
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs) are a group of chemical substances that contain one, two or
three carbon atoms and at least one atom each of chlorine and fluorine. CFCs were first developed
in the 1920s to replace sulphur dioxide as a coolant gas. In the 1930s they began to replace
ammonia for cooling uses. Their non-toxicity, non-flammability, stability and heat-absorption
effectiveness earned them early respect as wonder chemicals of the 20th Century. In the late 1940s
they began to be used as the propellant in aerosols. This use hit its peak in the late 1970s, when
CFC was identified as an ODS and aerosols became the main target of public action. CFCs were
also used in the production of packaging, insulation and other foams. In the 1980s they were
widely used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as solvents in degreasers and cleaners
and to dilute sterilant gas mixtures, and as blowing agents in the production of foams. The
manufacture and use of CFCs in industry has been severely curtailed following the Montreal
Protocol. They have been almost completely phased-out in developed countries, with remaining
uses limited to metered-dose inhalers. Starting in 2010, developing countries need to completely
phase out CFCs.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons: Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are a group of chemical
substances that contain one, two or three carbon atoms and at least one atom each of hydrogen,
chlorine and fluorine. The hydrogen makes them less stable and therefore less damaging to the
ozone layer. Except for a few HCFCs already in use in Canada - mainly used as refrigerants - most
HCFCs have been developed for use as transitional chemicals to replace the more damaging
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ozone-depleting substances, mainly CFCs. HCFCs have only two to five per cent of the ozone-
depleting potential of CFCs, which makes them a good temporary replacement for applications
where alternatives completely safe for the ozone layer are not yet available. HCFCs are mainly
used for foam blowing, refrigeration and air conditioning, solvent cleaning and to a lesser extent,
aerosols and fire protection. At the 19th Meeting of the Montreal Protocol, it was agreed to
accelerate the phase-out of HCFCs in both developed and developing countries. Developed
countries agreed to phase-out the production and consumption of HCFCs by 75% in 2010, by 90%
in 2015, and complete this accelerated phase-out by 2020, while allowing for the continued use of
0.5% for servicing until 2030.
Halons: Halons are a group of chemical compounds containing bromine, chlorine, fluorine or
carbon in its structure. Halons are very effective for extinguishing fires. They do not leave a solid
residue and are not a threat to people when used at the recommended concentrations. The
combined characteristics of halons make them suitable for all types of fire-extinguishing
equipment, ranging from industrial/commercial total-flooding equipment to the hand-held fire
extinguishers popular for office and home use. Although halons do not present a direct hazard to
people, they have a very high ozone-depleting potential (ODP) because they contain bromine. In
fact, halon 1301 - which is largely used in total-flooding systems - has the highest ODP of all
known ozone-depleting substances (10 times greater than that of CFC-11). Canada has never
produced halons but has imported some to satisfy its domestic needs. The importation of newly
produced halons has been banned since January 1, 1994. Developed countries no longer produce
new halons but use from stockpiles for airplanes and military applications is still allowed and
continues. Developing countries must completely phase-out halons by 2010.

Chlorofluorocarbons
Methyl
Chloroform Hydrochlorofluorocar
bons

Methyl Ozone-depleting
Bromide substances

Halons

Carbon
Tetrachloride Bromochloromethane

Bromochloromethane
Bromochloromethane is a chemical substance that contains chlorine, bromine, carbon and
hydrogen. It is also known as Halon 1011 or Chlorobromomethane. Total elimination of
consumption and production of bromochloroethane has been in place since January 1st, 2002.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride is a chemical substance consisting of one carbon atom and four
chlorine atoms. It was widely used as a raw material (feedstock) in the production of CFCs. CFCs
are no longer produced in Canada, eliminating the leading use of carbon tetrachloride in Canada.
Carbon tetrachloride is also used in the manufacture of other chemicals that do not deplete the
ozone layer. Smaller quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used in fire extinguishers, as a dry
cleaning agent, and as an ingredient in pesticides, pharmaceuticals, paints and solvents.Total
elimination of consumption and production of carbon tetrachloride has been in place since January
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1, 1996, with the exception of feedstock for manufacturing substances that do not deplete the
ozone layer - this use not being controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Developing countries are due
to achieve the same phase-out in 2010.
Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide is a chemical substance containing bromine, hydrogen and carbon and is
an important contributor to ozone depletion. This substance has a wide variety of agricultural uses
as a fumigant. It is used for soil fumigation and fumigation of some food production facilities.
Methyl bromide is also used in quarantine applications and pre-shipment applications for
commodities in trade. This use of methyl bromide is not controlled under the Montreal Protocol.
Methyl bromide is not manufactured in Canada, but is registered for use under the Pest Control
Products Act. Developed countries were to achieve the phase-out of agricultural uses by 2005.
However, alternatives are often either not well known, developed, accepted or allowed by
regulatory authorities. Therefore, there are still a number of critical use exemptions under the
Protocol, meaning that significant volumes of methyl bromide continue to be used. Developing
countries are scheduled to phase-out methyl bromide by 2015.
Methyl Chloroform
Methyl chloroform is a chemical compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. It was
popular because of its versatility and efficiency as a solvent in cleaners, degreasers and adhesives.
It first appeared as a substitute for carbon tetrachloride in the mid-1950s, and by the 1980s was
widely used by the electronics and equipment manufacturing industries. Under the Montreal
Protocol, its use has been phased-out in developed countries since January 1, 1996 and developing
countries have until 2015 to do the same.
Hydrobromofluorocarbons
Hydrobromofluorocarbons are a group of chemical substances that contain one, two or
three carbon atoms and at least one atom each of hydrogen, bromine and fluorine. HBFCs were
never commercialized in Canada. They were banned in 1996 in all countries.
IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT
Effects on Human Health
Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer
and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UVB has been linked to
the development of cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens.
Because all sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal stratospheric ozone levels, it is always
important to protect your skin and eyes from the sun. See a more detailed explanation of health
effects linked to UVB exposure.
EPA uses the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework model to estimate the health benefits of
stronger ozone layer protection under the Montreal Protocol. Updated information on the benefits
of EPA’s efforts to address ozone layer depletion is available in a 2015 report, Updating Ozone
Calculations and Emissions Profiles for Use in the Atmospheric and Health Effects Framework
Model.
Effects on Plants
UVB radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants. Despite
mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and an ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB,
plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation.

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Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed
within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally or
sometimes more important than damaging effects of UVB. These changes can have important
implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles.
Effects on Marine Ecosystems
Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is
limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient
sunlight to support net productivity. Exposure to solar UVB radiation has been shown to affect
both orientation and motility in phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these
organisms. Scientists have demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to
ozone depletion-related increases in UVB. UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early
developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The most
severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Small
increases in UVB exposure could result in population reductions for small marine organisms with
implications for the whole marine food chain.
Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles
Increases in UVB radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thus
altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically important trace gases (e.g., carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, ozone, and possibly other gases). These potential
changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that mitigate or amplify the
atmospheric concentrations of these gases.
Effects on Materials
Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of
commercial interest are adversely affected by UVB radiation. Today's materials are somewhat
protected from UVB by special additives. Yet, increases in UVB levels will accelerate their
breakdown, limiting the length of time for which they are useful outdoors.
Contact Us to ask a question, provide feedback, or report a problem.
Coastal Zone regulations

India has about 7500 kms of coastal areas including islands, many segments of which are
fragile and sensitive from the environmental angle. Apart from the high population density, the
coastal areas are also vulnerable and sensitive to the impacts of possible sea level rising, rise in the
high tide levels, cyclones and storms etc. which are influenced by climate change. Development
activities in the coastal areas are regulated by means of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Notifications and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plans made under them. The
National Environment Policy (NEP) recognizes that there is need to ensure that the regulations are
firmly founded on scientific principles, in order to ensure effective protection to valuable coastal
environmental resources without impeding livelihoods or legitimate coastal economic activity or
settlements, or infrastructure development. The NEP accordingly envisaged an action plan to
strengthen the ICZM and review the same at pre-determined intervals. The Plan also provided for
decentralization of the responsibility for the clearances of specified projects to State
Environmental Authorities, exempting activities which do not cause significant environmental
impacts and are consistent with approved ICZM plans.
Coastal Regulation Zone:
Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 a notification was issued in February,
1991, for regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF). As per the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line (HTL) and a
stage of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers subject to tidal fluctuations,

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is called the Coastal Regulation Zone(CRZ). CRZ along the country has been placed in four
categories. The above notification includes only the inter-tidal zone and land part of the coastal
area and does not include the ocean part. The notification imposed restriction on the setting up and
expansion of industries or processing plaits etc. in the said CRZ.
Classification of Coastal Regulation Zone:
For regulation of developmental activities, the coastal stretches within 500m of HTL on
the landward side are classified into four categories, viz..
 Category I (CRZ-I)
 Category II (CRZ - II)
 Category III (CRZ-III)
 Category IV (CRZ-IV)
 Category I (CRZ -I):
a) Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important, such as national parks/marine parks,
sanctuaries, reserve forests, wild habitats, mangroves, corals/coral reefs, area close to breeding and
spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural beauty, historical and
heritage areas, areas rich in genetic biodiversity, areas likely to be inundated due to rise in sea
level consequent upon global warming and such areas as may be declared by the authorities.
b) Areas between the Low Tide Line and High Tide Line
Regulations:
No new constructions shall be permitted within 500m of the HTL.
Category II (CRZ -II):
The area that have already been developed up to or the shoreline. For this purpose, ' Developed
Area' is referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other legally designated urban
areas which is already substantially built up and which has been provided with drainage and
approach roads and other infrastructural facilities, such as water supply and sewerage mains.
Regulations:
a) Buildings shall be permitted neither on the seaward side of the existing road(or roads
proposed in the approved Coastal Zone Plane of the area) nor on the seaward side of the existing
and proposed road. Existing authorized structures shall be subject to the existing local Town and
Country Planning regulations including the existing norms of FIS/FAR
b) Reconstruction of the authorized building to be permitted subject to the existing FSI/FAR
norms and without change in the existing use.
c) The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding landscape
and architectural style
Category III (CRZ -III):
Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category I or II.
These will include coastal zone in the areas (developed and undeveloped) and also areas within
Municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which are not substantially built up.
Regulations:
a) The area up to 200m from the HTL is be earmarked as 'No Development Zone'. No
construction shall be permitted in this zone except for repairs of existing authorized structures not
exceeding existing FSI, existing plinth area and existing density. However, the following uses may
be permissible in this zone-agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pastures, parks, play fields, forestry
and salt manufacture from sea water.
b) Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500m of High Tide Line in designated areas of
CRZ-III with prior approval of Ministry of Environment and forests permitted for construction of
hotels/beach resorts for temporary occupation of tourists / visitors.
c) Construction/ reconstruction of dwelling units between 200m and 500m of the High Tidal
Line permitted so long as it is within the ambit of traditional rights and customary uses such as
existing fishing villages and gothans. Building permission for such Construction/reconstruction
will be subject to the conditions that the total member of dwelling unit shall not be more than
twice the number of existing units; total area covered on all floors shall not exceed 9 meters and
construction shall not be more than 2 floors (ground floor plus one floor).

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 d) Reconstruction/alteration of an existing authorized building permitted subject to (1) to (3)
above.
Category IV (CRZ-IV):
Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakhadweep and small islands, except
those designated as CRZ I, CRZ II and CRZ III.
Regulations
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
1. No new construction of buildings shall be permitted within 200m of HTL.
2. The buildings between 200m and 500m from the HTL shall not more than 2 floors, the total
area covered on all floors shall not be more than 50% of the plot size and total height of
construction shall not exceed 9m.
3. The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding landscape and
local architectural style.
4. Corals and sand from the beaches and coastal waters shall not be used for construction and
purposes.
5. Dredging and underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted
6. However, in some of the islands, coastal stretches may also be classified into categories of
CRZ-I or II or III with the prior approval of the MoEF and in such designated structures.
Activities prohibited within the CRZ
The following activities are declared as prohibited within the CRZ
1. Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, except those directly related
to water front or directly needing foreshore facilities.
2. Manufacture or handling or disposal of hazardous substances.
3. Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehousing ( excluding hatchery
and natural fish drying in permitted areas)
4. Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of waste and effluents into the water
course.
5. Discharging of city untreated waters and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other
human settlements.
6. Dumping of city or town waste for the purposes of land filling or otherwise; the existing
practice, if any, shall be phased out within a reasonable time not exceeding three years from the
date of notification.
7. Dumping of ash or any wastes form the date of notification.
8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing the natural course of sea water with similar
observations, except those required for control of coastal erosion and maintenance or sandbars
except tidal regulators, storm water recharge.
9. Mining of sand, rocks and other substrata materials not available outside CRZ areas.
10. Harvesting or drawl of groundwater and construction of transfer within 200m of HTL; in the
200m to 500m zone it shall be permitted only when done manually through ordinary wells for
drinking, horticulture, agriculture and fisheries.
11. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas
12. Any construction between LTL and HTL except facilities for carrying treated effluents and
waste discharges, oil, gas and similar pipelines and dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills natural
features including landscape changes for beautification, recreational and other such purposes.
"Bio-medical waste
"Bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment
or immunisation of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biological, and including categories mentioned in Schedule I.
"Bio-medical waste treatment facility” means any facility wherein treatment disposal of
bio-medical waste or processes incidental to such treatment or disposal is carried out [and
includes common treatment facilities.
Statutory provision for bio medical waste

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Management
Biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed of to protect the environment,
general public and workers, especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are at risk of
exposure to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard. Steps in the management of biomedical
waste include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal.
On-site versus off-site
Two people wearing full protective clothing move a plastic trash bag into a marked spot,
while their trainer watches them. Their trainer.
These healthcare workers are being trained to safely handle contaminated wastes before being
assigned to an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever.
Disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation.
Treatment may occur on-site or off-site. On-site treatment of large quantities of biomedical waste
usually requires the use of relatively expensive equipment, and is generally only cost effective for
very large hospitals and major universities who have the space, labor and budget to operate such
equipment. Off-site treatment and disposal involves hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service
(also called a truck service) whose employees are trained to collect and haul away biomedical
waste in special containers (usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a
facility designed to handle biomedical waste.

Generation and accumulation

Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently
strong to prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with a
biohazard symbol. The container, marking, and labels are often red.
Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes.
Specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1450[4] and EPA 40 CFR
264.173. standards of safety. Minimal recommended equipment includes a fume hood and primary
and secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the fume hood,
containers containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. An open
funnel placed in the mouth of a waste container has been shown to allow significant evaporation of
chemicals into the surrounding atmosphere, which is then inhaled by laboratory personnel, and
contributes a primary component to the threat of completing the fire triangle. To protect the health
and safety of laboratory staff as well as neighboring civilians and the environment, proper waste
management equipment, such as the Burkle funnel in Europe and the ECO Funnel in the U.S.,
should be utilized in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after
treatment.
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL:
(1) Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance with Schedule I, and in
compliance with the standards prescribed in Schedule V.
(2) Every occupier, where required, shall set up in accordance with the time-schedule in Schedule
VI, requisite bio-medical waste treatment facilities like incinerator, autoclave, microwave system
for the treatment of waste, or, ensure requisite treatment of waste at a common waste treatment
facility or any other waste treatment facility.
SEGREGATION, PACKAGING, TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE:
(1) Bio-medical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes.

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(2) Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation in
accordance with Schedule II prior to its storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. The
containers shall be labeled according to Schedule III.
(3) If a container is transported from the premises where bio-medical waste is generated to any
waste treatment facility outside the premises, the container shall, apart from the label prescribed in
Schedule III, also carry information prescribed in Schedule IV.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, or rules thereunder,
untreated bio-medical waste shall be transported only in such vehicle as may be authorised for the
purpose by the competent authority as specified by the Government.
(5) No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours: Provided
that if for any reason it becomes necessary to store the waste beyond such period, the authorized
person must take permission of the prescribed authority and take measures to ensure that the waste
does not adversely affect human health and the environment.
(6) The Municipal body of the area shall continue to pick up and transport segregated non bio
medical solid waste generated in hospitals and nursing homes, as well as duly treated bio-medical
wastes for disposal at municipal dump site

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 CHAPTER: 5
ENERGY CONSERVATION:
Use of clean technology:
Photovoltaics (PV): Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power
systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaics
were initially, and still are, used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the
calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. They
are an important and relatively inexpensive source of electrical energy where grid power is
inconvenient, unreasonably expensive to connect, or simply unavailable. However, as the cost of
solar electricity is falling, solar power is also increasingly being used even in grid-connected
situations as a way to feed low-carbon energy into the grid.
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current
using the photovoltaic effect. The array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces
direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this
usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use
of inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form
arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the
desired frequency/phase. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever
available, especially in developed countries with large markets.[8] In these grid-connected PV
systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or
in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups.
Such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.
The important point of this slide is that it emphasizes that there is another type of solar
energy, solar thermal, that converts sunlight energy into heat. This workbook does not cover solar
thermal. We are not concerned about the heat content of sunlight, PV cells and modules do not
utilize the heat, only the light.
Light (photon) Energy== Electric Energy
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of
light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an
electric current. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of
solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include
monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays
(array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
The solar cell works in several steps:
 Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such
as silicon.
 Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital. Once excited an electron
can either dissipate the energy as heat and return to its orbital or travel through the cell
until it reaches an electrode. Current flows through the material to cancel the potential and
this electricity is captured. The chemical bonds of the material are vital for this process to
work, and usually silicon is used in two layers, one layer being bonded with boron, the
other phosphorus. These layers have different chemical electric charges and subsequently
both drive and direct the current of electrons.[1]

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  An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.
 An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC).
Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of. These
materials must have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight. Some cells are designed to
handle sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized for use in space. Solar
cells can be made of only one single layer of light-absorbing material (single-junction) or use
multiple physical configurations (multi-junctions) to take advantage of various absorption and
charge separation mechanisms. Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation
cells. The first generation cells—also called conventional, traditional or wafer-based cells—are
made of crystalline silicon, the commercially predominant PV technology, that includes materials
such as polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon. Second generation cells are thin film solar cells
that include amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and are commercially significant in utility-
scale photovoltaic power stations, building integrated photovoltaic or in small stand-alone power
system. The third generation of solar cells includes a number of thin-film technologies often
described as emerging photovoltaic—most of them have not yet been commercially applied and
are still in the research or development phase.
Silicon solar photovoltaic cells = a device made of semiconductor materials that produce
electricity under light.
● A p-n junction is created in silicon by a doping process.
The photons from exposed the light - prompted electrons flowing from n junction to the p-junction
→Electric current flow.
 Types of Solar PV Cell
A. Flat plate systems:
 On rigid flat surface
 Usually from single wafers
 from 300 to 250 to 200 μm tk
 Area: 170 cm2 approx.
 Output power: 1 - 2 W approx.
 Output Voltage: 0.5 v approx.
Concentrator systems:

 With optical components, e.g.

 lenses to direct and concentrate
 sunlight on the PV cells of small areas
 Involving tracking mechanisms
 for directing the sunlight
 Can increase power flux of sunlight hundreds of times
 Heat dissipation required
Solar collector
It is possible to harness the energy from the sun and convert it into either electricity or
heat using PV (photo-voltaic) or ST (solar thermal) technologies respectively.
PV (Photo-Voltaic) PV converts sunlight into electricity using a semiconductor material
(normally silicon). When light strikes the cell a portion is absorbed within the semiconductor
material knocking electrons loose and allowing them to flow. This results in an electric current
and thus electricity production. PV panels primarily absorb the visible portion of the light
spectrum. PV panels are normally connected to an inverter to convert from DC (Direct current) to
AC (Alternating current) and subsequently the electricity is fed into the power grid. The PV panels
may also directly run devices with DC power such as solar powered calculators, or lights.The DC
electricity can also be stored in batteries. Standard PV panels are able to convert available
sunlight into electricity with optimal conversion efficiency of around 15%, with some panels able
to reach as high as 20%. It is important to note that a panel rated at 200Watts will not consistently
provide 200Watts of electricity throughout the day. The 200Watt rating is based on maximum
summer sun radiation level of 1000W/m2 ( 317.1Btu/ft2) in an ambient temperature of 25oC /
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77oF. So on a clear summer day a 200Watt panel can be expected to provide around 0.7 - 0.8kWh
of electrical energy.
ST (Solar Thermal) Solar thermal panels are referred to by a number of different names such as
Solar Water Heater, Solar Hot Water Panel, Solar Hot Water Collector, Solar Thermal Panel or
Solar Thermal Collector. These terms all describe the same generic device. Solar water heaters
work by absorbing sunlight and converting it into usable heat. A simply analogy is to think about
a dark coloured object sitting in the summer sun. Over time it can become very hot from
absorbing the sunlight. Solar water heaters work in the same way by using materials that are
specially designed to maximise the efficiency of that absorption. High quality absorber coatings,
as used by Apricus products, are able to absorb up to 95% of the energy in sunlight throughout the
full spectral range (PV only absorbs a portion of the spectrum).
Solar concentrator
Solar concentrator is a device that allows the collection of sunlight from a large area and
focusing it on a smaller receiver or exit. A conceptual representation of a solar concentrator used
in harnessing the power from the sun to generate electricity. The material used to fabricate the
concentrator varies depending on the usage. For solar thermal, most of the concentrators are
made from mirrors while for the BIPV system, the concentrator is either made of glass or
transparent plastic. These materials are far cheaper than the PV material. The cost per unit area
of a solar concentrator is therefore much cheaper than the cost per unit area of a PV material. By
introducing this concentrator, not only the same amount of energy could be collected from the
sun, the total cost of the solar cell could also be reduced. Arizona Public Service has concluded
that the most cost-effective PV for commercial application in the future will be dominated by
high concentration collector incorporated by high-efficiency cell. For the past four decades, there
have been a lot of developments involving the designs of the solar concentrators. This paper
presents some of the distinguish designs which have shown significant contribution to the solar
technology. They are:
• Parabolic Concentrator The two dimensional design of a parabolic concentrator is equals to a
parabola. It is widely used as a reflecting solar concentrator. A distinct property that it has is that
it can focus all the parallel rays from the sun to a single focus point, F. It is not necessary to use
the whole part of the parabola curve to construct the concentrator. Most of the parabolic
concentrator employs only a truncated portion of the parabola.
• Hyperboloid Concentrator The general design of a hyperboloid concentrator is shown. It
consists of two hyperbolic sections, AB and A’B’. The hyperboloid concentrator can be produces
by rotating the two dimensional design along its symmetrical axis. The diameters of the entrance
and exit aperture are labeled as d1 and d2 respectively. If the inside wall of the hyperbolic profile
is considered as a mirror, the sun rays entering the concentrator from AA’ will be reflected and
focused to the exit aperture BB’.The advantage of this concentrator is that it is very compact,
since only truncated version of the concentrator needs to be used. Because of this factor, it is
mainly used as a secondary concentrator.
• Fresnel Lens Concentrator Fresnel lens function is similar to the conventional lens, by
refracting the rays and focusing them at one focal point. It generally has two sections; a flat
upper surface and a back surface that employs canted facets. There are two ways to use this
concentrator; a point focus Fresnel lens or a line focus Fresnel lens. The advantage of a Fresnel
lens over a conventional lens is that it is thinner and requires a lesser amount of material to
fabricate. It also has the capability to separate the direct and diffuse light, making it suitable to
control the illumination and temperature of a building interior [26]. One of the disadvantages of
this concentrator will be due to the sharpness of the facet. An error in the manufacturing process
could create a rounder shape at the edges of the facets, causing the rays improperly focused at the
receiver.
• Flat High Concentration Devices have successfully produced a different class of nominating
concentrators. The concentrators are able to achieve theoretical maximum acceptance-angle-
concentration. Currently, Light Prescription Innovators (LPI) is working closely with UPM to
further develop and market these concentrators. Basically concentrator means that the rays in this
concentrator will first experience a reflection followed by refraction, before reaching the receiver

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of which a PV cell is attached. These concentrators have two major benefits; they are very
compact and offer very high concentration.
However, there are some disadvantages of this design. Due to the cell’s position, it is difficult to
create Electrical connection and heat sinking. The cell dimension must be designed to be as
minimal as possible to reduce shadowing effect.
• Quantum Dot Concentrator (QDC) Quantum dot concentrator, (QDC) is a planar device that
consists of three parts; a transparent sheet of glass or plastic made doped with quantum dots
(QDs), reflective mirrors mounted on the three edges and back surface, and an exit where a PV
cell is attached. When the sun radiation hits the surface of a QDC, a part of the radiation will be
refracted by the fluorescent material and absorbed by the QDs. Photons are then reemitted in all
direction and are guided to the PV cell via total internal reflection. The total geometrical
concentration will be the ratio of the large surface area of glass to the area of PV cell. QDC
major advantage is that it does not requires any tracking as other conventional concentrator. It
can also make full use of both direct and diffuse solar radiation. However, the drawback of the
QDC is that the development of QDC is restricted to high requirements on the luminescent dyes;
i.e. high quantum efficiency, suitable absorption spectra and redshifts, and stability under
illumination.
Solar thermal energy
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar
energy to generate thermal energy or electrical energy for use in industry, and in the residential
and commercial sectors. The first installation of solar thermal energy equipment occurred in the
Sahara Desert approximately in 1910 when a steam engine was run on steam produced by
sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara
project was abandoned, only to be revisited several decades later. Solar thermal collectors are
classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low-, medium-, or high-
temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat
swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for
heating water or air for residential and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate
sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300
deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production.
Low-temperature collectors: Unglazed solar collectors are primarily used to pre-heat make-up
ventilation air in commercial, industrial and institutional buildings with a high ventilation load.
They turn building walls or sections of walls into low cost, high performance, unglazed solar
collectors. Also called, "transpired solar panels", they employ a painted perforated metal solar
heat absorber that also serves as the exterior wall surface of the building. Heat conducts from the
absorber surface to the thermal boundary layer of air 1 mm thick on the outside of the absorber
and to air that passes behind the absorber. The boundary layer of air is drawn into a nearby
perforation before the heat can escape by convection to the outside air. The heated air is then
drawn from behind the absorber plate into the building's ventilation system.
Medium-temperature collectors These collectors could be used to produce approximately 50%
and more of the hot water needed for residential and commercial used. Medium-temperature
installations can use any of several designs: common designs are pressurized glycol, drain back,
batch systems and newer low pressure freeze tolerant systems using polymer pipes containing
water with photovoltaic pumping. This innovation reduces or even eliminates the occurrence of
no-flow high temperature stresses called stagnation which would otherwise reduce the life
expectancy of collectors.
High-temperature collectors Where temperatures below about 95 °C are sufficient, as for space
heating, flat-plate collectors of the no concentrating type are generally used. Because of the
relatively high heat losses through the glazing, flat plate collectors will not reach temperatures
much above 200 °C even when the heat transfer fluid is stagnant. Such temperatures are too low
for efficient conversion to electricity. Heat storage allows a solar thermal plant to produce
electricity at night and on overcast days. This allows the use of solar power for baseload
generation as well as peak power generation, with the potential of displacing both coal- and

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natural gas-fired power plants. Additionally, the utilization of the generator is higher which
reduces cost.
Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during the day, and
withdrawn for power generation at night. Thermal storage media include pressurized steam,
concrete, a variety of phase change materials, and molten salts such as calcium, sodium and
potassium nitrate

Solar electricity generation energy : Solar panels turn energy from the sun’s rays directly into
useful energy that can be used in homes and businesses. There are two main types: solar thermal
and photovoltaic, or PV. Solar thermal panels use the sun’s energy to heat water that can be used
in washing and heating. PV panels use the photovoltaic effect to turn the sun’s energy directly
into electricity, which can supplement or replace a building’s usual supply. A PV panel is made
up of a semiconducting material, usually silicon-based, sandwiched between two electrical
contacts. To generate as much electricity as possible, PV panels need to spend as much time as
possible in direct sunlight. A sloping, south-facing roof is the ideal place to mount a solar panel.
A sheet of glass protects the semiconductor sandwich from hail, grit blown by the wind, and
wildlife. The semiconductor is also coated in an antireflective substance, which makes sure that
it absorbs the sunlight it needs instead of scattering it uselessly away.
When sunlight strikes the panel and is absorbed, it knocks loose electrons from some of the
atoms that make up the semiconductor. The semiconductor is positively charged on one side and
negatively charged on the other side, which encourages all these loose electrons to travel in the
same direction, creating an electric current.
The electricity PV panels generate is direct current (DC). Before it can be used in homes
and businesses, it has to be changed into alternating current (AC) electricity using an inverter (3).
The inverted current then travels from the
inverter to the building’s fuse box and
from there to the appliances that need it.
PV systems installed in homes and
businesses can include a dedicated
metering box that measures how much
electricity the panels are generating. As an
incentive to generate renewable energy,
energy suppliers pay the system’s owner a
fixed rate for every unit of electricity it
generates - plus a bonus for units the owner
doesn’t use, because these can help supply
the national grid. Installing a PV system is
not cheap, but this deal can help the owner
to earn back the cost more quickly - and
potentially even make a profit one day.
Light striking a silicon semiconductor
causes electrons to flow, creating
electricity. Solar power generating systems take advantage of this property to convert sunlight
directly into electrical energy.
There are two types of solar power generating systems: grid-connected systems, which are
connected to the commercial power infrastructure; and stand-alone systems, which feed
electricity to a facility for immediate use, or to a battery for storage.
Grid-connected systems are used for homes, public facilities such as schools and
hospitals, and commercial facilities such as offices and shopping centres. Electricity generated
during the daytime can be used right away, and in some cases surplus electricity can be sold to
the utility power company. If the system doesn’t generate enough electricity, or generates none
at all (for example, on a cloudy or rainy day, or at night) electricity is purchased from the utility
power company. Power production levels and surplus selling can be checked in real time on a
monitor, an effective way to gauge daily energy consumption. Stand-alone systems are used in a

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 variety of applications, including emergency power supply and remote power where traditional
infrastructure is unavailable.
Solar cooker a solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or
pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers presently in use are relatively inexpensive, low-tech
devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced,
large-scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people.
Principles
 Concentrating sunlight: A mirrored surface with high specular reflectivity is used to concentrate
light from the sun onto a small cooking area. Depending on the geometry of the surface,
sunlight can be concentrated by several orders of magnitude producing temperatures high
enough to melt salt and smelt metal. For most household solar cooking applications, such high
temperatures are not required. Solar cooking products, thus, are typically designed to achieve
temperatures of 150°F (65°C) (baking temperatures) to 750°F (400°C) (grilling/searing
temperatures) on a sunny day.
 Converting light energy to heat energy: Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a receiver such
as a cooking pan. The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material converts
light to heat. This conversion is maximized by using materials that conduct and retain heat. Pots
and pans used on solar cookers should be matte black in color to maximize the absorption.
 Trapping heat energy: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker
from the air outside the cooker. Simply using a glass lid on your pot enhances light absorption
from the top of the pan and provides a greenhouse effect that improves heat retention and
minimizes convection loss. In resource constrained settings, a high-temperature plastic bag can
serve a similar function, trapping air inside and making it possible to reach temperatures on
cold and windy days similar to those possible on hot days.
There are three main components to most solar cookers, or you could say three main principles to
effective solar cooking; these being:
 Concentration (reflection, or reflectance)
 Absorption (ability to attract or hold heat.
 Retention (means or capacity to retain heat)
 Concentration of the sun's rays is performed most often by reflecting panels, petals and
such surfaces that can "focus" or concentrate the rays of light (UV) to a point or
concentration.These reflecting panels are usually made of materials that are shiny and reflective
due to the substance used in their manufacture, such as silver, chromium and aluminum.Without a
means to concentrate the sun's rays it can take longer to heat objects or surfaces, thus most solar
cookers are constructed with reflector panels to speed up the process of heat accumulation.
 Absorption of the sun's energy (heat)in solar cooking is best achieved when a surface is
dark in color, thus the most common solar oven interiors are usually black in color as well as the
color of the cookware used for cooking the food.
Dark colors absorb the heat, whereas light colors do not absorb heat well. And some colors can
reflect the sun's energy away, such as silver for example. Generally, the best cookware for solar
cooking is the dark, thin variety because it absorbs the heat (energy) well; and because it is thin, it
can then transfer the heat more quickly and evenly to the food.
 Retention is the final principle in solar cooking. If a solar cooker is not well insulated and
if it does not have a cover, or lid, then all of the concentrated heat (energy) and all of the absorbed
heat would quickly dissipate into the air and be lost to the surrounding environment. A solar
cooker must have the means to "trap" or hold the concentrated heat allowing it to accumulate and
to "build up" to sufficiently high enough levels to be able to effectively cook.
Wind Energy Wind power is extracted from air flow using wind turbines or sails to produce
mechanical or electrical power. Windmills are used for their mechanical power, wind pumps for
water pumping, and sail to propel ships. Wind power as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful,
renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, and
uses little land. The net effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from
non-renewable power sources. Wind power is very consistent from year to year but has significant
variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with other sources to give a
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 reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid
and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power management
techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically distributed turbines, dispatch able
backing sources, sufficient hydroelectric power, exporting and importing power to neighbouring
areas, using Vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low, can in
many cases overcome these problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electricity
network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.
Wind Energy for power generation
Wind Energy, like solar is a free energy resource. But is much intermittent than solar. Wind
speeds may vary within minutes and affect the power generation and in cases of high speeds- may
result in overloading of generator. Energy from the wind can be tapped using turbines.
Setting up of these turbines needs little research before being established. Be it a small wind
turbine on a house, a commercial wind farm or any offshore installation, all of them, at first, need
the Wind Resource to be determined in the area of proposed site. The Wind Resource data is an
estimation of average and peak wind speeds at a location based on various meteorological. The
next step is to determine access to the transmission lines or nearest control centre where the power
generated from the turbines can be conditioned, refined, stored or transmitted. It is also necessary
to survey the impact of putting up wind turbines on the community and wildlife in the locality. If
sufficient wind resources are found, the developer will secure land leases from property owners,
obtain the necessary permits and financing; purchase and install wind turbines. The completed
facility is often sold to an independent operator called an independent power producer (IPP) who
generates electricity to sell to the local utility, although some utilities own and operate wind farms
directly.
The range of wind speeds that are usable by a particular wind turbine for electricity generation is
called productive wind speed. The power available from wind is proportional to cube of the wind's
speed. So as the speed of the wind falls, the amount of energy that can be got from it falls very
rapidly. On the other hand, as the wind speed rises, so the amount of energy in it rises very
rapidly; very high wind speeds can overload a turbine. Productive wind speeds will range between
4 m/sec to 35 m/sec. The minimum prescribed speed for optimal performance of large scale wind
farms is about 6 m/s. Wind power potential is mostly assessed assuming 1% of land availability
for wind farms required @12 ha/MW in sites having wind power density exceeding 200 W/sq.m.
at 50 m hub-height.
The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is
connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are
mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground,
they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used to produce
electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid (shown
here) for more widespread electricity distribution.
Windmill
A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes
called sails or blades.Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump water, or
both. Thus they often were gristmills, wind pumps, or both. The majority of modern windmills
take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity, or wind pumps used to pump water,
either for land drainage or to extract groundwater. In wind turns two or three propeller-like blades
around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create
electricity. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30
meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind
turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected
to an electricity grid (shown here) for more widespread electricity distribution.
Horizontal windmills: The first practical windmills had sails that rotated in a horizontal plane,
around a vertical axis. Horizontal windmills were built, in small numbers, in Europe during the 18th
and nineteenth centuries.
Vertical windmills: Due to a lack of evidence, debate occurs among historians as to whether or not
Middle Eastern horizontal windmills triggered the original development of European windmills. In

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north Western Europe, the horizontal-axis or vertical windmill (so called due to the plane of the
movement of its sails) is believed to date from the last quarter of the twelfth century in the triangle
of northern France, eastern England and Flanders.
Wind turbine is made up of the following components:
1. Tower and foundation: In order to guarantee the stability of a wind turbine a pile or flat
foundation is used, depending on the consistency of the underlying ground. The tower
construction doesn’t just carry the weight of the nacelle and the rotor blades, but must also
absorb the huge static loads caused by the varying power of the wind. Generally, a tubular
construction of concrete or steel is used. An alternative to this is the lattice tower form.
2. Rotor and rotor blades: The rotor is the component which, with the help of the rotor blades,
converts the energy in the wind into rotary mechanical movement. Currently, the three-blade,
horizontal axis rotor dominates. The rotor blades are mainly made of glass-fibre or carbon-
fibre reinforced plastics (GRP, CFRP). The blade profile is similar to that of an aeroplane
wing. They use the same principle of lift: on the lower side of the wing the passing air
generates higher pressure, while the upper side generates a pull. These forces cause the rotor
to move forwards, i.e. to rotate.
3. Nacelle with drive train : The nacelle holds all the turbine machinery. Because it must be
able to rotate to follow the wind direction, it is connected to the tower via bearings. The
build-up of the nacelle shows how the manufacturer has decided to position the drive train
components (rotor shaft with bearings, transmission, generator, coupling and brake) above
this machine bearing.
a) Gearbox : The gearbox converts the rotor motion of 18-50 rpm into the approx. 1,500 rpm
which the generator requires.
The gearbox thus takes on the task of matching the rotation speeds of the slow-moving rotor
and the fast-moving generator, and generally has several steps to cover for various wind
conditions.
b) Generator: For high power wind turbines, doubly-fed asynchronous generators are most
frequently used. Here, the operating rotation speed can be varied somewhat, unlike when
using conventional asynchronous generators. Another concept uses synchronous generators.
A grid connection of synchronous generators is only possible via transformers, due to the
fixed rotation behaviour. The disadvantage of requiring complicated control systems is
countered by the overall efficiency and better grid compatibility.
4. Electronic equipment: The electronic equipment of a wind turbine is composed of the
generator (see above), the system for the grid in feed of the electricity, and various sensors.
The sensors for measuring temperature, wind direction, wind speed and many other things
can be found in and around the nacelle, and assist in turbine control and monitoring.
Wind energy potential in India :
Geographic Location and Wind Potential: The potential is far from exhausted. It is estimated that
with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind energy for
electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. India also is blessed with 7517km of
coastline and its territorial waters extend up to 12 nautical miles into the sea. The unexploited
resource availability has the potential to sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the
years to come. Potential areas can be identified on Indian map using Wind Power Density map.
C-WET, one of pioneering Wind Research organization in the country is leading in all such
resource studies and has launched its Wind Resource map. In a step towards identifying and
properly exploiting these wind resources, MNRE has estimated state-wise wind power potential
in the country.
Clean Wind to overcome power shortage: Electricity losses in India during transmission and
distribution have been extremely high over the years and this reached a worst proportion of about
24.7% during 2010-11. India is in a pressing need to tide over a peak power shortfall of 13% by
reducing losses due to theft. Theft of electricity, common in most parts of urban India, amounts to
1.5% of India’s GDP. Due to shortage of electricity, power cuts are common throughout India
and this has adversely affected the country’s economic growth. Hence a cheaper, non-polluting
and environment friendly solution to power rural India is needed.

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Wind energy as job generator: Wind energy utilization creates many more jobs than centralized,
non-renewable energy sources. Wind Energy companies have opened up huge career options.
Also the ease and accessibility of manufacturing technology has given entrepreneurs with new
business options to venture in. The wind sector worldwide has become a major job generator:
Within only three years, the wind sector worldwide almost doubled the number of jobs from
235,000 in 2005 to 440,000 in the year 2008. These highly skilled employees are contributing to
the generation of 260 Tw of electricity.
Capacity Installed : A notable feature of the Indian programmer has been the interest among
private investors/developers in setting up of commercial wind power projects. Several companies
have established themselves in wind technology manufacturing.
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind turbine,
generator, interconnection apparatus and control systems, as shown in Figure 3. Wind
turbines can be classified into the vertical axis type and the horizontal axis type. Most
modern wind turbines use a horizontal axis configuration with two or three blades, operating
either down-wind or up-wind. The major components in the nacelle of a typical wind turbine
are illustrated. A wind turbine can be designed for a constant speed or variable speed
operation.Variable speed wind turbines can produce 8% to 15% more energy outputas
compared to their constant speed counterparts, however, they necessitate power electronic
converters to provide a fixed frequency and fixed voltage power to their loads. Most turbine
manufacturers have opted for reduction gears between the low speed turbine rotor and the
high speed three-phase generators. Direct drive configuration, where a generator is coupled
to the rotor of a wind turbine directly, offers high reliability, low maintenance, and possibly
low cost for certain turbines.
Several manufacturers have opted for the direct drive configuration in the recent turbine
designs. At the present time and in the near future, generators for wind turbines will be
synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and induction
generators, including the squirrel cage type and wound rotor type. For small to medium
power wind turbines, permanent magnet generators and squirrel cage induction generators
are often used because of their reliability and cost advantages. Induction generators,
permanent magnet synchronous generators and wound field synchronous generators are
currently used in various high power wind turbines.
Interconnection apparatuses are devices to achieve power control, soft start and
interconnection functions. Very often, power electronic converters are used as such devices.
Most modern turbine inverters are forced commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed
voltage and fixed
frequency output with a high power quality. Both voltage source voltage controlled inverters
and voltage source current controlled inverters have been applied in wind turbines. For
certain high power wind turbines, effective power control can be achieved with double PWM
(pulse
width modulation) converters which provide a bi-directional power flow between the turbine
generator and the utility grid.
Hydroelectric energy
It is made by moving water. Hydro comes from the Greek word for water.
Hydroelectric energy has been in use for thousands of years. Ancient Romans built turbines,
which are wheels turned by flowing water. Roman turbines were not used for electricity, but for
grinding grains to make flour and breads.
Water mills provide another source of hydroelectric energy. Water mills, which were common
until the Industrial Revolution, are large wheels usually located on the banks of moderately
flowing rivers. Water mills generate energy that powers such diverse activities as grinding
grain, cutting lumber, or creating hot fires to create steel.
The first U.S. hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in 1882 in Appleton,
Wisconsin. This plant powered two paper mills and one home.
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 Harnessing Hydroelectricity
To harness energy from flowing water, the water must be controlled. A large reservoir is
created, usually by damming a river to create an artificial lake, or reservoir. Water is channeled
through tunnels in the dam.
The energy of water flowing through the dam's tunnels causes turbines to turn. The
turbines make generators move. Generators are machines that produce electricity.
Engineers control the amount of water let through the dam. The process used to control this
flow of water is called the intake system. When a lot of energy is needed, most of the tunnels to
the turbines are open, and
millions of gallons of water flow
through them. When less energy
is needed, engineers slow down
the intake system by closing
some of the tunnels.
During floods, the intake system
is helped by a spillway. A
spillway is a structure that allows
water to flow directly into the
river or other body of water
below the dam, bypassing all
tunnels, turbines, and generators.
Spillways prevent the dam and
the community from being
damaged. Spillways, which look like long ramps, are empty and dry most of the time.
Hazards related to hydropower generation:
Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river
plants. Large-scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many parts of the world
(including China and Brazil), but it is unlikely that new facilities will be added to the existing
U.S. fleet in the future.
Instead, the future of hydroelectric power in the United States will likely involve increased
capacity at current dams and new run-of-the-river projects. There are environmental impacts at
both types of plants.
Wildlife Impacts: Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural
irrigation, flood control, and recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can
be directly attributed to hydroelectric power. However, hydroelectric facilities can still have a
major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For example, though there are a variety of methods to
minimize the impact (including fish ladders and in-take screens), fish and other organisms
can be injured and killed by turbine blades.
Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed
reservoirs and downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than
normal river water. As a result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of
sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds.
These weeds can crowd out other river animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled
through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is
lost through evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.
Hydropower generation:
A hydrogenating station generally consists of a dam that traps a large quantity of water, a
spillway that releases surplus water in controlled fashion and a powerhouse. Dykes and other
water containment and control structures may also be part of the hydroelectric power station,
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although they are not directly involved in generating electricity. The powerhouse contains
conducting channels that guide water through turbines that convert the linear flow of the water
into a rotating flow. Water will either fall through the blades of the turbine or else flow
horizontally through them. The turbine and generator are connected to each other. Thus, rotation
of the turbine causes rotation of the rotor of the generator.
The electric power potential from water flow is the product of the mass of the water, the height
through which it falls and gravitational acceleration. The mass is a function of the amount of water
that is available and its rate of flow. The design of the power station will determine the height of
the water. Most designs draw in water from near the top of the dam and then discharge it at the
bottom into an existing downstream riverbed. This optimizes height while maintaining reasonable
and controllable flow.
In most modern hydroelectric generating stations, the turbo generators are oriented vertically.
These are the familiar structures that protrude above the main floor in these stations. However,
almost all of the structure is located below what is visible at main-floor level. This includes the
generator pit, and below that the turbine pit and intake and discharge tube. These structures and
the water-guiding channels are entered on occasion.
A magnetic field is maintained in the windings of the rotor in the generator. The power for this
field is provided by banks of lead-acid or caustic-filled nickel cadmium batteries. The motion of
the rotor and the magnetic field that is present in its windings induce an electromagnetic field in
the windings of the stator. The induced electromagnetic field provides the electrical energy which
is supplied to the power grid. Electric voltage is the electrical pressure that arises from the flowing
water. In order to maintain the electrical pressure—that is, the voltage—at a constant level
requires changing the flow of water across the turbine. This will be done as demand or conditions
change.
The flow of electricity can lead to electrical arcing, as for example, in the exciter assembly in the
rotor. Electrical arcing can generate ozone, which, even at low levels can adversely affect the
rubber in fire hose and other materials.
Hydroelectric power generators produce very high currents and high voltages. Conductors from
the generators connect to a unit transformer and from this to a power transformer. The power
transformer boosts the voltage and reduces the current for transmission over long distances. Low
current minimizes energy loss due to heating during transmission. Some systems use sulphur
hexafluoride gas in place of conventional oils as an insulator. Electrical arcing can produce
breakdown products which can be significantly more hazardous than sulphur hexafluoride.
The electric circuits include breakers that can rapidly and unpredictably cut out the generator from
the power grid. Some units utilize a blast of compressed air to break the connection. When such a
unit kicks in, it will produce an extremely high level of impulsive noise.
Environmental Effects:
Hydroelectric generation of power has been promoted as being environmentally friendly. Of
course, it does provide tremendous benefit to society through the provision of energy and the
stabilization of the flow of water. But such generation of energy does not come without an
environmental cost, which has in recent years received more and more public recognition and
attention. For example, it is now known that flooding large areas of the earth and of rock by
acidic water leads to the leaching of metals from these materials. Bioaccumulation of mercury
has been found in fish that have been caught in the water from such flooded areas.
Flooding also changes the turbulence patterns in the water as well as the level of oxygenation.
Both of these can have serious ecological effects. For example, salmon runs have disappeared on
dammed rivers. This disappearance has occurred, in part, because the fish either cannot locate or
traverse a path to the higher water level. In addition, the water has come to resemble a lake more
than a river, and the still water of a lake is not compatible with salmon runs.
Flooding also destroys fish habitat and can destroy the breeding areas for insects, upon which
fish and other organisms depend for nourishment. In some cases, flooding has destroyed
productive agricultural and forest lands. Flooding of large areas has also raised concern about
climatic change and other changes in the ecological balance. The holdback of fresh water that

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 had been destined to flow into a body of salt water has also raised concern about changes in
salinity.
HYDROTHERMAL:
 Hydrothermal energy is the process of obtaining heat or energy from a large body of water.
 "Heat", in this case should not be associated with high temperature (as it may be
with geothermal energy) but rather a relative heat content or relative temperature difference.
 "The energy flowing through the surface layer of the tropical ocean is about 10,000 times
greater than the energy used by human societies. As such it is the only energy resource on
Earth that is large enough to replace fossil fuel." 
WHAT ARE HYDROTHERMAL RESOURCES?
A geothermal resource requires fluid, heat, and permeability to generate electricity.
Conventional hydrothermal resources contain all three components naturally. These
geothermal systems can occur in widely diverse geologic settings, sometimes without clear
surface manifestations of the underlying resource.
The lack of ability to accurately predict temperature and permeability at depth from the
surface is a major cause of exploration risk. Additionally, subsurface characterization and
imaging are critical for the efficient utilization of all types of geothermal resources,
including low temperature and coproduced, permeable sedimentary and enhanced
geothermal systems. The Geothermal Technologies Office is also focused on reducing the
operations and maintenance (O&M) costs of hydrothermal systems.
Tides and Waves
Tides and Waves are two types of natural phenomena that occur on water and are similar in
nature; hence a lot of people can confuse the terms to mean the same thing. Though, both of
these are related to bodies of water, such as oceans and seas, they differ from each other.
Tides are the rise and fall of sea level that is caused by the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun on the Earth. Tides are not only limited to the oceans, but can also occur in other
systems, whenever a gravitational field is present. A majority of the Earth is affected by the
gravitational force of the sun, though it is not as easily visible as it is on water. The moon has a
more prominent affect on the tides, as it is much closer to the Earth compared to the sun.
Many shorelines experience two high tides and two low tides daily, this is known as a
semi-diurnal tide. Shorelines can also experience one high tide and one low tide, known as
diurnal tide. A shoreline experiencing two uneven tides is known as a mixed tide. The tides are
affected by a number of factors such as the alignment of the sun and the moon, by the pattern of
tides in the deep ocean, by the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and by the shape of the
coastline and near-shore bathymetry.
As the moon rotates around the Earth, its gravitational force creates a wave beneath the
moon that moves across the Earth, on the opposite side of the Earth another wave forms; these
are known as high tides, between two high tides are two low tides. When a new moon of a full
moon occurs, the Earth experiences the combined gravitational force of the sun and the moon
causing high tides to be very high and low tides to be very low, this is called as a spring tide.
During the moon’s quarter phases, the moon is at a right angle to the sun, causing the waves to
cancel each other out; this is called as a neap tide.
Waves
Waves are also encountered on shore lines; though we also come across it in physics in
forms of energy (ex: radio waves, sound wave). Similar to that, waves are actually energy that
moves across the surface of the water. In the scientific community, this is more commonly
known as wind waves as these waves are generated by wind. These waves occur on the free
surface of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals or even on small puddles and ponds. There are
three types of waves, capillary waves or ripples, seas and swells.
A wave’s size and shape can reveal the origins of the wave. While a small, steep and choppy
wave may suggests that it was probably formed by a local storm, a large, stead wave which
high crests and that plunges into foam suggests that it came from far away, may be from a
storm in another hemisphere. According to meteorologists, no two waves are the same, though
they may share the same characteristics. Each wave differs in height, and the distance from its

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 crest (high point) to its trough (low point). Various factors that shape a wave are wind speed,
duration, fetch or the distance it blows over open water, width of the area that is affected by the
fetch and the depth of the water. The height of the wave decreases as the wind dies and as it
reaches the shore, the back of the wave overtakes the front and it tumbles onto the shore, this is
known as breaking. Though waves can be small and delightful, the intensity of the wave can be
just as powerful. Depending on conditions, a wave can range from a 2 feet in height to over 90
feet. Powerful waves that are caused by factors such as underwater earthquake, landslides or
volcanic eruptions are known as tidal waves or Tsunamis.

Problems or Disadvantages
The disadvantages of using tidal and wave energy must be considered before jumping to
conclusion that this renewable, clean resource is the answer to all our problems.
Despite the fact that it's expensive, you must realise that the technique isn't fully
developed. There are still some uncertainties surrounding the conversion devices.
 Construction of strong, cheap and efficient conversion devices may be problematic
 Technology isn't fully developed
 Problems exist with the transportation of hydroelectricity
 Ecological impacts relating to the alteration of tides and waves is not fully understood
 Appropriate waves and tides are highly location dependent
 Waves are a diffuse energy source, irregular in direction, durability and size
 Extreme weather can produce waves of great intensity
In the future or prospects:
Tidal and wave energy as a replacement for fossil fuels is uncertain, because the technology
of the energy generators isn't fully developed. In addition the technology isn't fully
commercially available making this a relatively expensive energy choice; remember the
enormous cost for a tidal power plant 1.2 billions. Another factor that is standing in the way
for tidal and wave energy is the growing popularity for other renewable sources, probably will
wave and tidal power be important as alternative renewable source, with today's equipment it's
possible to determine the wave energy devices output two days ahead. Therefore it's possible
to make a nice fitting interplay between, wave energy and the present ordinary, energy type on
shore. Indeed, tidal and wave energy is still a viable option for the future. Although the
world's electricity demand could probably never be met by tidal and wave energy alone, but
they have the potential to decrease our reliance on fossil fuels. You can assume that with
increased knowledge and interest in this renewable energy source, costs will decline and
engineering efficiency will improve, with these facts in mind, it seems that tidal and wave
energy will encounter a bright future.
The ABB Alstom Power's future in wave technology lays in their knowledge about turbines;
every wave power plant so far uses some kind of turbine device to extract the power from the
waves. So if these wave power plants would become used in a larger scale, ABB have to be
among the first to be a competitive producer.
Hydropower
Hydropower is a renewable energy resource because it uses the Earth's water cycle to
generate electricity. Water evaporates from the Earth's surface, forms clouds, precipitates back
to earth, and flows toward the ocean. The movement of water as it flows downstream creates
kinetic energy that can be converted into electricity. 2700 TWH is generated every year.
Small Hydropower
• Small hydropower meets the definition of renewable because it uses the energy of flowing
water repeatedly generates electricity without fear of depletion
• SHP is a cost effective and sustainable source of energy: simple and less expensive
construction work
• Proper utilization of water resources: various streams and rivers can safely provide energy
to run a small hydro electric plant. No big water storage is required in such projects which
prevents resettlement and rehabilitation of the population

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 • SHP aids in conserving scarce fossil fuels: no fossil fuels and other petroleum products are
required in small hydro electric project
• SHP projects are known for low carbon energy production
• The development of small hydro has low effect on the environment
• SHP development provides electricity, transportation, communication links and economy
to such rural areas
• SHP also gives additional benefits along with power generation such as irrigation, water
supply, flood prevention, fisheries and tourism
Other Renewable Energy System:
 Solar Energy
• Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy
• only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be one of the most
important supplies of energy specially when other sources in the country have depleted
energy comes to the earth from the sun
• Electricity can be produced from the solar energy by photovoltaic solar cells, which
convert the solar energy directly to electricity.
• The most significant applications of photovoltaic cell in India are the energisation of pump
sets for irrigation, drinking water supply and rural electrification covering street lights,
community TV sets, medical refrigerators and other small power loads
 Wind Energy
• Wind energy, which is an indirect source of solar energy conversion, can be utilized to run
windmill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity
• India generally wind speeds obtainable are in the lower ranges
• the development of low cost, low speed mills for irrigation of small and marginal farms for
providing drinking water in rural area
• The developments are being mainly concentrated on water pumping wind mill suitable for
operation in a wind speed range of 8 to 36 km per hour.
 Biomass & Biogas Energy
• agricultural and forest resources for production of biomass
• Biomass is produced in nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion
• Biomass energy co-generation programme is being implemented with the main objective
of promoting technologies for optimum use of country’s biomass resources
• Exploitation of the biomass power generation potential, estimated at 19500 mw.
 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
• This is also an indirect method of utilizing solar energy
• A large amount of solar energy is collected and stored in tropical oceans
• The surface of the water acts as the collector for solar heat, while the upper layer of the sea
constitutes infinite heat storage reservoir
• Utilization of this energy, with its associated temperature difference and its conversion into
work, forms the basis of ocean thermal energy conversion systems
 Tidal Energy
• This periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea is called tide
• These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power
• By using reversible water turbines, turbines can be run continuously, both during high tide
and low tide
• The turbine is coupled to generator, potential energy of the water stored in the basin as
well as energy during high tides used to drive turbine, which is coupled to generator,
generating electricity
 Geo Thermal Energy
• The steam and the hot water come naturally to the surface of the earth in some locations of
the earth
• This may be particularly useful at places of fresh volcanic activity, where the molten
interior mass of earth vents to the surface through fissures and substantially high
temperatures
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 • The hot geothermal water and or steam is used to operate the turbines directly.
What is Stream water harvesting?
 It is a simple but result oriented innovative way of harvesting rain water flowing in the stream by
constructing series of underground lakes, underground check dams, percolation pits and
Recharge Shafts to recharge our sub-soil, deeper soil and underground water.
 There are 4 types namely: Surface Dyke, Underground Bund-cum-Lake, Lake with Lake
 Type Bore well Recharging Unit, Percolation with polyurethane sheet Tanks
 Unlike surface check dams, stream water harvesting is done underground to harvest the hidden
stream which flows below the stream bed.
 Hidden stream flow (as shown in the below image) is obstructed by the underground plastic dam
or underground bund which results in recharging natural springs resulting in water in nearby
open wells and borewells.
 If ten such systems are created along a stream in 500 mts, water will be available all the twelve
months of a year downstream.
 Nearly 10 villages drinking and agricultural water needs can be addressed.
 In this system no land is encroached for creating a reservoir, no loss of water due to evaporation,
it is a onetime installation, zero evaporation.

ECO-FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENTALLY
What is being Eco-friendly?
Being eco-friendly or environmentally friendly is becoming more and more important. You can
see the term used in everything from job ads to dating profiles to even listings houses and vacation
homes. So, what is being eco-friendly?
The simplest way to define what being eco friendly means is to say that it is the act of living with
intent. The intent is focused on not creating harm to environment, and to prevent as much harm
from occurring to the environment through your interactions with it. It goes beyond an idea and
extends to actual practices that influence how communities, businesses and individuals conduct
themselves. Being eco-friendly goes far beyond just turning off lights when you leave the room or
separating your garbage for recycling – it is about changing the purpose of how you live.
How to Become Eco-friendly?
You can start to become eco-friendly by becoming aware of the how your choices effect the
environment. There are three basic stages to becoming eco-friendly, they are –

1. Learning to consume items that cause minimal environmental harm.

2. Discovering the extent of your carbon footprint and acting to lessen that footprint on the
environment.
3. Striving to support others that work to live and produce eco-friendly and sustainable
communities.
As you can see, the first step is about you immediately acting to change the way you consume
things in life. This means changing your habits about driving, what types of packaging you use,
how you dispose of waste and how you use natural resources.
The second step looks at the extent of your carbon imprint that you may not be able to change –
such as living in a house, having to drive a car or the type of employment you have and acting
with the responsibility to lessen that imprint to the best of your ability.
The last one involves actively seeking connections with other eco-friendly persons, communities
and businesses and choosing to network and support them to create a more sustainable life. That
may not be as easy as it seems, which is why it is the third step. To live in and support a
sustainable community and economy you may not have many of the conveniences that you are
used to – by far this is the hardest thing to adjust to.

Here are 10 Steps to Become Eco-friendly:-

1. 3 R’s of Waste Hierarchy: The 3 R’s of waste hierarchy can reduce the amount of waste
generated and improve the waste management processes. Reducing what is produced and what is
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consumed can reduce the amount of waste that is generated. Reuse items for different purposes
instead of disposing them off. Recycle items like aluminum cans, plastic, paper, glass that can be
shaped into a new item.
2. Conserve Water and Electricity: It takes energy to produce fresh water and electricity. Few
simple ways like turning off lights when not in use, fixing leakages, proper insulation, using
maximum daylight, installing energy efficient windows, purchasing energy efficient gadgets can
reduce your daily energy consumption. Learn here more about 151 ways to conserve energy.
3. Plant More Trees: We all know why we need more trees on this planet. They give us oxygen,
fruits, timber, prevent soil erosion, control floods, provide shelter to wildlife. Massive scale
deforestation in last couple of decades has reduced forest area by significant percentage. The need
of hour is to work with environmental groups to educate more people and  plant more trees so as
to make this planet clean and eco-friendly.
4. Protect Local Water Sources: Hazardous waste materials like paint, oil, ammonia and other
strong chemical solutions should never be disposed on the ground as they’ll seep into the
groundwater. Join local water conservation groups and fight against water polluters who dump
their industrial waste in rivers.
5. Drive Less, Walk More: A simple and yet more effective way to live eco-friendly life is to
either take public transportation for your daily commuting needs or try pooling in with your office
colleagues to save fuel and reduce your carbon footprint. If your office is couple of miles away
from home, you can either start half an hour early and walk on foot or ride a bicycle. If you’re and
avid traveler, you can follow these green travel tips.
6. Buy Energy Efficient Products: Energy efficient products with 5 start energy rating consume
less energy and prove to be eco-friendly. For instance, CFL bulbs consume 40% less energy and
last 10 times longer than traditional bulbs.
7. Buy locally Grown Products: When you buy or produce locally grown products, you are
actually reducing your carbon footprint in the form of using less plastic bags, saving fuel to get
vegetables from the market, using less packaged material….. . Apart from this, you can also sell
surplus to your friends or relatives.
8. Prevent Littering: Litter can originate from construction and demolition sites, households,
industries, uncovered trucks, pedestrians, and moving vehicles. Littering can have big impact on
environment, wildlife and local tourism industry. Being a responsible citizen, it’s our
responsibility to make our cities clean and impart same education to our kids.
9. Buy Recycled Products: Always look out for recycling symbol when you visit grocery shop to
buy items for your home. That will make you environmentally responsible and eco-friendly. Also,
try to carry grocery bag with you to avoid buying items in plastic bags that will later end up in
landfills.
10. Join Environmental Groups to Combat Pollution: Protecting mother Earth is everyone’s
responsibility including you. The best you can do is to join different environmental groups in your
city and provide helping hand to make this planet environmentally friendly.
What does being eco friendly mean?
(1) Waste:- Living in a throwaway society means that there is a great deal of waste and waste
damages the planet. By reducing waste, reusing and recycling items, a reduction in items ending
up in landfill is achieved along with a reduced need for replacement products.
(2) Energy Conservation:- Everyone benefits by reducing energy usage and the simplest way to
do this is by insulating homes to a high standard and use high efficiency heating appliances. Some
people go further and opt for the use of heat pumps, solar panels, wind turbines or wood fired
heating systems although the latter is rather controversial being a high emitter of carbon dioxide
whilst remaining carbon neutral and 100% renewable.
(3) Tree Planting:- Deforestation is a major cause of greenhouse gas increase and the world needs
more trees. Tree felling should only be carried out in ethically managed woodlands and timber
products should have suitable certification such as that provided by the FSC.
(4) Pollution Prevention:- In addition to avoiding atmospheric pollution, water pollution should
also be prevented and any potentially damaging products avoided.

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(5) Impact of Travelling:- Travelling is a major contributor to harmful emissions and low
emission vehicles should be used although even electric cars have some impact as their energy
originates from power stations. Walking or cycling is best or using public transport or car sharing
schemes. Air flights are huge polluters and should be avoided at all costs.
(6) Energy Efficient Products:- Using energy efficient products is better for the environment and
also makes sound financial sense.
(7) Buy Local Produce:- Locally produced food reduces the need for packaging and transport.
Growing your own is even better.
(8) Litter:- Litter is bad for wildlife both on land and sea so litter avoidance and removal is good
practice.
(9) Buy Recycled Products:- Recycling is a great idea but depends on consumers buying recycled
products.
(10) Recycle:- Before throwing an item away, consider recycling it. There are some great
recycling sites online, the best known being “Freecycle”, where old items may find new homes
and upcycling old items can also be great fun.

Life cycle impact assessment:

Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment.This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the
significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle
impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
 selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
 the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific
impact categories; and
 Impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of
many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed
to provide an overall impact category total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory
stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps,
other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted
depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of the impact
categories from the study are usually compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the
U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.
During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so that
they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO
14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA
studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This
advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a
result of weighting.
Life cycle impacts can also be categorized under the several phases of the development,
production, use, and disposal of a product. Broadly speaking, these impacts can be divided into
"First Impacts," use impacts, and end of life impacts. "First Impacts" include extraction of raw
materials, manufacturing (conversion of raw materials into a product), and transportation of the
product to a market or site, construction/installation, and the beginning of the use or occupancy.
Use impacts include physical impacts of operating the product or facility (such as energy, water,
etc.), maintenance, renovation and repairs (required to continue to use the product or facility). End
of life impacts include demolition and processing of waste or recyclable materials.

Life cycle inventory

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to
nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials,
and releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical

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system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with
a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain
and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and output data needed for
the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including
from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the techno sphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition.
Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The
results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the
form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the
study.
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For
product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-specific level,
that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires. At an industry level, care has to be
taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning
toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regional differences due to energy
use, material sourcing or other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and
outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in
its production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of
inputs.
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno sphere. The
techno sphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as
secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense,
the primary goal is salvage.[12] For an LCI, these techno sphere products (supply chain products)
are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire
about a process which uses a man-made product as a means to an end will be unable to specify
how much of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs
and outputs for previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA
must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous
studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be
readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken to ensure that
the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.
Interpretation: Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check,
and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact
assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during
the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and
recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:

 identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an
LCA;
 evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and
 conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the
final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the
results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best
choice"! Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results,
and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data
elements that contribute significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these
significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing
conclusions and recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted
and the results were developed.
LCA uses:
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[15] LCA is mostly used to
support business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in
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education (13%) and for labeling or product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously
integrated into the built environment as tools such as the European ENSLIC Building project
guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide practitioners guidance on
methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process.
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or
commissioning studies, while governments support the development of national databases to
support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called
Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with
pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards, but not excluding
additional environmental information". This third-party certified LCA-based labels provide an
increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing
products. Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent certification
can show a company's dedication to safer and environmental friendlier products to customers and
NGOs. LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste
management and pollution studies.
GREEN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (GSCM)
What is Green Supply Chain Management: Green Supply Chain Management is all about
delivering products and services from suppliers, manufacturers to end customers through material
flow, information flow and cash flow in the context of environment. Traditional Supply Chain
Management focuses on Total Quality, optimum Cost and best service which in some way
contributed to environment. Today's Green Supply chain management mandates to incorporate the
environmental idea in each and every stage of the product and service in a Supply Chain. Hence
Supply chain managers have a great role in developing innovative environmental technologies to
tackle the problems faced by the economy on environmental problems and communicate this to
every stake holder in the chain. Lean Manufacturing is eliminating waste in every stage of supply
chain. It focuses on producing economically and environmentally friendly quality products which
meets the customer expectation. It is the best practice to be followed since it reduces inventory,
saves space and energy. Hence Lean manufacturing contributes to the Green environment. EPI is
to measure the effectiveness of environmental performances of a country. This measure provides
the details on how close the countries can establish environmental friendly policies and
procedures.
Ways to build Green Supply Chain
 Product Selection: Designing the product in such a way that it should be safe for use, creating
least pollution and consumes less energy. It should not be hazardous during storage,
transportation and also while disposing once it reaches end of its product life cycle. DFE
(Design for Environment) is about developing products that has no negative side effect for
human and environment, cost effective and environment friendly. This practice has to be
implemented in product design stage.
 Process and production: Process has to be designed so that it conforms to the Green Supply
Chain Management initiatives to reduce environmental negative impact. Efficient and effective
production strategy to reduce energy consumption which includes reducing waste material, air
and water emissions. This contributes to lean manufacturing. All possibilities have to be
checked for recycling the Scrap materials.
 Business Partners selection: Selecting suppliers who have proven track records on practicing
lean manufacturing and using environment friendly material. Involving vendors during product
conception and design so that they can share their best practices to best align your strategy
with the customer strategy on going greener supply chain. Ultimately it results in customer
delight and satisfaction.
 Logistics Design: Efforts should be practiced to reduce fuel consumption. This we can achieve
by setting up suppliers near to the OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and its Hubs.
Less use of air freight, increased use of rail and sea transport. Logistics partners have to be
included while product designs so that it improves cubic space utilization and effective fleet
management. Back hauling should be practiced where the empty vehicle should be used to
collect the goods from other sources once after delivering finished goods.
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 Packaging Material: Replacing package materials which are eco-friendly. Fumigation
certificate should be obtained for international shipments for wooden pallets and crates.
Packaging material has to be designed in such a way it can be re-used and re-cycled.
Packaging should be robust so that any hazardous material inside it doesn't spill over and cause
environmental hazard.
 Reverse logistics Design: Materials after consuming should be effectively used for re-use,
repair, recycle, remanufacture and redistribution. It calls for reusing containers and pallets,
redesigning and recycling package materials etc. Reducing pollution during transportation are
important activities of reverse logistics. Proper design of Reverse logistics contributes greater
towards Green Supply Chain Management.
 Information Technology: A Green approach to IT has to be achieved through various
automatic processes thereby reducing carbon foot prints. Paper usage has to be minimized
through automatic invoice/payment processing. Using EDI for creating/transmitting orders.
 Green Building: Deploying greener practices in Design, construction and maintaining the
buildings. Using energy efficient bulbs, natural lightning saves considerable energy. Water has
to be recycled for day to day use. LEED certification (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental design recognized by US and other countries) has to be obtained. Investment in
Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind etc. are needed for sustainable green practice.
Benefits of GSCM
1. GSCM will help us to gain a competitive advantage and help us to attract new
customers.
2. Increased use of resources, improved efficiency and reduced production cost.
3. It contributes greater towards improved financial performance.
4. Reduces risk by avoiding hazardous material that leads to environmental effect.
5. Improved quality of products and services gives higher customer delight and reputation.
Hence trying to deploy all the above designs in each and every stage of a supply chain will
in turn creates values financially and socially to the customer. Hence we can go a step further and
call the chain as a value chain. Ultimately all these practices have to be sustainable and should
keep improving continuously by researching and innovating new ideas.
Product Stewardship
What is Product Stewardship?
Product stewardship is an integrated business process for identifying, managing and
minimizing the environmental, health and safety (EHS) impacts at every stage of a product’s life
cycle.
At Huntsman, product stewardship demonstrates our commitment to responsible EHS
management through active assessment of our products at every stage in their life cycles, from the
sourcing of raw materials, through manufacture and use, to eventual disposal. This involves
working very closely with our customers, suppliers and others in the supply chain to ensure that
they understand the EHS opportunities relating to our chemicals.
Product stewardship is not new, but it is an important aspect of the EHS management
programs launched by many national chemical industry associations worldwide. At Huntsman,
product stewardship has been given sharper attention as one of seven strategic focus areas of our
20:20 Vision, a 10-year EHS strategy aligned with our rapidly evolving business needs and the
dynamic markets in which we operate.
Why is it Important?
We believe that an effectively managed product stewardship process shows our
commitment to EHS management and enables us to meet the increasing demands for safer and
more environmentally sustainable products. The product stewardship process adds value to our
products by minimizing the risk of harm to both mankind and the environment, reducing the risk
of marketing a defective product and, in consequence, reducing potential liabilities.
Principles for Product Stewardship Policy
The NWPSC uses following principles to guide the development of product stewardship
policies and legislation.

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1. Producer Responsibility: All producers selling a covered product into the State are
responsible for designing, managing, and financing a stewardship program that addresses the
lifecycle impacts of their products including end-of-life management. Producers have flexibility to
meet these responsibilities by offering their own plan or participating in a plan with others. In
addressing end-of-life management, all stewardship programs must finance the collection,
transportation, and responsible reuse, recycling or disposition of covered products. Stewardship
programs must:
 Cover the costs of new, historic and orphan covered products.
 Provide convenient collection for consumers throughout the State.
Costs for product waste management are shifted from taxpayers and ratepayers to producers and
users. Programs are operated by producers with minimum government involvement.
2. Shared Responsibilities: Retailers only sell covered products from producers who are in
compliance with stewardship requirements. State and local governments work with producers and
retailers on educating the public about the stewardship programs. Consumers are responsible for
using return systems set up by producers or their agents.
3. Governance: Government sets goals and performance standards following consultation with
stakeholders. All programs within a product category are accountable to the same goals and
performance standards. Government allows producers the flexibility to determine the most cost-
effective means of achieving the goals and performance standards. Government is responsible for
ensuring a level playing field by enforcing requirements that all producers in a product category
participate in a stewardship program as a condition for selling their product in the jurisdiction.
Product categories required to have stewardship programs are selected using the process and
priorities set out in framework legislation. Government is responsible for ensuring transparency
and accountability of stewardship programs. Producers are accountable to both government and
consumers for disclosing environmental outcomes.
4. Financing: Producers finance their stewardship programs as a general cost of doing business,
through cost internalization or by recovering costs through arrangements with their distributors
and retailers. End of life fees are not allowed.
5. Environmental Protection: Framework legislation should address environmental product
design, including source reduction, recyclability and reducing toxicity of covered products.
Framework legislation requires that stewardship programs ensure that all products covered by the
stewardship program are managed in an environmentally sound manner. Stewardship programs
must be consistent with other State sustainability legislation, including those that address
greenhouse gas reduction and the waste management hierarchy. Stewardship programs include
reporting on the final disposition, (i.e., reuse, recycling, disposal) of products handled by the
stewardship program, including any products or materials exported for processing.
The following 10 principles are key to achieving product stewardship and apply to each of us
involved in any product's lifecycle:
1. Shared Responsibility: Take responsibility to ensure products are managed safely throughout
their lifecycle for the products that you supply, manufacture, distribute, use, dispose/recycle or
regulate. The manufacturer of a product does not have complete control over every actor
throughout a product's lifecycle. No matter how "foolproof" a product is, each of us has an
obligation not to be foolish.
2. Lifecycle Thinking: Work to prevent or significantly reduce risks and increase sustainability
throughout the product lifecycle. This could range from simple communications to redesign to
regulations to withdrawing the product from the market. A product take-back program may be an
effective and efficient component of product stewardship in some cases, as might substituting
safer components. But beware of unintended consequences as you fix one problem only to create
another.
3. Knowledge: Understand the potential environmental, health and safety risks of your actions –
the inherent hazards associated with the materials you use and the exposures you may cause. In
addition, understand how others in the product's lifecycle impact risk. The biggest burden for
developing knowledge of a product's hazards falls on the manufacturer because it defines what the
product is. Understanding the other necessary component of risk, exposure, is tougher. The
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challenges of acquiring the right kinds of information are addressed by some of the principles
below and are the subjects of vigorous discussions around science, business proprietary
information, transparency and public policy on what and when something is "safe enough."
4. Supply Chain Communication: Share information necessary for others to understand hazards
and manage exposures in their portion of the supply chain. Products are part of complex systems
involving a series of suppliers and customers (including waste handlers). You need to help those
upstream and downstream from you minimize total lifecycle impacts and use more sustainable
practices.
5. Stakeholders: Understand the concerns of the range of stakeholders who influence the success
of the product – employees, stockholders, suppliers, neighbors, governments, peers and public
interest groups. Determine what you need to do to assure these stakeholders that a product is being
managed safely. Work together to find the best solutions that preserve benefits and reduce risks.
Stakeholders determine what is "safe enough."
6. Teamwork: Determine who knows the what, where, why and how of a product to find more
sustainable solutions. Product stewards do not work alone. They must work closely with and rely
on experts who understand each aspect of a product's lifecycle so that risks can be characterized
and controlled (manufacturing, marketing, research, legal, health and environmental, public
affairs, etc.). Expert teams are also needed to continue developing reliable standards to evaluate
and communicate risk information to customers. 
7. Awareness: Watch for new information relating to risks and safer products. Have processes in
place that manage and quickly respond to changes that can impact product safety such as changes
in resources, processes, science, technologies, uses, users/customers and societal and regulatory
expectations. Try to anticipate and get ahead of changes.
8. Innovation: A commitment to product stewardship stimulates innovation in reducing risks and
improving value to meet customer and societal needs with new and better products and processes.
Building in sustainability and safety during the product design phase is the most effective way for
a company to accomplish product stewardship.
9. Management: Implement practices that will continually move product stewardship forward. An
ongoing plan-do-check-act cycle and all the other management tools you already use apply to
product stewardship just like any other activity. Most importantly, product stewardship is not a
one-time project; it's a way of thinking and acting responsibly.
10. Integration: Product stewardship should be integral to how a business operates and be part of
the culture. It cannot be a stand-alone program performed by a staff group in a far off branch of an
organization chart. Every function contributes to the lifecycle impacts of a product. Individual
consumers also need to be product stewards whenever they buy, use and discard any product. We
should all ask ourselves, "Is this the responsible thing to do?" The principles of product
stewardship should become common sense.

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 CHAPTER: 6
WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING?
 A sustainability report is a report published by a company or organization about the
economic, environmental and social impacts caused by its everyday activities. A
sustainability report also presents the organization's values and governance model,
and demonstrates the link between its strategy and its commitment to a sustainable
global economy.
 Sustainability reporting can help organizations to measure, understand and
communicate their economic, environmental, and social and governance
performance, and then set goals, and manage change more effectively. A
sustainability report is the key platform for communicating sustainability
performance and impacts – whether positive or negative.
 Sustainability reporting can be considered as synonymous with other terms for non-
financial reporting; triple bottom line reporting, corporate social responsibility
(CSR) reporting, and more. It is also an intrinsic element of integrated reporting; a
more recent development that combines the analysis of financial and non-financial
performance.
 IMPORTANCE OF TRUST Expand-Collapse
 Building and maintaining trust in businesses and governments is fundamental to
achieving a sustainable economy and world. Every day, decisions are made by
businesses and governments which have direct impacts on their stakeholders, such
as financial institutions, labor organizations, civil society and citizens, and the level
of trust they have with them. These decisions are rarely based on financial
information alone. They are based on an assessment of risk and opportunity using
information on a wide variety of immediate and future issues.
 The value of the sustainability reporting process is that it ensures organizations
consider their impacts on these sustainability issues, and enables them to be
transparent about the risks and opportunities they face. Stakeholders also play a
crucial role in identifying these risks and opportunities for organizations,
particularly those that are non-financial. This increased transparency leads to better
decision making, which helps build and maintain trust in businesses and
governments.
 WHO SHOULD REPORT? Expand-Collapse
 Sustainability reports are released by companies and organizations of all types, sizes
and sectors, from every corner of the world. Thousands of companies across all
sectors have published reports that reference GRI’s Sustainability Reporting
Guidelines. Public authorities and non-profits are also big reporters. GRI’s
Sustainability Disclosure Database features all known GRI-based reports.
 Major providers of sustainability reporting guidance include:
 GRI (GRI's Sustainability Reporting Standards)
 The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD Guidelines
for Multinational Enterprises) The United Nations Global Compact (the
Communication on Progress)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO 26000, International
Standard for social responsibility)
 To learn more about how sustainability reporting is developing worldwide, visit the
Report or Explain and Report Services pages.

Elements of a Good Sustainability Report

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Not all corporate sustainability reports (CSRs) are created equal. Some reports are glossy
marketing brochures that lack substantive data. Others are so data focused that reading
them requires a strong cup of coffee to resist boredom-induced sleep. The best reports
provide a balance of accessible, engaging text and comprehensive, material data presented
in a well-designed format. It is both art and science. Referencing the most recent reports
from companies on that list as examples, here are five elements we believe are vital to
producing a quality report:
 Transparency
Aside from collecting and compiling the data, which is no small challenge, transparency
requires putting new company information into the public domain. There is organizational
inertia and a fear that additional data could reflect poorly on the organization, or even on
individuals. The other fear is that the information could in some way benefit the
competition. As a result, many reporters take a shortcut by including superficial data rather
than truly transparent information. True transparency requires context and parameters. For
example, if a company reports a 20% reduction in water usage, readers shouldn’t have to
ask; “20% of what baseline? Over what time period?”
The UPS Corporate Sustainability Report demonstrates a solid commitment to
transparency. The data is detailed and well defined in the body of the report, but extensive
backup is also included in the appendices. All this is evidence of a meticulous dedication
to full disclosure of the data scope and boundary. In addition, UPS’s report is examined in
detail and assured by an external assessor.
 Authenticity
We all know that no one is perfect. And no company is perfect either. But most companies
have been so conditioned to portray themselves as perfect in the marketplace, that
admitting to flaws and challenges is tremendously difficult. A sustainability report is not
the place to portray perfection. That does adisservice to stakeholders – because it simply
isn’t believable. Good reports acknowledge challenges and failures provide context and
communicate next steps.
The Seventh Generation Sustainability Report clearly shows the company’s dedication to
authenticity. Seventh Generation lists not just highlights, but also challenges up-front and
on the same page. Additionally, the report does not shy away from discussing the very
public ouster of Founding-CEO Jeffrey Hollender. Rather than gloss over this open wound
in passing, the report dedicates a full page to the difficulties surrounding the leadership
changes, the impact on the company, and the way the company continues to address those
challenges.
Stakeholder Engagement
Good CSRs provide evidence that the transparent and authentic information included is
also a true reflection of stakeholder interests. Many reports handle this GRI requirement by
describing channels and perhaps volume of communication with various stakeholder
groups. True stakeholder engagement, however, is apparent when there is evidence of an
authentic two-way exchange resulting in some degree of change in the company. This
proves that the company is really listening and incorporating stakeholder feedback into
their business.
The Baxter Sustainability Report does an excellent job of detailing the company’s
stakeholder engagement. This report features a dedicated web page that explains the
channels and frequencies of the company’s communication with employees, patients,
healthcare professionals, shareholders, and communities. The report includes narrative, a
detailed graphic, and a well-organized chart that effectively explains the channels of
engagement with each stakeholder group. It also outlines specific ways that the company
responded to each of the concerns raised.
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 Intuitive Structure
Sustainability reports have a wide array of audiences – each with very different
expectations. If your audience can’t find the information they need, any hard work put into
the other elements will go unnoticed. It is important to develop a good structure for content
and navigation whether reporting in a printed piece, a PDF, a website or a mobile app.
Good structure and design will organize the complex range of information into a structure
simple enough that all readers will be able to navigate intuitively.
The GE Sustainable Growth Report is particularly successful at creating a structure that
leads readers through the company’s sustainability story. The content is divided into three
easy-to-understand sections: People, Planet, and Economy. Then each of those sections has
three layers of information from the high-level, at-a-glance “Highlights,” to the narrative
details in “Progress,” to the detailed data in “Metrics.” This enables readers to easily find
the information that interests them. The structure is always visible in the navigation,
providing readers the signposts that allow them to feel comfortable exploring the report
with the confidence of knowing where they are and how to get back to where they started.
 Meaningful
Finally, successful reports will do all of the above in a way that is truly meaningful to each
audience. At Emotive Brand, we believe that people(i.e. stakeholders) are increasingly
skeptical and sophisticated, and that they will support companies that offer them meaning.
Sustainability reports present an opportunity for organizations to communicate
authentically about issues that matter to people. So, it is important to tie each of the
previous elements together in a way that speaks clearly and directly to stakeholder
interests, while providing an opportunity for continued dialogue. The Nike Responsibility
Report, which won the last Ceres-ACCA awards, effectively connects each of the first four
elements together in a way that is truly meaningful. Through clear writing, straightforward
infographics, and engaging photography, the Nike report tells a compelling story of the
company’s commitment to sustainability. For example, the CEO letter says, “We’ve made
significant progress in these areas. But as we all know at Nike, there is no finish line.” This
statement recognizes the need for continued improvement with an image connected to the
roots of Nike’s business in sports. That is meaningful.
Quality sustainability reports will have all five of these characteristics. So, make sure your
report has transparency, authenticity, stakeholder engagement, intuitive structure and
design, as well as meaning. For more inspiration, check out the Ten Outstanding
Sustainability Reports from earlier this year on Triple Pundit.
What's the purpose of sustainability reporting?
We all know the mantra that what gets measured gets acted on, but is sustainability
reporting changing the world and what does the future hold. This is a particularly poignant
moment to be asking these questions. At the very moment the Global Reporting Initiative
(GRI) has grasped the nettle by unveiling new simplified G4 guidelines, the broader
territory of measurement and transparency is in danger of becoming more complex and
potentially confusing. The GRI has been the go-to place for sustainability reporting for
years and has responded to growing concerns at the sheer weight of metrics by going back
to core principles such as materiality and dropping its perverse incentive of giving a better
score to companies that ticked more of the boxes. But the sigh of relief is tempered by
practitioners now having to grapple with how to relate their sustainability programs to the
emerging integrated reporting movement. In particular, the International Integrated
Reporting Committee (IIRC) is currently piloting its methodology for companies to
produce one combined financial, environmental and governance report that can illustrate
how they are creating value over time. There are also new reporting tools being developed,
with particular interest focused on the US-based Sustainability Accounting Standards
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Board (SASB), which is developing sector-specific key performance indicators to appeal
to the financial markets. Sustainability practitioners need to get to know these new
frameworks and understand how they relate to each other. This is important. While
financial analysts like clarity and common metrics, so they can benchmark performance, it
is also vital that companies take the time to think through their specific societal impacts
and build relevant associated KPIs. While these questions need to be wrestled with, it is
also important at moments of great change to go back to the beginning of the journey and
to remember the purpose of reporting and what difference it can truly make. To help build
our understanding of the opportunities and challenges, we have asked some of the world's
top reporting experts to give their views on the purpose of reporting in the current, more
complex business environment. We would love it if you can add your comments below to
deepen and broaden the debate.
 Advantages of sustainability reports
 Internal benefits
o Increased understanding of risks and opportunities
o Emphasizing the link between financial and non-financial performance
o Influencing long term management strategy and policy, and business plans
o Streamlining processes, reducing costs and improving efficiency
o Benchmarking and assessing sustainability performance with respect to laws,
norms, codes, performance standards, and voluntary initiatives
o Avoiding being implicated in publicized environmental, social and
governance failures
o Comparing performance internally, and between organizations and sectors
 External benefits of sustainability reporting can include:
o Mitigating – or reversing – negative environmental, social and governance
impacts
o Improving reputation and brand loyalty
o Enabling external stakeholders to understand the organization’s true value,
and tangible and intangible assets
Demonstrating how the organization influences, and is influenced by, expectations about
sustainable development.
What is GRI Reporting?
A GRI report is a sustainability report that uses the Global Reporting Initiative’s
sustainability reporting guidelines. The GRI guidelines were designed to be used by organizations
of any size and sector, in any region. The guidelines assist companies to report on ‘What matters
and where it matters’. Sustainability reporting using the GRI framework aims to promote
organizational change. The framework does this by providing organizations with the opportunity
to closely examine how they are performing in their day to day activities in the economic, social
and environmental categories, and then further drilling down into material aspects and specific
indicators.
But the last few months have seen the framework undergo a significant overhaul, as GRI consults
stakeholders on a new 'G4' version, and though G4's final content won't be known until its launch
in May, it's already causing some consternation in business. If the reporters I've spoken to about
G4 are anything to go by, this concern could amount to a serious wobble for GRI, and have
significant implications for the future of reporting. Rumors abound as to what exactly will be in
G4, but the concerns center on four potential changes:
• G4 will abandon the reporting 'levels' (A, B, C etc.) that companies can achieve. There's a
paradox here: these levels are often misunderstood as indicators of sustainability performance,
rather than what they are, which is simply the extent of disclosure. But justifying the huge effort of
getting a report you can press-release as "A+" is a lot easier than committing even more resource
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to achieve a report which just meets the same standard as everyone else. Try selling that to your
CEO.
• G4 shifts the focus to value chain materiality. It's hard to argue with the value chain being where
the greatest impacts are for many companies, but for those with complex, and in many cases,
multiple value chains (probably the majority), it's an utterly daunting prospect for any systematic
approach.
• G4 increases the number of indicators – from 79 to over a hundred. The sheer volume of data
collection looks set to tie up limited resources in chasing numbers and filling in spreadsheets, to
the detriment of practical action on performance.
• G4 does nothing to improve the experience for readers. There's a worry that G4 will make
reports less engaging as it pushes reporters to satisfy a tiny band of expert stakeholders – and a
lurking sense that nobody is reading anyway.
What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem, a term very often used in biology, is a community of plants and animals
interacting with each other in a given area, and also with their non-living environments. The non-
living environments include weather, earth, sun, soil, climate and atmosphere. The ecosystem
relates to the way that all these different organisms live in close proximity to each other and how
they interact with each other. For instance, in an ecosystem where there are both rabbits and foxes,
these two creatures are in a relationship where the fox eats the rabbit in order to survive. This
relationship has a knock on effect with the other creatures and plants that live in the same or
similar areas. For instance, the more rabbits that foxes eat, the more the plants may start to thrive
because there are fewer rabbits to eat them. Ecosystems can be huge, with many hundreds of
different animals and plants all living in a delicate balance, or they could be relatively small. In
particularly harsh places in the world, particularly the North and South Poles, the ecosystems are
relatively simple because there are only a few types of creatures that can withstand the freezing
temperatures and harsh living conditions. Some creatures can be found in multiple different
ecosystems all over the world in different relationships with other or similar creatures. Ecosystems
also consist of creatures that mutually benefit from each other. For instance, a popular example is
that of the clown fish and the anemone – the clown fish cleans the anemone and keeps it safe from
parasites as the anemone stings bigger predators that would otherwise eat clown fish.
Concept of an Ecosystem:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the latter
provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a
biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit
which is known as an ecosystem.
An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of
living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or physicochemical)
environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland,
meadow, forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.
Structure of an Ecosystem:

Structure of an Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic
(1) Abiotic
(2) Biotic

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(1) Abiotic Components:
The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behavior and inter-
relationship of organisms.
(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered
rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils
provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The vegetation
found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through
nutrient cycling. The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon di-
oxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration
and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. Solar radiation is
used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into the
atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for
plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life. Most living tissue is
composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a
very few cells can survive if their water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less
than 30-50%.Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants.
It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The
original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components: The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms
(Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components. On the basis of
their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into three main groups:

(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

Biotic Components

Producers Consumers Decomposers

(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it into
chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and carbon
dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own
food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder). The chemical energy

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 stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own growth and survival and
the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.
(B) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they depend
on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other, trophos =
feeder). The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores: These are the animals which
feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle
etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores: The animals
which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes, snakes
etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers: These are the large carnivores which feed
on the secondary consumers. Example is Wolves.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores: These are the largest
carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animal.
Examples are lions and tigers.
(C) Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown
the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and re-
lease to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of
their metabolisms. These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic ex-
change of materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.
The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).
MONITORING OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
In today business, environmental management has been an integral part of operations and its
importance cannot be overemphasized. Typically, industries will discharge some form of effluents.
Industrial effluents vary significantly in pollution characteristics hence different unit processes and
unit operations are utilized to treat them. Industrial outfits discharging industrial effluents are
required to build and operate industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS) in accordance with the
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluents) Regulations 2009. IETS is a rather complicated
industrial system involving various equipment and processes which required monitoring and
maintenance to ensure it produce desired result. In helping the industry, Department of
Environment issued `Technical Guidance On Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems’. This two-day training program is aimed at imparting knowledge to
participants on how to monitor and maintain industrial effluents treatment system.
Temperature: Temperature affects chemical, biological reactions in water. In the present study,
it varies from 28 to 29.5 0C, but there are cases where that temperature has been reported more
than 40 0C due to reactions in the plants (nuclear and thermal power plants).Generally the
effluents are suitably diluted before they are released to the sewage.
pH The pH values are in the range 6.5-8. This is in accordance with the WHO permissible limit
(6.0-8.5). But two samples E10 and E16 show very high acidic range (pH1.17 to 1.55).The
extreme pH of wastewater are generally not acceptable, as lower pH cause problems to survival of
aquatic life. It also interferes with the optimum operation of wastewater treatment facilities. Water
with high or low pH is not suitable for irrigation. At low pH most of the metals become soluble in
water and therefore could be hazardous in the environment. At high pH most of the metals become
insoluble and accumulate in the sludge and sediments. The toxicity of heavy metals also gets
enhanced at particular pH.
Electrical conductivity The electric conductivity of water is a measure of the ability of a solution
to conduct an electric current; this ability depends upon the presence of ions, their total
concentration, mobility and temperature of water. The conductivity of the water is one of the
important parameter used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation. It is useful indicator
for salinity or total salt content of waste water7. In present study, only two samples E7 and E22
shows EC within limits prescribed by WHO(1400μS/cm) and other samples exceeds limits, and

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hence they are unfit for irrigation .Thus suitable treatments are required before they are released to
the sewage.
WHAT IS GREEN BUILDINGS?
A green Building uses less energy, water and other natural resources creates less waste &
Green House Gases and is healthy for people during living or working inside as compared to
a standard Building. Another meaning of Green Structure is clean environment, water and
healthy living. Building Green is not about a little more efficiency. It is about creating
buildings that optimize on the local ecology, use of local materials and most importantly they
are built to cut power, water and material requirements. Thus, if these things are kept in mind,
then we will realize that our traditional architecture was in fact, very green. Today, we have
forgotten that how to make natural environment, instead copying it from developed countries.
Buildings are a major energy consuming sector in the economy. About 35 to 40% of total
energy is used by buildings during construction. The major consumption of Energy in
buildings is during construction and later in lighting or air-conditioning systems. This
consumption must be minimized. Possibly, this should be limited to about 80-100 watts per
sqm.
Introduction
We have heard of climate change. The air is getting warmer - summer comes sooner in
most continents including Europe and America. Sea level is rising, - Maldives is sinking.
Rivers like the Amazon, the Nile, the Danube, etc, are drying or recede several meters every
year. But it's not just happening elsewhere but also happening in India. The glaciers feeding
water for the Ganga are melting faster than it should. It means the Ganga could dry up in
another about 60 years or so. This would leave over 50 million people thirsty who are living
on the banks.
Mangrove forests of Sunderban are the world's most prosperous group of 104 Rainforest
Islands. However, it appears that these very unique islands are likely to be wiped out from
earth's map very soon or over the period of time. In fact, 15% of Indian side Sunderban and
17% of Bangladesh side of Sunderban Island are already submerged in the ocean. Now the
threat of submerging is looming large on Sagardeep, the 4th biggest of the existing island. It
is also on this Island, that the annual Mela of Gangasagar is held and visited by Millions of
pilgrims every year. This is all because of the generation of Green house gases (GHG) and sea
level is rising. A third of all Carbon Dioxide emissions produced are absorbed in the oceans.
Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean water becomes a corrosive acid which kills sea life. Thus
fish catches are falling. That would leave hundreds of coastal communities hungry. The coal
is burnt in electric power plants, which is a major source of the CO2generation and it is doing
all the damage - melting the glaciers, poisoning the sea, disrupting the monsoon etc. Alternate
source of Energy like Renewable energy - from the sun's rays, wind, seas' waves & geo
sources - is clean, doesn't release CO2 and is not hostage to a resource that will die out. In
India, we are blessed with a tropical sun, fast winds and thousands of miles of sea coast.
Renewable energy is thus the answer for all these ills. Similarly, building Industry is
producing second largest amount of Demolition Waste and GHG (almost 40%). Buildings
have major environmental impacts over their entire life cycle. Resources such as ground
cover, forests, water, and energy are depleted to construct and operate buildings. Resource-
intensive materials provide the building envelope and landscaping add beauty to it – in turn
using up water and pesticides to maintain it. Energy-consuming systems for lighting, space
conditioning and water heating provide comfort to its occupants. Hi-tech controls add
intelligence to ‘inanimate' buildings so that they can respond to varying conditions, and
intelligently monitor and control resource use, security, and usage of fire systems etc. in the
building. Water is another vital resource for the occupants, which gets consumed
continuously during building construction and operation. Several building processes and
occupant function generate large amount of waste. These all are polluting the environment
and increasing (GHG).
Climate Change and Its Effect

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 Climate is changing fast globally because of increased energy consumption and thus
increase Green house gases (GHG) like CO2. This gives rise to global Warming. The World
produces about 0.6 tones / year / per capita CO2. India is the 5th largest producing GHG. This
impacts the climate change resulting in:
 Water stress and reduction in the availability of fresh water due to potential decline in
rainwater.
 Threats to agriculture and food scarcity
 Shifts in area and boundary of different forest and threat to biodiversity with adverse
implications for forest dependent activities.
 Sea level rising on coastal areas and effect on agriculture & habitation.
 Green Building Concept and Architecture Planning
 To have Green Building Concept, we should look after the following:
 Optimum use of Energy or power
 Water conservation
 Solid and Water Waste management, its treatment and reuse
 Energy efficient transport systems
 Efficient Building System Planning etc.
If all Buildings in urban areas were made to adopt green Building concepts, India could save more
than 8400 MW of power which is enough to light half of Delhi or 5.5 lakh homes a year according
to estimates by TERI. A green building depletes very little of the natural resources during its
construction and operation. The aim of a green building design is to minimize the demand on non-
renewable resources and maximize the utilization efficiency of these resources when in use and
utilization of renewable resources. Architects & planners should start thinking green in the
planning of Buildings. Integrating living & vegetation with architecture is fast gaining popularity
around the world and now a new term "Vegitecture" has been coined for it and it is becoming
common. Thus the Architect may think to bring concrete jungles to green jungles through
"Vegitecture". This is similar to the scenario shown in figure here. The Architect can use large
windows with Double glass system. The glazed trapping will act as insulating layer of air between
the two layers of glass. One of these layers of glass filters and disperses light and heat without
reflecting it back outside the building. The air conditioning system will also be less intensive
because the double glazing system insulates the building. Further, hollow fly ash bricks can be
used in walls during construction. This will also provide good insulating properties apart from
using waste materials. Contribution of Concrete towards Green House Gases Among the primary
concrete making materials, the emission of CO2 is largely attributable to cement production. It is
estimated that modern cements contain on an average of about 84% Portland cement clinker and
the clinker manufacturing process releases about 0.9 ton of CO2 per ton of clinker. The Concrete
Industry World wide consume more than 3.5 billon tons of cement, so the carbon contribution of
this industry is obviously quite large. Thus minimizing concrete consumption through innovative
architecture and structural designs is one way to save on the use of cement. Another way is to use
smart concrete mixture proportioning approach. This can be done through following approaches:
 Minimize concrete consumption through innovative architecture and Structural Design
methods.
 Use smart concrete mixture or i-crete as proportioning approach to save on cement in concrete
mix.
 Consume less Cement in concrete / mortar mixtures.
 Consume less Clinker in Cement making by adding Pozzolana like fly ash or GGBFS in
Cement or Concrete.
Characteristics of Green Building
Building construction and its upkeep for livable conditions requires huge energy in
lighting, air-conditioning, operation of appliances etc. Green Building i.e. energy efficient building
is the one which can reduce energy consumption by at least 40% as compared to conventional
building. The cost of constructing energy efficient building is estimated to be 15 – 20% higher as
compared to conventional building without energy efficiency. However, this is more than

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compensated over the period of time i.e during life cycle cost and operation & living. Using green
building materials and products, promotes conservation of nonrenewable resources internationally.
In addition, integrating green building materials into building projects can help reduce the
environmental impacts associated with the extraction, transport, processing, fabrication,
installation, reuse, recycling, and disposal of these building industry source materials.
Green Building Products and Materials
Building and Construction activities worldwide consume about 3 billion tons of raw
materials each year. Using green building materials and products promotes conservation of
dwindling nonrenewable resources. In addition, integrating green building materials into building
projects can help reduce the environmental impacts associated with the excavation, extraction,
transport, processing, recycling and disposal of these building industry source materials. Green
building materials are composed of renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources and are
environmentally responsible because impacts are considered over the life cycle period. Depending
upon project-specific goals, an assessment of green materials may involve an evaluation of one or
more of the following parameters
 Resource efficiency
 Energy efficiency
 Affordability
 Possible Recycling of Material and Waste generation
 Water conservation
 Effective Indoor air quality
A) Resource Efficiency: It can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following
criteria. Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-efficient
processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and or
source reduced product packaging) and thus reducing greenhouse gases. Local availability:
Building materials, components and systems found locally or regionally will save energy and
resources in transportation to the project site. Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: It avoids
the material from disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the
appearance, performance, quality, functionality or value of a product. Durable: Materials that are
longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with long life expectancies.
B) Energy Efficiency: It can be maximized by utilizing materials and systems that meet the
various criteria that help reduce energy consumption in buildings and facilities as indicated above.
C) Affordability: It can be considered as the cost for the building product when life-cycle costs
are comparable to conventional materials or as a whole it is within a project-defined percentage of
the overall budget. Recyclable Content Products with identifiable recycled content and minimum
waste generation, including post use content with a preference for post-consumer use content
should be considered. Reusable or recyclable Select materials that can be easily dismantled and
reused or recycled at the end of their useful life.
E) Water Conservation: It can be judged from utilizing the materials and systems that help
reduce water consumption in buildings and conserve water in landscaped areas. This is similar to
chemical admixture used in concrete to reduce water content.
F) Effective Indoor Air Quality: It should enhance by utilizing such material and meet the
following criteria: Low or non-toxic Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive
toxicants or irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate testing. Minimal
chemical emissions Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy efficiency while reducing chemical
emissions.
Low-VOC assembly Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing compounds, or no-
VOC mechanical attachment methods with minimal hazards. Moisture resistant Products and
systems that resist moisture or inhibit the growth of biological contaminants in buildings.
Some Steps for Material Selection
Material selection can begin after the establishment of project-specific environmental
goals. The environmental assessment process for building material involves three basic steps.
1. Survey
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 2. Evaluation
3. Selection
1. Survey: This step involves gathering of all technical information about the material
which can be identified, including manufacturers' information such as Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS), Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) test data, product warranties, source material characteristics,
recyclable content data, environmental, performance and durability information. In addition, this
step may also involve investigating other issues like building codes, government regulations,
building industry performance, model green building product specifications etc. Such survey will
help in identifying the full range of the project's material options.
2. Evaluation: This step involves confirmation of the technical information, as well as
filling in information gaps. For example, the evaluator may request product certifications from
manufacturers to help sort out possible exaggerated environmental product claims. Evaluation and
assessment is relatively simple when comparing similar types of building materials using the
environmental criteria. However, the evaluation process is more complex when comparing
different products with the same function. Then it may become necessary to process both
descriptive and quantitative forms of data. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an evaluation of the
relative "greenness" of building materials and products. LCA addresses the impact of a product
through all of its life stages. This tool that can be used is the LCA methodology through a software
evaluation like BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) software. Such
software can easily be developed or otherwise available commercially. It allows users to balance
the environmental and economic performance of building products.
3. Selection: This step often involves the use of an evaluation matrix for scoring the
project-specific environmental criteria. The total score of each product evaluation will indicate the
product with the highest environmental attributes. Individual criteria included in the rating system
can be weighted to accommodate project-specific goals and objectives.
Advantages of Green Building Materials
 Green building materials offer some or all of the following benefits to the building
owner and building occupants:
 Reduced maintenance/ replacement costs over the life of the building
 Energy conservation
 Improved occupant health and productivity
 Life cycle cost savings
 Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
 Greater design flexibility
Some Benefits of a Green Building Concept
 Green buildings are designed to be healthier and having more enjoyable working
environment. Workplace qualities that improve the environment and which help in
developing the knowledge of workers and may also reduce stress and lead to longer lives
for multidisciplinary teams.
 Reduced energy and water consumption without sacrificing the comfort level.
 Significantly, better lighting quality including more day lighting, better daylight harvesting
and use of shading, greater occupancy control over light levels and less glare.
 Improved thermal comfort and better ventilation.
 Limited waste generation due to recycling process and reuse.
 Increase productivity of workers and machines. It is reported that productivity can be
increased by about 25% while following such green house norms.
 Attracting and retaining the best employees, can be linked to the benefits and qualities of
workers receive, including the physical, environmental and technological aspects.
 Green building activities result in reduction of operating costs by 25-30%.

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