Xi Movefast 22-23-1

XI PHYSICS
2022-23
LEVEL - 1
22-23 XI PHYSICS
CONTENTS
MARK DISTRIBUTION OF CHAPTERS ................................................................................................................ 3

SYLLABUS-2022-23 .......................................................................................................................................... 4
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS................................................................................................................................... 7
Physical constants ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Conversion Coefficients ............................................................................................................................... 8
Quadratic Equation ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Binomial Theorem ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Mensuration .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Fundamental Trigonometric relations ....................................................................................................... 11
Logarithms ................................................................................................................................................. 11
Approximate Values .................................................................................................................................. 11
Differential Formulae ................................................................................................................................ 12
Integral Formulae ...................................................................................................................................... 14
PRACTICALS ................................................................................................................................................... 15
EXAM PATTERN OF 2021 ............................................................................................................................... 16
CAREER PATH ................................................................................................................................................. 17
WHY TO CHOOSE PHYSICS AS A CAREER? ..................................................................................................... 27
1. PHYSICAL WORLD ...................................................................................................................................... 28
2. UNITS AND MEASUREMENT ...................................................................................................................... 31
3. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE .................................................................................................................... 41
4. MOTION IN A PLANE .................................................................................................................................. 49
5. LAWS OF MOTION ..................................................................................................................................... 67
6. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER .................................................................................................................... 77
7. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION ................................................................................. 87
8. GRAVITATION .......................................................................................................................................... 102
9. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS ..................................................................................................... 111
10. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ................................................................................................... 116
11. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER ...................................................................................................... 133
12. THERMODYNAMICS ............................................................................................................................... 140
13. KINETIC THEORY .................................................................................................................................... 153
14. OSCILLATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 160
15. WAVES ................................................................................................................................................... 167
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
MARK DISTRIBUTION OF CHAPTERS
No. of No. of
S. No. Chapter Marks
Questions Periods
1 PHYSICAL WORLD 11
8
2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 32
3 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 32 23

24
4 MOTION IN A PLANE 59
5 LAWS OF MOTION 39 14
6 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 21 14
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL

7 37 18 17
MOTION
8 GRAVITATION 23 12
9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 17
10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 41 24
11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 26 20
12 THERMODYNAMICS 39 12
13 KINETIC THEORY 17 8
14 OSICLLATIONS 18
26 10
15 WAVES 21
TOTAL 403 160 70
3
22-23 XI PHYSICS
SYLLABUS-2022-23
UNIT I: PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER 1: Physics-scope and excitement, nature of physical laws, Physics,
PHYSICAL WORLD technology and society.
CHAPTER 2: Need for measurement, units of measurement, system of units, SI

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS units, fundamental and derived units. Length, mass and time
measurements, accuracy and precision of measuring instruments,
errors in measurement, significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its
applications.
UNIT II: KINEMATICS
CHAPTER 3: Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line, Position-time graph,
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE speed and velocity.
Elementary concepts of differentiation and integration for
describing motion, uniform and non-uniform motion, average
speed and instantaneous velocity, uniformly accelerated motion,
velocity-time and position-time graphs.
Relations for uniformly accelerated motion (graphical treatment).
CHAPTER 4: Scalar and vector quantities, position and displacement vectors,
MOTION IN A PLANE general vectors and their notations, equality of vectors,
multiplication of vectors by a real number, addition and subtraction
of vectors, relative velocity, Unit vector, resolution of a vector in a
plane, rectangular components, scalar and vector product of
vectors.
Motion in a plane, cases of uniform velocity and uniform
acceleration- projectile motion, uniform circular motion.
UNIT III: LAWS OF MOTION
CHAPTER 5: Intuitive concept of force, Inertia, Newton’s first law of motion,

LAWS OF MOTION momentum and Newton’s second law of motion, impulse,
Newton’s third law of motion.
Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of concurrent forces, Static and kinetic friction, laws
of friction, rolling friction, lubrication.
Dynamics of uniform circular motion, Centripetal force, examples
of circular motion (vehicle on a level circular road, vehicle on a
banked road).
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
UNIT IV: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

CHAPTER 6: Work done by a constant force and a variable force, kinetic energy,
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER work-energy theorem, power.
Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring,
conservative forces, conservation of mechanical energy (kinetic
and potential energies), non-conservative forces, motion in a
vertical circle, elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two
dimensions.
UNIT V: MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODY
CHAPTER 7: Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum conservation
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND and centre of mass motion. Centre of mass of a rigid body, centre
ROTATIONAL MOTION of mass of a uniform rod.
Momentum of a force, torque, angular momentum, law of
conservation of angular momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equations of
rotational motion, comparison of linear and rotational motions.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, values of moments of inertia
for simple geometrical objects (no derivation).
Statement of parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their
applications.
UNIT VI: GRAVITATION
CHAPTER 8: Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Universal law of gravitation.
GRAVITATION Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and
depth.
Gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential, escape
velocity, orbital velocity of a satellite, geo-stationary satellites.
UNIT VII: PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER
CHAPTER 9: Elasticity, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke’s law, Young’s
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus of rigidity (qualitative idea
only), Poisson’s ratio, elastic energy.
CHAPTER 10: Pressure due to a fluid column, Pascal’s law and its applications
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes), effect of gravity on fluid
pressure.
Viscosity, Stokes’s law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent
flow, critical velocity, Bernoulli’s theorem and its simple
applications.
Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of
pressure across a curved surface, application of surface tension
ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary-rise.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
CHAPTER 11: Heat, temperature thermal expansion, thermal expansion of

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER solids, liquids and gases, anomalous expansion of water, specific
heat capacity, CP, CV –calorimetry, change of state- latent heat
capacity.
Heat transfer- conduction, convection and radiation, thermal
conductivity, qualitative ideas of Blackbody radiation, Wien’s
displacement law, Stefan’s law and Greenhouse effect.
UNIT VIII: THERMODYNAMICS
CHAPTER 12: Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature (Zeroth law of
THERMODYNAMICS thermodynamics), heat, work and internal energy. First law of
thermodynamics.
Second law of thermodynamics: gaseous state of matter, change of
condition of gaseous state- isothermal, adiabatic, reversible and
irreversible and cyclic processes. Heat engine and refrigerator.
UNIT IX: BEHAVIOUR OF PERFECT GASES AND KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
CHAPTER 13: Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas.
KINETIC THEORY Kinetic theory of gases- assumption, concept of pressure, Kinetic
interpretation of temperature, rms speed of gas molecules, degrees
of freedom, law of equipartition of energy (statement only) and
application to specific heat capacities of gases, concept of mean
free path, Avogadro’s number.
UNIT X: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
CHAPTER 14: Periodic motion- time period, frequency, displacement as a

OSCILLATIONS function of time, periodic functions and their applications.
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) and its equations of motion,
phases, oscillations of a loaded spring- restoring force and force
constant, energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and potential energies, simple
pendulum derivation of expression for its time period. Free, forced
and damped oscillations (qualitative ideas only), resonance.
CHAPTER 15: Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal waves, speed of
WAVES travelling wave, displacement relation for a progressive wave,
principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing
waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and
harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Physical constants
1. 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 (𝑐) = 3 × 10 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
2. 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐺) = 6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 / 𝑘𝑔 .
3. 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑅) = 8.314 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 .
4. 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑁 ) = 6.023 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 .
5. 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘 ) = 1.38 × 10 𝐽/𝐾.
6. 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝜎) = 5.67 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 .
7. 𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑏) = 2.9 × 10 𝑚 𝐾.
8. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 (𝑀 ) = 2 × 10 𝑘𝑔.
9. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑀 ) = 5.98 × 10 𝑘𝑔
10. 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑅 ) = 6400 𝐾𝑚 = 6.4 × 10 𝑚.
11. 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 1.5 × 10 𝑚.
12. 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 3.84 × 10 𝑚.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
Conversion Coefficients
Length :
1 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 9.46 × 10 𝑚.
1 𝐴. 𝑈. = 1.496 × 10 𝑚.
1Å = 10 𝑚.
1 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 = 10 𝑚.
Mass:
1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1000 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 100 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 0.4536 𝑘𝑔 = 453.6 𝑔𝑚
1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1 𝑢 = 1.66 × 10 kg
Power:
1 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 746 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡.
Pressure:
1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑁𝑚
1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 10 Nm = 10 Pa
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Quadratic Equation
An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. It is of the form:-
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
The roots of a quadratic equation are
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 =
2𝑎
Binomial Theorem
If n is any integer, positive or negative or a fraction and x is any real number, then
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥

(1 + 𝑥) = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + . ..
2! 3!
where 2! = 2 × 1, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1
In general, n! = n (n - 1) (n - 2)…… 3 × 2 × 1
𝐼𝑓 |𝑥| << 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (1 + 𝑥) ≅ 1 + 𝑛𝑥.
9
22-23 XI PHYSICS
Mensuration
1. 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷
2. 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋 𝑟 = 𝜋 𝐷 ⁄4
3. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷
4. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟
5. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)
6. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑙
7. 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
8. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
9. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 6 × (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)
10. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)
10
XI PHYSICS 22-23
Fundamental Trigonometric relations

1 1 1
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = , sec 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2. tan 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
3. sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 1 , 1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 , 1 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
Logarithms
Product formula:
log 𝑚𝑛 = log 𝑚 + log 𝑛
Quotient formula:
𝑚
log = log 𝑚 − log 𝑛
𝑛
Power formula:
log 𝑚 = 𝑛 log 𝑚
Base change formula:
log 𝑚 = log 𝑚 + log 𝑏
Approximate Values
𝐼𝑓 𝜃 ⟶ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, sin 𝜃 ⟶ 0, cos 𝜃 ⟶ 1, tan 𝜃 ⟶ 0
11
22-23 XI PHYSICS
Differential Formulae
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
∆𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥.
∆𝑥
∆𝑦
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∆𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟
∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆ → ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑐
1. Differentiation of a constant 𝑐 is zero, =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
2. =𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑥 )
3. = 𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) ± … . ] 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)

4. = ± ± ….
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑{𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)

5. = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
df(x) dg(x)
d f(x) g(x) − f(x)
6. = dx dx
dx g(x) { g(x) }
dy dy du
7. = .
dx du dx
d du
8. 𝑢 = nu
dx dx
d 1
9. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 =
dx x
𝑑
10. 𝑒 =𝑒
𝑑𝑥
d
11. (𝑎 ) = a log
dx
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
d 1
12. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = log
dx x
𝑑
13. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
14. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
15. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
16. 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
17. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
18. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
13
22-23 XI PHYSICS
Integral Formulae
Here 𝑐 is constant of integration.
1. 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
2. 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥
3. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1
cos 𝑎𝑥
4. sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝑐
𝑎
sin 𝑎𝑥
5. cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎
6. sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
7. cosec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
8. sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
9. cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐
1
10. 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥
11. 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑐
𝑎
12. 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑙𝑜𝑔
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Physics (042) 100 Marks

Theory 70 Marks
Practical 30 Marks
PRACTICALS
The record, to be submitted by the students, at the time of their annual examination, has to include:
 Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section], to be performed by the students.
 Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B], to be demonstrated by teacher.
 Report of the project to be carried out by the students.
EVALUATION SCHEME
Time Allowed: Three hours Max. Marks: 30
Two experiments one from each section (7 + 7) Marks

Practical record (experiment and activities) 5 Marks
One activity from any section 3 Marks
Investigatory Project 3 Marks
Viva on experiments, and activities 5 Marks
Total 30 Marks
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
EXAM PATTERN OF 2021
SECTION S. NO. QUESTION TYPE MARKS

1 VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE 1
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE
2 1
INTERNAL CHOICE
4 1
INTERNAL CHOICE
A 7 1
INTERNAL CHOICE
8 1
INTERNAL CHOICE
11 ASSERTION AND REASON TYPE 1
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
15 CASE STUDY TYPE ANY FOUR 1 4
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
B
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
16 CASE STUDY TYPE ANY FOUR 1 4
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
CASE STUDY TYPE 1
17 SHORT ANSWER TYPE-A (2 MARKS) 2
SHORT ANSWER TYPE-A (2 MARKS)
18 2
INTERNAL CHOICE
19 2
INTERNAL CHOICE
C
24 2
INTERNAL CHOICE
26 SHORT ANSWER TYPE-B (3 MARKS) 3
SHORT ANSWER TYPE-B (3 MARKS)
27 3
INTERNAL CHOICE
D SHORT ANSWER TYPE-B (3 MARKS)
28 3
INTERNAL CHOICE
LONG ANSWER TYPE
31 5
INTERNAL CHOICE
LONG ANSWER TYPE
E 32 5
INTERNAL CHOICE
LONG ANSWER TYPE
33 5
INTERNAL CHOICE
Total internal choices questions 12

Total numerical 16 Including few questions having choices between theory
Total marks of numerical 24 and numerical questions.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
CAREER PATH
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18
XI PHYSICS 22-23
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20
XI PHYSICS 22-23
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
22
XI PHYSICS 22-23
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
WHY TO CHOOSE PHYSICS AS A CAREER?
WEB LINKs:
1. 3 Reasons Why YOU Should Study PHYSICS

2. Physics Vs Engineering
3. Top Government Jobs after MSc Physics in India
4.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
1. PHYSICAL WORLD
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus 2022-23
Physics-scope and excitement, nature of physical laws, Physics, technology and society.
============================================================================
1. What is Physics?
Ans: The word Physics comes from a Greek word which means ‘knowledge of nature’. Physics is the
branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and energy.
2. Discuss the scope of physics by looking at its various sub-disciplines.

Ans: Physics has two main domains of study- macroscopic and microscopic.
Classical Physics deals with macroscopic phenomena which may be at the laboratory,
terrestrial and astronomical scales.
Quantum Mechanics deals with microscopic phenomena at the minute scales of atoms,
molecules and nuclei.
Main sub-disciplines in physics:
Mechanics: It deals with the slow motion or equilibrium of material bodies.
Optics: It deals with the nature and propagation of light.
Thermodynamics: It deals with the change in internal energy, temperature, entropy etc., of the
macroscopic systems through external work and heat.
Electrodynamics: It deals with electric and magnetic phenomena associated with charged and magnetic
bodies.
Quantum Mechanics: It deals with the mechanical behaviour of atoms, molecules and nuclei.
Relativity: It deals with the particles having speeds comparable to the speed of light.
3. The scope of physics is truly vast. Elaborate.

Ans: The scope of physics is truly vast. It covers wide ranges of mass, length, time, energy etc.
1. The mass of an object can vary from 10-30 kg (mass of electron) to 1055 kg (mass of the universe).
2. The length of an object can vary from 10-14 m (size of a nucleus) to 1026 m (size of the universe).
3. Time interval can vary from 10-22 s (time taken by light to cross a nuclear distance) to 108 s (life of
the sun).
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
4. Physics is a science of excitement. How?

Ans: The study of physics is not only educative but also exciting in many ways as follows:
1. Inspite of the wide range and complexity of the physical phenomena, it is quite exciting that these
phenomena can be analysed and understood in terms of few universal laws and principles.
2. Some other people get excitement in carrying out new challenging experiments to unfold the
mysteries of nature and in verifying of falsifying the existing theories.
3. Applied physicist get great satisfaction when they develop technologies for the welfare of the
human beings just by using basic laws of physics.
5. Name the four fundamental/ basic forces in nature. Arrange them in the order of their increasing
strengths.
Ans: There are four fundamental forces in nature which govern the diverse phenomena of the
macroscopic and the microscopic world. These forces are:
1. Gravitational force
2. Electromagnetic force
3. Strong nuclear force
4. Weak nuclear force
The relative strengths of these forces are: FG : FW : FE : FS = 1 : 1025 : 1036 : 1038.
6. What is gravitational force?

Ans: Gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between two bodies by virtue of their masses.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation, the gravitational attraction between two bodies of masses m1
and m2 and separated by distance r is given by
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟
7. What is electromagnetic force?

Ans: The force acting between two electric charges at rest is called electrostatic force. According to
Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the electrostatic force F between two point charges q1 and q2
separated by distance r in vacuum is given by
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
8. What is strong nuclear force?

Ans: The strong attractive force which binds together the protons and neutrons in a nucleus is called
strong nuclear force. This force is different from electrostatic and gravitational forces. Electrons do not
experience this force.
(Unlike Gravitational force and Electromagnetic force, we do not have mathematical formula for strong
nuclear force and weak nuclear force.)
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
9. What is weak nuclear force?

Ans: Weak nuclear force is a force that appears only between elementary particles involved in a
nuclear process such as the β-decay of a nucleus.
Example:
In β-decay, the nucleus emits an electron (note that- electron does not exist in a nucleus)
and an uncharged particle called antineutrino. The electron and antineutrino interact with each other
through the weak nuclear force.
𝑛⟶ 𝐻+ 𝑒 + 𝜐̅
(Neutron changes to proton, during this process two particles electron and antineutrino are also
produced. This process is called β-decay and takes place inside a nucleus.)
10. Technological advancements owe a great deal to the developments in physics. Briefly explain.
Ans: The applications of physics have played a key role in the development of technology. Some of the
major technologies based on the application of physics are as follows:
1. Electromagnetic waves are used in radio, television, radar and wireless communications.
2. Geostationary satellites help us in forecasting weather and in geophysical survey.
3. X-rays are used in radiotherapy, in detecting fractures or dislocations in bones and in studying
crystal systems.
4. Heat engines have revolutionised the industry.
5. Electric appliances like electric motors and generators are the backbones of industry.
6. Nuclear power stations based on nuclear fission constitute one of the major sources of energy.
7. The discovery of silicon chips has brought a revolution in computer industry.
8. Various modes of transport like aeroplanes, bullet trains, electric automobiles have reduced the
time of travel significantly.
11. The fate of a society is linked to the developments in physics. Explain.

Ans: The fate of a society is closely linked to physics. Whatever is discovered in physics immediately
affects the society. For example,
1. The developments of mobile, telephone, telegraph, telex enable us to quickly exchange message
between far off places.
2. The discoveries of radio and television have made possible the instantaneous communication with
other parts of the world.
3. The launching of satellites into space has revolutionised the concept of communication.
4. The development of alternative sources of energy is of great importance to the mankind.
5. Microelectronics, lasers, computers, superconductivity and nuclear energy have entirely changed
the thinking and the living style of the human beings.
The modern science in general and physics in particular has the potentiality to eradicate poverty
and hunger from the surface of the earth and to usher in an age of prosperity.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
2. UNITS AND MEASUREMENT
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus 2022-23
Need for measurement, units of measurement, system of units, SI units, fundamental and derived units. Length, mass
and time measurements, accuracy and precision of measuring instruments, errors in measurement, significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.
============================================================================
1. Briefly explain the need for measurement in physics.
Ans: Physics is an exact science which expresses various natural phenomena in terms of the
relationships among the quantities involved. The accuracy of these relationships depends upon the
measurements we make.
2. What is meant by the term measurement of a physical quantity?

Ans: The measurement of a physical quantity is the process of comparing this quantity with a standard
amount of the physical quantity of the same kind, called its unit.
3. State how the numerical value of a physical quantity is related to the size of the unit.
Ans:
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑢
If the size of the unit is small, then the numerical value of the quantity will be large and vice-versa i.e.,
the numerical value (n) is inversely proportional to the size (u) of the unit
1
𝑛 ∝
𝑢
If n1 and n2 are numerical values for a physical quantity Q corresponding to the units u1 and u2, then
𝑄= 𝑛 𝑢 =𝑛 𝑢
4. What is a system of units? Mention the various types of systems of units.

Ans: A complete set of units which is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities
is called a system of units. Some of the commonly used systems of units are as follows:
1. CGS system: It is based on centimetre, gram and second as the fundamental units of length, mass
and time respectively.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
2. FPS system: It is based on foot, pound and second as the fundamental units of length, mass and
time respectively.
3. MKS system: It is based on metre, kilogram and second as the fundamental units of length, mass
and time respectively.
4. SI system: SI is the abbreviation for “Systeme Internationale d’ Unites”, which is French
equivalent for international system of units. It covers all branches of science and technology. It is
based on seven fundamental units and two supplementary units.
5. What are the fundamental and derived units? Give some examples.
Ans:
Fundamental Units: The physical units which can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be
further resolved into more simpler units are called fundamental units. The units of fundamental
quantities such as mass, length and time etc. are fundamental units.
Derived Units: All the other physical units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units
are called derived units. The units of derived quantities such as speed, force, work, power etc. are
derived units.
6. Mention the various practical units used for measuring small distances.
Ans: Practical units for measuring small distances:
1. Fermi. It is used for measuring nuclear sizes. It is also called femtometre.
1 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 = 1 𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝑚
2. Angstrom. It is used to express wavelength of light.
1 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚 = 1 Å = 10 𝑚
3. Nanometre. It is also used for expressing wavelength of light
1 𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝑛𝑚 = 10 𝑚
4. Micron. It is the unit of distance defined as micrometre.
1 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜 = 1 𝜇𝑚 = 10 𝑚
7. Mention the various practical units used for measuring large distances.
Ans: Practical units used for measuring large distances:
1. Light Year: It is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year.
1 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 1 𝑙𝑦 = 9.467 × 10 𝑚
2. Astronomical Unit: It is defined as the mean distance of the earth and the sun.
1 𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 1 𝐴𝑈 = 1.496 × 10 𝑚
3. Parsec: It is the largest practical unit of distance used in
astronomy. It is defined as the distance at which an arc of
length 1 astronomical unit subtends an angle of 1 second of
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
arc.
1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.08 × 10 𝑚 = 3.26 𝑙𝑦
8. Mention the various practical units used for measuring mass.

Ans: Practical units used for measuring mass:
1 tonne or 1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 pound = 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 Chandra Shekher limit = 1 CSL = 1.4 times the mass of the sun
1 atomic mass unit = 1 amu = 1 u = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
9. Distinguish between the terms accuracy and precision of a measurement.

Ans:
Accuracy: It refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physical quantity. As we
reduce the errors, the measurement becomes more accurate.
Precision: It refers to the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is measured. Precision is
determined by the least count of the measuring instrument. The smaller the least count, greater is the
precision.
10. What do you mean by error in a measurement?

Ans: Error in a measurement is equal to the difference between the true value and the measured value
of the quantity.
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
11. Briefly explain the different types of errors and their causes.
Ans: Different types of errors:
1. Systematic errors: The errors which tend to occur in one direction, either positive or negative, are
called systematic errors. These errors are of following types:
i. Instrumental errors: These errors occur due to the inbuilt defect of the measuring
instrument.
ii. Imperfections in experimental technique: These errors are due to the limitations of the
experimental arrangement.
iii. Personal errors: These errors arise due to individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of
apparatus or individual’s carelessness in taking observations without observing proper
precautions, etc.
iv. Errors due to external causes: These errors arise due to the change in external conditions
like pressure, temperature, wind, etc.
2. Random errors: The errors which occur irregularly and at random, in magnitude and direction, are
called random errors.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
3. Least count error: The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called
its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only upto this value.
4. Gross errors: These errors are due to either carelessness of the person or due to improper
adjustment of the apparatus. No corrections can be applied for gross errors.
12. What do you mean by absolute error?

Ans: The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity measured and the
individual measured value is called absolute error.
If 𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , … . , 𝑎 be the n measured values of a physical quantity, then its true value, 𝑎 is given by
the arithmetic mean,
𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯.+ 𝑎
𝑎=
𝑛
If we take arithmetic mean 𝑎 as the true value, then the absolute errors in the individual measured
values will be
∆𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 , ∆𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 , ∆𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑎 , ∆𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑎
13. What do you mean by mean absolute error?

Ans: The arithmetic mean of the positive magnitudes of all the absolute errors is called mean absolute
error. It is given by
|∆𝑎 | + |∆𝑎 | + ⋯ + |∆𝑎 |
∆𝑎 =
𝑛
Thus the final result of the measure of a physical quantity can be expressed as 𝑎 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎 .
14. What do you mean by relative error?

Ans: The ratio of the mean absolute error to the true value of the measured quantity is called relative
error.
∆𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝛿𝑎 =
𝑎
15. What do you mean by percentage error?

Ans: The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.
∆𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝛿𝑎 × 100% = × 100%
𝑎
16. How can we estimate the error in the sum of different measured quantities?
Ans: Let ∆𝐴 and ∆𝐵 be the absolute errors in the two quantities 𝐴 and 𝐵 respecitvely. Then,
Measured value of 𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
Measured value of 𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Consider the sum 𝑍 =𝐴+𝐵

The error ∆𝑍 in Z is then given by
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) + (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
= 𝑍 ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
⇒ ∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
Hence, the maximum possible error in the sum of two quantities is equal to the sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.
17. How can we estimate the error in the difference of different measured quantities?
Ans: Let ∆𝐴 and ∆𝐵 be the absolute errors in the two quantities 𝐴 and 𝐵 respecitvely. Then,
Measured value of 𝐴 = 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
Measured value of 𝐵 = 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
Consider the sum 𝑍 =𝐴−𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) − (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
= (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± ∆𝐴 ∓ ∆𝐵
= (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
= 𝑍 ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
⇒ ∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
Hence, the maximum possible error in the difference of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
18. How can we estimate the error in the product of different measured quantities?
Ans: Consider the product, 𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴)(𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
= 𝐴𝐵 ± 𝐴∆𝐵 ± 𝐵∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵
Dividing L.H.S. by Z and R.H.S. by 𝐴𝐵, we get
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 𝐴𝐵 ± 𝐴∆𝐵 ± 𝐵∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐴. ∆𝐵
=
𝑍 𝐴𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
1± =1± ± ± .
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
∆ ∆
As and are small quantities, their product term will be very very small so it can be neglected.
Therefore, the maximum fractional error in Z is
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= ±
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
Hence, the maximum fractional error in the product of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional errors in the individual quantities.
19. How can we estimate the error in the quotient of different measured quantities?
Ans: Consider the product, 𝑍 = 𝐴/𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= ±
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
Hence, the maximum fractional error in the quotient of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional errors in the individual quantities.
20. How can we estimate the error in the power of different measured quantities?
Ans: Consider the nth power of 𝐴 , 𝑍 = 𝐴
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴
=𝑛
𝑍 𝐴
Hence, the fractional error in the nth power of a quantity is n times the fractional errors in the individual
quantities.
General Rule: If 𝑍 = , then

∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶
=𝑝 +𝑞 +𝑟
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
And the percentage error in Z is

∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐶
× 100% = 𝑝 × 100% + 𝑞 × 100% + 𝑟 × 100%
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
21. Define significant figures in a measured quantity.

Ans: The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known reliably
or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus one additional digit that is uncertain.
22. State the rules for counting the number of significant figures in a measured quantity.
Ans: Rules for determining the number of significant figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. So 13.75 has four significant figures.
2. All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus 100.05 km has five significant figures.
3. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are not
significant. For example, 86400 has three significant figures.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement. For example, 86400 m has five
significant figures.
4. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant. For
example, 648700. has six significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant. So 161 cm, 161.0 cm and 161.00 cm has
three, four and five significant respectively.
6. All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant. So
0.161 cm and 0.0161 cm, both have three significant figures. Moreover, zero conventionally placed
to the left of the decimal point is not significant.
7. The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units. So 16.4 cm, 0.164 m and
0.000164 km, all have three significant figures.
23. What do you mean by seven dimensions of the world?

Ans: All the derived physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combination of the seven
fundamental or base quantities. We call these fundamental quantities as the seven dimensions of the
world, which are denoted within square brackets [ ].
Dimension of length = [L]
Dimension of mass = [M]
Dimension of time = [T]
Dimension of electric current = [A]
Dimension of thermodynamic temperature = [K]
Dimension of luminous intensity = [cd]
Dimension of amount of substance = [mol]
24. What do you mean by dimensions of a physical quantity?

Ans: The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the fundamental
quantities must be raised to represent that quantity completely.
For example,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
[𝑀]
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = [𝑀𝐿 ] = [𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 ]
[𝐿][𝐿][𝐿]
Hence, the dimensions of density are ‘1’ in mass, ‘-3’ in length and ‘0’ in time.
25. What is meant by dimensional formula?

Ans: The expression which shows how and which of the fundamental quantities represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.
Example: The dimensional formula of the volume is [M0L3T0] and that of momentum is [MLT-1].
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
26. What is meant by dimensional equation?

Ans: The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the
dimensional equation of the given physical quantity.
Example: The dimensional equation of force is [Force] = [MLT-2]
The dimensional equation of pressure is [Pressure] = [ML-1T-2]
27. Mention some applications of dimensional analysis.

Ans: The method of studying a physical phenomenon on the basis of dimensions is called dimensional
analysis. Following are the three main uses of dimensional analysis:
1. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units to another.
2. To check the correctness of a given physical relation.
3. To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.
28. How can a physical quantity be converted from one system of units to another? Explain it with the
help of a suitable example.
Ans: It is based on the fact that the magnitude of a physical quantity remains same, whatever may be
the system of units. If u1 and u2 are the units of measurement of a physical quantity Q and n1 and n2 are
the corresponding numerical values, then
𝑄= 𝑛 𝑢 =𝑛 𝑢
Let M1, L1 and T1 be the sizes of fundamental units of mass, length and time in one system and M2, L2
and T2 be corresponding units in another system. If the dimensional formula of quantity Q be MaLbTc,
then
𝑢 =𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 =𝑀 𝐿 𝑇
∴ 𝑛 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇
This equation can be used to find the numerical value in the second or new system of units.
Example: Let us convert one newton into dyne.
Newton is the SI unit of force and dyne is the CGS unit of force. Dimensional formula of force is
[MLT-2].
∴ a = 1, b = 1, c = -2
SI CGS
n1 = 1 (newton) n2 = ? (dyne)
M1 = 1 kg = 1000 g M2 = 1 g
L1 = 1 m = 100 cm L2 = 1 cm
T1 = 1 s T2 = 1 s
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑛 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇
1 [1000 × 100 × 1 ] = 𝑛 [1 × 1 × 1 ]
𝑛 = 10
5
∴ 1 newton = 10 dyne.
29. State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

Ans: According to this principle, a physical equation will be dimensionally correct if the dimensions of
all the terms occurring on both sides of the equation are the same.
30. How can we check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation?

Ans: To check the dimensional correctness of a physical equation, we make use of the principle of
homogeneity of dimensions. If the dimensions of all the terms on the two sides of the equation are
same, then the equation is dimensionally correct.
Example: Let us check the dimensional accuracy of the equation of motion,
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
Dimensions of different terms are
[s] = [L]
[ut] = [LT-1][T] = [L]
[at2] = [LT-2][T]2 = [L]
As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the same dimensions, so the given equation is
dimensionally correct.
31. How can the method of dimensions be used to deduce a relation among the physical quantities?
Ans: By making use of the homogeneity of dimensions, we can derive an expression for a physical
quantity if we know the various factors on which it depends.
Example: Let us derive an expression for the centripetal force F acting on a particle of mass m moving
with velocity v in a circle of radius r.
Let 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 …(1)
Where K is a dimensional constant. Writing the dimensions of various quantities in equation (1),
we get
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 ] = 1[𝑀] [𝐿𝑇 ] [𝐿]
⇒𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑀 𝐿 𝑇
Comparing the dimensions of similar quantities on both sides, we get
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −1
From equation (1), we get
𝑚𝑣
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 =𝐾
𝑟
This is the required expression for the centripetal force.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
32. Mention the limitations of the method of dimensional analysis.

Ans: Limitations of the method of dimensional analysis:
1. The method does not give any information about the dimensionless constant K.
2. It fails when a physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities.
3. It fails when a physical quantity (e.g., 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 ) is the sum or difference of two or more
quantities.
4. It fails to derive relationships which involve trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential functions.
5. Sometimes, it is difficult to identify the factors on which the physical quantities depends.
______________________________________________________________________________________
40
XI PHYSICS 22-23
3. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus 2022-23
Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line, Position-time graph, speed and velocity.
Elementary concepts of differentiation and integration for describing motion, uniform and non-uniform motion,
average speed and instantaneous velocity, uniformly accelerated motion, velocity-time and position-time graphs.
Relations for uniformly accelerated motion (graphical treatment).

============================================================================
1. What is mechanics?
Ans: Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the conditions of rest or motion of the material
objects around us.
2. What are the various sub-branches of mechanics?

Ans: Sub-branches of mechanics:
1. Statics: It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of objects at rest or in equilibrium.
2. Kinematics: It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion of objects without
considering the cause of motion.
3. Dynamics: It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion of objects taking into
consideration the cause of their motion.
3. Define the term Frame of Reference?

Ans: A frame of reference is a set of coordinates that can be used to determine positions and velocities
of objects in that frame.
4. Define one-dimensional motion (motion in a straight line).

Ans: The motion of an object is said to be one dimensional motion if only one out of the three
coordinates specifying the position of the object changes with time. In such a motion, an object moves
along a straight line path.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
5. What do you understand by position-time graph?

Ans: A position-time graph shows how far an object has travelled from its starting position at any given
time since it started moving.
The velocity of the moving object is represented by the slope of the position-time graph line.
6. Define distance.
Ans: It is the length of the actual path traversed by a body between its initial and final positions. It is a
scalar quantity. Its SI unit is metre. It is always positive or zero.
7. Define displacement.
Ans: It is defined as the change in the position of an object in a fixed direction. It is given by the vector
drawn from the initial position to the final position of the object. It is a vector quantity. It can be
positive, negative or zero. Its SI unit is metre.
8. Define the term speed.

Ans: The rate of change of position of an object with time in any direction is called its speed. It is equal
to the distance travelled by the object per unit time.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Speed has only magnitude and no direction, so it is a scalar quantity.
SI unit of speed is 𝑚/𝑠 and CGS unit is 𝑐𝑚/𝑠.
Dimensional formula of speed is [M0LT-1]
9. Define the term velocity.

Ans: The rate of change of position of an object with time in a given direction is called its velocity. It is
equal to the displacement covered per unit time.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
As velocity has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity.
SI unit of speed is 𝑚/𝑠 and CGS unit is 𝑐𝑚/𝑠.
Dimensional formula of speed is [M0LT-1]
10. Distinguish between speed and velocity.

Ans: Speed has only magnitude while velocity has both magnitude and direction. So speed is a scalar
quantity but velocity is a vector quantity.
11. What is meant by differentiation?

Ans: Differentiation is a process of finding the derivation of a function 𝑓(𝑥). Differentiation is used to
measure the change in one variable (𝑦) with respect to the other variable (𝑥).
42
XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 ∆ → ∆𝑥
12. What is meant by integration?

Ans: The integration is a process of finding the antiderivative of a function. It is a similar way to
adding slices to find the whole. The integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
13. Define uniform motion.

Ans: An object is said to be in uniform motion if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time,
however small these time intervals may be, in the same fixed direction.
14. Define non-uniform motion.

Ans: A body is said to be in non-uniform motion if its velocity changes with time.
15. Define average speed.

Ans: Average speed is the total distance travelled by the object divided by the total time taken to cover
that distance.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
16. Define instantaneous speed.

Ans: The speed of an object at any particular instant of time or at a particular point of its path is called
the instantaneous speed of the object.
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
∆ → ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
17. Define average velocity.

Ans: Average velocity is defined as the ratio of its total displacement to the total time interval in which
that displacement occurs.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
18. Define instantaneous velocity.

Ans: The velocity of an object at a particular instant of time or at a particular point of its path is called
its instantaneous velocity.
∆𝑥⃗ 𝑑𝑥⃗
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
∆ → ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
19. Define acceleration. Is it a scalar or vector quantity? Give its units and dimensions.
Ans: The rate of change of velocity of an object with time is called its acceleration. It tells how fast the
velocity of an object changes with time.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
20. Define instantaneous acceleration.

Ans: The acceleration of an object at a particular instant of time or at a particular point of its path is
called its instantaneous acceleration.
∆𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
∆ → ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
21. Derive 1st equation of motion using integration.

Ans: Instantaneous Acceleration is defined as
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⇒ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 … (1)
𝑑𝑡
When time = 0, velocity = u (say)

When time = t, velocity = v (say)
Integrating equation (1) within the above limits of time and velocity, we get
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡
[𝑣] = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎[𝑡]
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎(𝑡 − 0)
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 … (2)
22. Derive 2nd equation of motion using integration.

Ans: Instantaneous Velocity is defined as
𝑑𝑠
𝑣= ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡 … (3)
𝑑𝑡
When time = 0, distance travelled = 0 (say)

When time = t, distance travelled = s (say)
Integrating equation (3) within the above limits of distance and time, we get
𝑑𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑡
[𝑠] = 𝑢[𝑡] + 𝑎
2
𝑡
𝑠 − 0 = 𝑢(𝑡 − 0) + 𝑎 −0
2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 … (4)
2
23. Derive 3rd equation of motion using integration.

Ans: By definition of acceleration, 𝑎 = and velocity, 𝑣 =
We have,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = × = ×𝑣 =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
⇒ 𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣 … (5)
When time = 0, velocity = u, distance travelled = 0

When time = t, velocity = v, distance travelled = s (say)
Integrating equation (5) within the above limits of velocity and distance, we get
𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑎 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑣
𝑎[𝑠] =
2
𝑣 𝑢
𝑎[𝑠 − 0] = −
2 2
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 − 𝑢
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠 … (6)
24. Derive 4th equation of motion using integration.

Ans: Instantaneous Velocity is defined as
𝑑𝑠
𝑣= ⇒ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡 … (3)
𝑑𝑡
When time = (n-1) second, distance travelled = 𝑠 (say)
When time = n second, distance travelled = 𝑠 (say)
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
Integrating equation (3) within the above limits of distance and

a time, we get
𝑑𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑡
[𝑠] = 𝑢[𝑡] +𝑎
2
𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑠 −𝑠 = 𝑢[𝑛 − (𝑛 − 1)] + 𝑎 −
2 2
𝑎
𝑠 −𝑠 = 𝑢 + (2𝑛 − 1) … (7)
2
25. Draw the position-time

time graph for uniform motion.
Ans: The position-time
time graph for an object in uniform motion
along a straight line path is a straight line inclined to time-axis,
time
as shown in fig.
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐴𝐵 = tan 𝜃
𝑄𝑅 𝑥 −𝑥
= =
𝑃𝑅 𝑡 −𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣)
Hence, the slope of the position-time

time (or displacement-time)
displacement time) graph gives velocity of the object.
26. Draw the position-time

time graph for uniformly accelerated motion.
Ans: The position-time
time graph for uniformly accelerated motion
is a parabola, as shown in fig.
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
=
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑥
= = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Thus, the slope of the position-time

time graph gives the instantaneous velocity of the object.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
27. Draw the velocity-time

time graph for uniform motion.
Ans: The velocity-time
time graph for uniform motion is a straight line parallel to the time
time--axis as shown in
figure.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
= 𝐴𝐷 × 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑣
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Hence, the area under the velocity-time

time graph gives the dispalcement of the object in the given time
interval.
28. Draw the velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion.

Ans: The velocity-time
time graph for a uniformly accelerated motion is a straight line inclined to the time
axis, as shown in figure.
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐴𝐵 = tan 𝜃
𝑄𝑅 𝑣 −𝑣
= =
𝑃𝑅 𝑡 −𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
= 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎)
Hence, the slope of the velocity-time

time graph gives the acceleration of the object.
29. Derive 1st equations of motion using velocity

velocity-time graph.
Ans: Consider an object moving along a straight line path with initial
velocity 𝑢 and uniform acceleration 𝑎. Suppose it travels distance 𝑠 in
time 𝑡.. As shown in figure, its velocity-time
velocity graph is a straight line.
We know that,
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝐷𝐵 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐷
𝑎= =
𝐴𝐷 𝑂𝐸
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
This proves the first equation of motion.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
30. Derive 2nd equations of motion using velocity

Ans:
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵
𝑎= =
𝐴𝐷 𝑡
⇒ 𝐷𝐵 = 𝑎𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐸
= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐸 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐷𝐵
1
= 𝑂𝐴 × 𝑂𝐸 + 𝐷𝐵 × 𝐴𝐷
2
1
= 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 × 𝑡
2
1
= 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
This proves the
he second equation of motion.
31. Derive 3rd equations of motion using velocity

Ans:
𝐷𝐵 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐷
𝑎= =
𝐴𝐷 𝑂𝐸
𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐷
⇒ 𝑂𝐸 =
𝑎
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐸
1
= (𝐸𝐵 + 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝐴) × 𝑂𝐸
2
1 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐷
= (𝐸𝐵 + 𝐸𝐷𝐸𝐷) ×
2 𝑎
1
= (𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐷 )
2𝑎
1
= (𝑣 − 𝑢 )
2𝑎
⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠
𝑎𝑠
This proves the third equation of motion.
32. Define relative velocity.

Ans: The relative velocity of an object 2 with respect to object 1, when both are in motion,
mo is the time
rate of change of position of object 2 with respect to that of object 1.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 2 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
4
4. MOTION IN A PLANE
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O 33 O 34 O 35 O 36 O 37 O 38 O 39 O
40 O 41 O 42 O 43 O 44 O 45 O 46 O 47 O 48 O 49 O 50 O 51 O 52 O
53 O 54 O 55 O 56 O 57 O 58 O 59 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus 2022-23
Scalar and vector quantities, position and displacement vectors, general vectors and their notations, equality of
vectors, multiplication of vectors by a real number, addition and subtraction of vectors, relative velocity,
velocity Unit vector,
resolution of a vector
or in a plane, rectangular components, scalar and vector product of vectors.
Motion in a plane, cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration

acceleration- projectile motion, uniform circular motion.
===============================================================
============================================================================
=============
1. What are scalar and vector quantities? Give examples.

Ans:
Scalar quantities: The physical quantities which have only magnitude and no direction are called scalar
quantities or scalar.
Example: Mass, volume, density, time temperature, electric current, etc.
Vector quantities: The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction and obey the laws
of vector addition are called vector quantities or vectors.
Example: Displacement, velocity, force, momentum, etc.
2. With the help off a suitable example, explain how a vector is represented?
Ans: A vector quantity is represented by a straight
line with an arrowhead over it. As shown in
figure, a vector 𝑂𝐴⃗ is represented, with point 𝐴

called head or terminal point and 𝑂 called the tail
or initial point of the vector 𝑂𝐴⃗.
49
22-23 XI PHYSICS
3. Define position vector.

Ans: A vector which gives position of an object with reference
to the origin of a co-ordinate
ordinate system is called position vector.
As shown in figure, 𝑂𝑃⃗ is the position vector of the object
located at point P.
Position vector tells us two things:
1. Distance of the object from the origin.
2. Direction of the object with respect to the origin.
4. Define displacement vector.

Ans: Displacement vector tells how mu
much and in which
direction an object has changed its position in a given time
interval.
5. Define modulus of a vector.

Ans: The modulus of a vector means the length or the magnitude of that vector. It is a scalar quantity.
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴
6. Define unit vector.

Ans: A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude drawn in the direction of a given vector. A unit vector
in the direction of a given vector is found by dividing the given vector by its modulus. Thus, a unit
vector in the direction of vector 𝐴⃗ is given by
𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗
𝐴= =
𝐴⃗ 𝐴
Any vector can be expressed as the magnitude times the unit vector along its own direction.
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ 𝐴
7. Define equal vectors.
Ans: Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and same direction. In figure, 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are two equal
vectors.
8. Define negative of a vector.

Ans: The negative of a vector is defined as another vector having
the same magnitude but having an opposite direction. In figure, 𝐵⃗
is the negative of vector 𝐴⃗ or vice versa.
50
XI PHYSICS 22-23
9. Define zero or null vector.

Ans: A zero or null vector is a vector that has zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction. It is
represented by 0⃗ (arrow over the number 0).
10. Give important properties of a null vector.

Ans: Properties of zero or null vector:
1. When a vector is added to zero vector, we get the same vector.
𝐴⃗ + 0⃗ = 𝐴⃗
2. When a real number is multiplied by a zero vector, we get a zero vector.
𝜆 0⃗ = 0⃗
3. When a vector is multiplied by zero, we get zero vector
0 𝐴⃗ = 0⃗
4. If λ and μ are two different non
non-zero real numbers, then the relation
𝜆 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐵⃗
can hold only if both 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are zero vectors.
Physical examples of zero vector:
1. The position vector of a particle lying at the origin is a zero vector.
2. The acceleration vector of an object moving with uniform velocity is a zero vector.
11. What do you mean by multiplication of a vector by a real number?

Ans: When a vector 𝐴⃗ is multiplied by a real number λ, we get
another vector 𝜆𝐴⃗ . The magnitude of 𝜆𝐴⃗ is λ times the
magnitude of 𝐴⃗ . If λ is positive, then the direction of 𝜆𝐴⃗ is
same as that of 𝐴⃗. If λ is negative, then the direction of 𝜆𝐴⃗ is
opposite to that of 𝐴⃗. Figure shows multiplication of vector 𝐴⃗
by different real numbers.
12. What do you mean by resultant of two or more vectors?

Ans: The resultant of two or more ve
vectors
ctors is that single vector which produces the same effect as the
individual vectors together would produce. The process of adding two or more vectors is called
composition of vectors.
The following three laws of vector addition can be used to add two or more vectors having any
inclination to each other.
1. Triangle law of vector addition for adding two vectors.
2. Parallelogram law of vector addition for adding two vectors.
3. Polygon law of vector addition for adding more than two vectors.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
13. State triangle law of vector addition.

Ans: Triangle law of vector addition:
If two vectors can be represented both in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in
the same order, then their resultant is represented completely, both in magnitude and direction,
directi by the
third side of the triangle taken in opposite order.
According to triangle law of vector addition:
𝑂𝑄⃗ = 𝑂𝑃⃗ + 𝑃𝑄⃗
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗
14. State parallelogram law of vector addition.

Ans: Parallelogram law of vector addition:
If two vectors can be represented both in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram drawn from a common point, then their resultant is represented completely, both in
magnitude and direction, by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.
According
ding to parallelogram law of vector addition:
𝑂𝑆⃗ = 𝑂𝑃⃗ + 𝑂𝑄⃗
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗
15. State polygon law of vector addition.

Ans: Polygon law of vector addition:
If a number of vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of an open polygon
in the same order, then their resultant is represented both in magnitude and direction by the closing side
of the polygon taken in opposite order.
Thus,
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ + 𝐷⃗
16. State commutative property of vector addition.

Ans: Vector addition obeys commutative property. If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are two vectors then it can be shown that
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗
17. State associative property of vector addition.

Ans: Vector addition obeys associative property. If 𝐴⃗, 𝐵⃗ and 𝐶⃗ are three vectors then
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
18. Give analytical treatment to find the magnitude and direction of a resultant vector by triangle law.
Ans: Let the two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ be represented both in magnitude
and direction by the sides 𝑂𝑃⃗ and 𝑃𝑄⃗ of Δ𝑂𝑃𝑄 taken in the same
order. Then according to the triangle law of vector addition, the
resultant 𝑅⃗ is given by the closing side 𝑂𝑄 taken in the reverse order,
as shown in figure.
Magnitude of the resultant 𝑅⃗ :
From Q, draw QN perpendicular to OP produced. Then ∠QPN = θ,, OP = A, PQ = B, OQ = R
From right angled ∆QNP, we have
𝑄𝑁
= sin 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑁 = 𝑃𝑄 sin 𝜃 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝑃𝑄
𝑃𝑁
𝑎𝑛𝑑 = cos 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑃𝑄
Using Pythagoras theorem in right angled ∆ONQ, we get
𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑁 + 𝑄𝑁 = (𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑁) + 𝑄𝑁
⇒ 𝑅 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃)) + (𝐵 sin 𝜃) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 + 𝐵 sin 𝜃
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 (sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃) + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
⇒ 𝑅= 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
Direction of resultant 𝑅⃗ :
Let the resultant 𝑅⃗ make an angle β with the direction of 𝐴⃗. Then from right angled ∆ONQ,
ONQ, we get
𝑄𝑁 𝑄𝑁
tan 𝛽 = =
𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑁
𝐵 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛽 =
𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃
19. What is meant by resolution of a vector?

Ans: Resolution of a vector: It is a process of splitting a vector into two or more vectors in such a way
that their combined effect is same as that of the given vector. The vectors into which the given vector is
splitted are called component vectors.
20. What do you mean by orthogonal triad of unit vectors or base vectors?
v
Ans: The three mutually perpendicular unit vectors, 𝚤̂, 𝚥̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ; which
are used to represent the positive direction of X-,
X Y- and Z-axes
respectively, are collectively known as orthogonal triad of unit vectors
or base vectors. |𝚤̂| = |𝚥̂| = 𝑘 = 1
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
21. What do you mean by rectangular components of a vector?

Ans: When a vector is resolved along two mutually perpendicular directions, the components so
obtained are called rectangular components or the given vector.
Consider vector 𝐴⃗ in the X-Y plane. From the head P of 𝐴⃗, draw
𝑃𝑀 ⊥ 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑃𝑁 ⊥ 𝑂𝑌,, as shown in figure.
According to the parallelogram law of vector addition,
𝑂𝑃⃗ = 𝑂𝑀⃗ + 𝑂𝑁⃗
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴 𝚤̂ + 𝐴 𝚥̂
Thus, 𝐴⃗ is the horizontal component

compone X-component of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐴⃗ is the vertical
rtical component or Y-
component of 𝐴⃗.
If 𝐴⃗ makes an angle θ with X-axis,
axis, then
𝐴 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
Magnitude of 𝐴⃗ is given by
𝐴= 𝐴 +𝐴
Similarly, in three dimensions 𝐴⃗ can be resolved as

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐴⃗ + 𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴 𝚤̂ + 𝐴 𝚥̂ + 𝐴 𝑘
Magnitude of 𝐴⃗ is given by
𝐴= 𝐴 +𝐴 +𝐴
22. Define dot product (scalar product) of two vectors.

Ans: The scalar or dot product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is defined as the product of the magnitudes of 𝐴⃗
and 𝐵⃗ and cosine of the angle θ between them. Thus
𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ = 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
As dot product is a scalar product so 𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ is a scalar quantity.
23. Define cross product (vector product) of two vectors.

Ans: The vector or cross product of two vectors A⃗ and B⃗ is defined as the vector whose magnitude is
equal to the product of the magnitudes of A⃗ and B⃗ and sine of the angle θ between them and whose
direction is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors and is given by right hand rule.
rule Thus
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑛
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Where 𝑛 is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A⃗ and B⃗ and its direction is given by right hand
rule.
As cross product is a vector product so A⃗ × B⃗ is a vector quantity.
24. Give some examples of physical quantities that may be expressed as the scalar product of two
vectors.
Ans: Physical examples of scalar product or two vectors:
1. Work done: It is defined as the scalar product of the force 𝐹⃗ acting on a body and the displacement
𝑆⃗ produced. Thus
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑆⃗
2. Instantaneous Power: It is defined as the scalar product of force 𝐹⃗ and the instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗
of the body. Thus
𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑣⃗
25. Give some examples of physical quantities that may be expressed as the vector product of two
vectors.
Ans: Physical examples of vector product:
1. Torque 𝜏⃗:: The torque acting on a particle is equal to the vector product of its position vector 𝑟⃗ and
force vector 𝐹⃗ . Thus
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
2. Angular Momentum 𝐿⃗: The angular momentum of a particle is equal to the vector product of its
position vector 𝑟⃗ and linear momentum vector 𝑝⃗. Thus
𝐿⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
26. Mention important properties of the scalar product.

Ans: Properties of Scalar Product:
1. The scalar product is commutative i.e.,
𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗·𝐴⃗
2. The scalar product is distributive over addition i.e.,
𝐴⃗· 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗·𝐶⃗
3. If A⃗ and B⃗ are two vectors perpendicular to each other than their scalar product is zero.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 90 = 0
4. The scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of its magnitude.
𝐴⃗·𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐴
5. Scalar product of two similar
imilar base vectors is unity and that of two different base vectors is zero.
𝚤̂·𝚤̂ = ((1)(1) cos 0 = 1 ∴ 𝚤̂·𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂·𝚥̂ = 𝑘 ·𝑘 = 1
𝚤̂·𝚥̂ = (1
(1)(1) cos 90 = 0 ∴ 𝚤̂·𝚥̂ = 𝚥̂·𝑘 = 𝑘·𝚤̂ = 0
6. Scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products of their corresponding rectangular
components.
𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐵
7. The cosine of angle θ between A⃗ and B⃗ is given by

𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗·𝐵⃗ 𝐴 𝐵 +𝐴 𝐵 +𝐴 𝐵
cos 𝜃 = = =
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵
𝐴 +𝐴 +𝐴 𝐵 +𝐵 +𝐵
27. Mention important properties of the vector product.

Ans: Properties of vector product:
1. Vector product is anti-commutative
commutative i.e.,
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = −𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗
2. Vector product is distributive over addition i.e.,
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × 𝐶⃗
3. Vector product of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is a null vector. Thus
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin(0 𝑜𝑟 180 ) 𝑛 = 0⃗
4. Vector product of a vector with itself is a null vector.
𝐴⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴 sin 0 𝑛 = 0⃗
5. Vector product of orthogonal (perpendicular) unit vectors is cyclic.
𝚤̂ × 𝚥̂ = 𝑘, 𝚥̂ × 𝑘 = 𝚤̂, 𝑘 × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂
𝚥̂ × 𝚤̂ = −𝑘 , 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ = −𝚤̂, 𝚤̂ × 𝑘 = −𝚥̂
Also
𝚤̂ × 𝚤̂ = 0⃗, 𝚥̂ × 𝚥̂ = 0⃗, 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0⃗,
6. The vector product of two vectors can be expressed in terms of their rectangular components as a
determinant.
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
⃗ ⃗
𝐴×𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
7. Sine of the angle between two vectors is given by
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗
sin 𝜃 = =
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
8. Unit
nit vector perpendicular to the plane of two vectors is given by
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗
𝑛=
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗
28. State the rules for determining the direction of 𝑨⃗ × 𝑩⃗.

Ans: Rules for determining the direction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗:
1. Right hand screw rule: As shown in figure, if a right handed
screw is placed with its axis perpendicular to the plane of
vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ and is rotated from 𝐴⃗ to 𝐵⃗ through the
smaller angle, then the direction in which the screw
ction of 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗.
advances gives the direction
2. Right hand thumb rule: As shown in figure, curl the fingers

of the right hand in such a way that they point in the
direction of rotation from vector 𝐴⃗ to 𝐵⃗ through the smaller
angle, then the stretched thumb points in the direction of
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗.
29. Write an expression for the position vector of a particle in terms of its rectangular components in
two dimensional plane.
Ans: Figure shows the position vector 𝑂𝑃⃗ of a particle located at P(x,y)
with respect to the origin O. Then
𝑂𝑃⃗ = 𝑂𝐴⃗ + 𝑂𝐵⃗
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂
This equation expresses position vector 𝑟⃗ in terms of its rectangular
components x and y.
30. Write an expression for the displacement vector in terms of its rectangular components.
Ans: Suppose a particle moves in the X-Y
X Y plane along the curved path shown in figure. The particle is
at point P(x,y) at time t and at Pʹ(xʹ,,yʹ) at time tʹ.
The displacement vector in time t to tʹ is
𝑃𝑃ʹ⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑃ʹ⃗ − 𝑂𝑃⃗
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟ʹ⃗ʹ − 𝑟⃗
∆𝑟⃗ = ∆𝑥𝚤̂𝚤̂ + ∆𝑦𝚥̂
The direction of ∆𝑟⃗ is from P to Pʹ..
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
31. Write an expression for the average velocity in terms of its rectangular components.
Ans: The average velocity of an object is the ratio of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval.
∆𝑟⃗ ∆𝑥𝚤̂ + ∆𝑦𝚥̂ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
∴ 𝑣̅ = = = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ [𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡ʹ − ∆𝑡]
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑣̅ = 𝑣̅ 𝚤̂ + 𝑣̅ 𝚥̂
The direction of the average velocity is same as that of displacement vector ∆𝑟⃗.
32. Write an expression for the instantaneous velocity in terms of its rectangular components.
Ans: Instantaneous velocity in terms of rectangular components:
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = = 𝑣 𝚤̂ + 𝑣 𝚥̂
𝑑𝑡
The magnitude of 𝑣⃗ will be
𝑣= 𝑣 +𝑣
33. Write an expression for the average acceleration in terms of its rectangular components.
Ans: The average acceleration of an object is the ratio of the change in velocity and the corresponding
time interval.
∆𝑣⃗ ∆𝑣 𝚤̂ + ∆𝑣 𝚥̂ ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
∴ 𝑎= = = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ [𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡ʹ − ∆𝑡]
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝚤̂ + 𝑎 𝚥̂
The direction of the average acceleration is same as that of change in velocity vector ∆𝑣⃗.
34. Write an expression for the instantaneous acceleration in terms of its rectangular components.
Ans: Instantaneous acceleration in terms of rectangular components:
𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑎 𝚤̂ + 𝑎 𝚥̂
𝑑𝑡
The magnitude of 𝑎⃗ will be
𝑎= 𝑎 +𝑎
35. Define the term relative velocity using vectors.

Ans: The relative velocity of an object A with respect to object B, when both are in motion, is the rate
of change of position of object A with respect to object B. Suppose two objects A and B are moving
with velocities 𝑣⃗ and 𝑣⃗ , with respect to the ground.
Then
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐴 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐵, 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗ − 𝑣⃗
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐵 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐴, 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗ − 𝑣⃗
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
36. Find the angle with which a man should hold h

his
is umbrella to protect himself from rain falling
vertically downward.
Ans: Consider a man moving due east with velocity 𝑣⃗ . Suppose the rain falls vertically down with
velocity 𝑣⃗ .
The relative velocity of rain with respect to man is

𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗ − 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗ + (−𝑣⃗ ) = 𝑂𝐵⃗ + 𝑂𝐶⃗ = 𝑂𝐷⃗
If 𝑂𝐷⃗ makes an angle θ with the vertical, then
𝐷𝐵 𝑣
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑣
So the man can protect himself from rain by holding his umbrella at an angle θ with the vertical in the
direction of his motion.
37. What is a projectile?

Ans: A projectile
ectile is the name given to any body which once thrown into space with some initial
velocity, moves thereafter under the influence of gravity alone without being propelled by any engine
or fuel. The path followed by the projectile is called its trajectory.
Example: A ball thrown by a player, an object dropped from an aeroplane, a bullet fired from a rifle,
a jet of water coming out from the side hole of a vessel.
38. State the principle of physical independence of motions used in projectile motion.
Ans: Principle of physical independence of motions: In the absence of air resistance, the motion of a
projectile is considered as the combination of the following two independent motions:
1. Motion along horizontal direction with uniform ve
velocity.
2. Motion along vertical direction under gravity i.e.,, with uniform acceleration due to gravity.
The two motions of a projectile along horizontal and vertical directions are independent of each other.
This is called the principal of physical independence
independe of motions.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
39. Derive an expression for the time of flight of a projectile fired parallel to horizontal.
Ans: Projectile fired parallel to the horizontal: As shown in figure, suppose a body is projected
horizontally with velocity u from a point O at a certain height h above the ground level. The body has
two simultaneous independent motions:
1. Uniform motion along horizontal with velocity u.
2. Vertical downward accelerated motion with constant acceleration 𝑔.
Under the combined effect of the above two motions, the body moves
along the path OPA.
Time of flight: It is the total time for which the projectile remains in its
flight (from O to A). Let T be its time of flight.
For vertical downward motion of the body, we use
1
2
1
⇒ ℎ = 0 × 𝑇 + 𝑔𝑇
2
2ℎ
⇒𝑇=
𝑔
40. Derive an expression for the horizontal range of a projectile fired parallel to horizontal.
Ans: Horizontal range: It is the horizontal distance covered by the
projectile during its time of flight. It is equal to YA = R.
𝑅 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2ℎ
𝑅=𝑢
𝑔
41. Derive an expression for the velocity at any instant of a projectile fired parallel to horizontal.
Ans: Velocity of projectile at any instant:
At any instant t, the velocity v has two rectangular components:
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 = 0 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑔𝑡
∴ The resultant velocity at point P is
𝑣= 𝑣 +𝑣 = 𝑢 +𝑔 𝑡
If the velocity v makes an angle β with the horizontal, then

𝑣 𝑔𝑡
tan 𝛽 = =
𝑣 𝑢
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
42. A projectile is fired with a velocity 𝒖⃗ making an angle 𝜽 with the horizontal.
zontal. Show that its trajectory
is a parabola.
Ans:
As shown in figure, suppose a body is projected with initial velocity 𝑢,, making an angle θ with the
horizontal. The velocity 𝑢 has two rectangular components:
1. The horizontal component 𝑢 cos 𝜃, which remains constant throughout the motion.
2. The vertical component 𝑢 sin 𝜃,
𝜃, which changes with time under the effect of gravity.
Under the combined effect of the above two components, the body follows the parabolic path OAB as
shown in figure.
Equation of trajectory: Suppose the body reaches the point P(x,y) after time t.
∴ The horizontal distance covered by the body in time t,
𝑥 = 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑥 = 𝑢 . 𝑡 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 . 𝑡
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑢 cos 𝜃
For vertical motion: 𝑢 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎 = −𝑔, so vertical distance covered in time t is given by
1
2
1
𝑦 = 𝑢 . 𝑡 + (−𝑔)𝑡
2
1
𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 . 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
𝑥 1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 . − 𝑔
𝑢 cos 𝜃 2 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑔
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − 𝑥
2𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑞𝑥
Where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are constants.
Thus y is a quadratic function of x.. Hence the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
43. Derive an expression for the time of flight of an oblique projectile.

Ans: Time of flight: It is the time taken by the projectile from the instant it is projected till it reaches a
point in the horizontal plane of its projection. The body reaches the point B after the time of flight 𝑇 .
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 0
1
2
1
0 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 . 𝑇 − 𝑔𝑇
2
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑇 =
𝑔
44. Derive an expression for the maximum height of an oblique projectile.
Ans: Maximum Height of a projectile: It is the maximum vertical distance attained by the projectile
above the horizontal plane of projection. It is denoted by 𝐻 .
At the highest point A, vertical component of velocity = 0
𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠
0 − (𝑢 sin 𝜃) = 2(−𝑔)𝐻
𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝐻 =
2𝑔
45. Derive an expression for the horizontal range of an oblique projectile.

Ans: Horizontal Range: It is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile during its time of flight.
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑅 =𝑢 ×𝑡
2𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 ×
𝑔
𝑢 sin 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
46. Derive an expression for the velocity at any instant of an oblique projectile.
Ans: As shown in figure, the projectile velocity 𝑣⃗ at point P(x,y) has two rectangular components:
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
∴ The resultant velocity at point P is
𝑣= 𝑣 +𝑣 = (𝑢 cos 𝜃) + (𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)
𝑣= 𝑢 + 𝑔 𝑡 − 2𝑢𝑔𝑡 sin 𝜃
If the velocity v makes an angle β with the horizontal, then
𝑣 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
tan 𝛽 = =
𝑣 𝑢 cos 𝜃
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
47. Determine the condition for the maximum horizontal range of an oblique projectile.
Ans: The horizontal range is given by
𝑢 sin 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
Clearly, R will be maximum when sin 2𝜃 = 1 or 𝜃 = 45
The maximum horizontal range is given by
𝑢
𝑅 =
𝑔
48. Prove that horizontal range of a projectile is same when fixed at an angle 𝜽 and (90o- 𝜽) with the
horizontal.
OR
Show that the horizontal range is same whether is the angle of projection 𝜽 with the horizontal or
with the vertical.
Ans: The horizontal range of a projectile is
𝑢 sin 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
Replacing 𝜃 by (90 − 𝜃), we get
𝑢 sin 2(90 − 𝜃) 𝑢 sin(180 − 2𝜃) 𝑢 sin 2𝜃
𝑅ʹ = = =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
i.e.,
𝑅ʹ = 𝑅
Hence for a given velocity of projection, a projectile has the same horizontal range for the angles of
projection 𝜃 and (90 − 𝜃).
49. Define uniform circular motion.

Ans: If a particle moves along a circular path with a constant speed
(i.e., it covers equal distances along the circumference of the circle
in equal intervals of time), then its motion is said to be a uniform
circular motion.
Example:
1. Motion of a point on the tip of a wheel rotating uniformly.
2. Motion of geostationary satellite around the earth.
50. Justify that a uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion.

Ans: In uniform circular motion, the speed of the body remains the same but the direction of motion
changes at every point. Thus, the velocity of the body changes continuously due to the continuous
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
change in the direction of motion of the body. As the rate of change of velocity is acceleration, so a
uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion.
51. Define angular displacement.

Ans: The angular displacement of a particle undergoing uniform circular motion
is defined as the angle swept out by its radius vector in the given time interval.
If a particle moving along a circular path of radius r, covers distance ∆𝑠 along
arc 𝐴𝐵 , then its angular displacement is
∆𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑐
∆𝜃
𝜃= ∵ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
The unit of angular displacement is radian. It is a dimensional quantity.
52. Define angular velocity.

Ans: The time rate of change of angular displacement of a particle is called its angular velocity. It is
denoted by 𝜔.. It is measured in radian per second (𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 ). It is a vector quantity. Its direction is
given by right hand rule.
Average angular velocity is given by
∆𝜃
𝜃
𝜔=
Δ𝑡𝑡
The limiting value of the average velocity gives the
instantaneous angular velocity.
∆𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
∆ → Δ𝑡 d𝑡
53. Define time period.

Ans: The time taken by a particle to complete one revolution along its circular path is called its period
of revolution or time period. It is denoted by T and is measured in second.
54. Define frequency.

Ans: The frequency of an object in circular motion is defined as the number of revolutions completed
per unit time. It is denoted by 𝜐 (𝑛𝑢
(𝑛𝑢) and is equal to the reciprocal of its time period.
1
𝜐=
𝑇
Its SI unit is hertz (Hz).
55. Deduce relation between angular

ar velocity, frequency and time period.
Ans: By definition of time period, a particle completes one revolution in time T i.e.
i.e., it traverses an
angle of 2π radian in time T.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
2𝜋 1
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝜐 ∵𝜐=
𝑇 𝑇
56. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
Ans: The angular displacement is given by
∆𝑠
∆
∆𝜃 =
𝑟
Dividing both sides by ∆t, we get
∆
∆𝜃 1 ∆𝑠
=
∆
∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡
Taking limit ∆t→0 on both sides
∆𝜃 1 ∆𝑠 1 ∆𝑠
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
∆ → ∆𝑡 ∆ → 𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆ → ∆𝑡
𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝑠
=
d𝑡 𝑟 d𝑡
1
𝜔= 𝑣
𝑟
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

In vector notation
𝑣⃗ = 𝜔⃗ × 𝑟⃗
57. Define angular acceleration.

Ans: The time rate of change of angular velocity of a particle is
called its angular acceleration. It is denoted by α.
Its SI unit is rad s-2.
𝑑𝜔
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡
58. Derive the relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration.
Ans: The relation between linear velocity and angular velocity is
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. t,, we get

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝜔
= (𝜔𝑟) = 𝑟 [∵ 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = 𝛼𝑟
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
In vector notation
𝑎⃗ = 𝛼⃗ × 𝑟⃗
59. Define centripetal acceleration. Write its expression.

Ans: A body undergoing uniform circular motion is acted upon by an
acceleration which is directed along the radius towards the centre of the
circular path. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. It is
denoted by ac.
𝑣
𝑎 = =𝜔 𝑟
𝑟
Centripetal acceleration is due to centripetal force.

𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑟
𝑟
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
5. LAWS OF MOTION
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O 33 O 34 O 35 O 36 O 37 O 38 O 39 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus 2022-23
Intuitive concept of force, Inertia, Newton’s first law of motion, momentum and Newton’s second law of motion,
impulse, Newton’s third law of motion.
Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of concurrent forces, Static and kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction, lubrication.
Dynamics of uniform circular motion, Centripetal force, examples of circular motion (vehicle on a level circular road,
vehicle on a banked road).
============================================================================
1. Define the term force.

Ans: Force may be defined as an agency (a push or pull) which changes or tends to change the state of
rest or of uniform motion or the direction of motion of a body.
OR
Force can be defined as an agency which changes or tends to change the state or rest or of uniform
motion of a body along a straight line.
2. State the various effects of a force.

Ans: Effects produced by force:
1. Force can change the speed of an object.
2. Force can change the direction of motion of an object.
3. Force can change the shape of an object.
3. Define the term inertia.

Ans: The inherent property of a material body by virtue of which it cannot change, by itself, its state of
rest or of uniform motion in a straight line is called inertia.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
4. What are the different types of inertia?

Ans: Types of inertia:
1. Inertia of rest: The tendency of a body to remain in its position of rest is called inertia of rest.
2. Inertia of motion: The tendency of a body to remain in its state of uniform motion in a straight line
is called inertia of motion.
3. Inertia of direction: The inability of a body to change by itself its direction of motion is called
inertia of direction.
5. Explain the relation between inertia of a body and its mass.

Ans: Mass of a body is the measure of its inertia. If a body has more mass, it has more inertia i.e., it is
more difficult to change its state of rest or of uniform motion.
6. Define momentum.
Ans: Momentum of a body is the quantity of motion possessed by the body. It is equal to the product of
mass and velocity of the body.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
Momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is same as the direction of the velocity of the body. Its SI
unit is kg m s-1.
7. State Newton’s first law of motion.

Ans: Newton’s first law: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled by some external force to change that state.
8. State Newton’s second law of motion.

Ans: Newton’s second law: The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional
to the applied force and the change takes place in the direction of the applied force.
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
9. State Newton’s third law of motion.

Ans: Newton’s third law: To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
10. Define 1 N of force.

Ans: From Newton’s second law, we have
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ = = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡
One newton is that force which produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in a body of mass 1 kg.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
11. Write the relation between newton and dyne.

Ans: Relation between newton and dyne:
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 × 1 𝑚 𝑠
1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑔 × 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑠
1 𝑁 = 10 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
[∵ 1 𝑘𝑔 = 10 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑚 = 10 𝑐𝑚 ]
12. Express Newton’s second law in component form.

Ans: Newton’s second law is
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ = = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡
In component form,
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝐹⃗ = = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑌 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝐹⃗ = = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑍 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝐹⃗ = = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡
13. Give some important points about the Newton’s third law of motion.
Ans: Some important points about Newton’s third law of motion:
1. Newton’s third law of motion is applicable irrespective of the nature of the force (i.e., gravitational
force, electromagnetic force or nuclear force; attractive or repulsive force).
2. Action and reaction always act on different bodies.
3. The force of action and reaction cannot cancel each other. This is because action and reaction acts
on different bodies.
4. No action can occur in the absence of a reaction.
14. What are impulsive forces?

Ans: A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite change in momentum is called an
impulsive force. Example:
1. Force exerted by a bat while hitting a ball.
2. Blow of a hammer on a nail.
3. Kicking a football.
15. Define impulse.

Ans: Impulse is defined as the product of the force and the time for which it acts and is equal to the
total change in momentum.
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝐽⃗ = 𝐹⃗ × ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝⃗
Its SI unit is kg m s-1.
16. Why does a cricket player lower his hands while catching a ball?
Ans: When the ball is caught, the impulse received by the hands is equal to the product of the force
exerted by the ball and the time taken to complete the catch. By moving the hands backwards, the
cricketer increases the time of catch. The force exerted on his hands becomes much smaller and it does
not hurt him.
17. Find the

he apparent weight of a body placed in a lift.
Ans: Consider a body of mass 𝑚 placed on a weighing
machine in a lift. The actual weight of the body is 𝑚𝑔.
It acts vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity G of the body, on the weighing machine which
offers reaction R.. The machine reads the reaction R
and R is the apparent weight of the body.
1. When a lift moves upwards with uniform acceleration a, the apparent weight of a body in the lift
increases. Shown in figure (a)
𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑅 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎)
2. When a lift moves downwards with uniform acceleration a,, the apparent weight of a body in the lift
decreases. Shown in figure (b)
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
R = m(g − a)
3. When a lift is at rest or moves with uniform velocity, a = 0, the apparent weight of the body is
equal to its true weight. Shown in figure (c)
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
4. When a lift falls freely, a = 𝑔,, the apparent weight of the body in the lift becomes zero.
R = m(g − a) = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑔) = 0
18. State the law of conservation of linear momentum.

Ans: Law of conservation of linear momentum: This law states that when no external force acts on a
system, the total linear momentum of the system is conserved.
From Newton’s second law:
𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
If 𝐹⃗ = 0, then
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑑𝑝⃗
=0
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑝⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
19. Give some examples from daily life which illustrate the law of conservation of linear momentum.
Ans: Practical examples of law of conservation of linear momentum:
1. Recoil of a gun.
2. When a man jumps out of a boat to the shore, the boat slightly moves away from the shore.
3. Rocket propulsion.
20. State the principle of rocket propulsion.

Ans: The propulsion of rocket is an example of momentum conservation in which
the large backward momentum of the ejected gases imparts an equal forward
momentum to the rocket.
21. What are concurrent forces?

Ans: Forces acting at the same point on a body are called concurrent forces.
22. What do you mean by equilibrium of concurrent forces?

Ans: When a number of forces act on a body at the same point and the net unbalanced force is zero, tthe
body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line and is said to be in
equilibrium.
The condition for the equilibrium of a number of forces acting at the same point is that the vector sum
of all these forces is equal to zero.
𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + … … … … + 𝐹⃗ = 0⃗
23. What is friction?

Ans: Whenever a body moves or tends to move over the surface
of another body, a force comes into play which acts parallel to the
surface of contact and opposes the relative motion. This opposing
force is called friction.
24. What is the cause of friction?

Ans: The force of friction is due to the atomic or molecular forces
of attraction between the two surfaces at the points of actual
contacts. Figure shows two surfaces in contact, as seen through a
powerful microscope. Due to the surface irregularities, the actual
area of contact is much smaller than the apparent area of contact.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
The pressure at the points of contacts is very large. Molecular bonds are formed at these points. For
sliding one body over the surface
face of another, these bonds have to be broken. The force required to
break such bonds is called the force of friction.
25. Define static friction.

Ans: The force of friction which comes into play between two bodies before one body actually starts
moving over the other is called static friction (𝑓 ).
26. Define limiting friction.

Ans: The maximum force of static friction (𝑓 ) which comes
into play when a body just starts moving over the surface of
another body is called limiting friction.
𝑓 ≤𝑓
27. Define kinetic friction.

Ans: The force of friction which comes into play when a body is in a state of steady motion over tthe
surface of another body is called kinetic or dynamic friction (𝑓 ).
28. State the laws of limiting friction.

Ans: From experimental studies, the limiting friction is found to obey the following laws:
1. The limiting friction depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact and their state of polish.
2. The limiting friction acts tangential to the two surfaces in contact and in a direction opposite to the
direction of motion of the body.
3. The value of limiting friction is independent of the area of the surfac
surfacee in contact so long as the
normal reaction remains the same.
4. The limiting friction (𝑓 ) is directly proportional to the normal
reaction R between the two surfaces, i.e.,
𝑓 ∝𝑅
𝑓 =𝜇 𝑅
The proportionality constant 𝜇 is called coefficient of static friction.
29. Define the coefficient of static friction 𝝁S.

Ans: Coefficient of static friction 𝜇 is defined as the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction.
𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇 = =
𝑅 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
30. Define angle of friction.

Ans: The angle of friction is defined as the angle which
the resultant of limiting friction and the normal reaction
makes with the normal reaction. In the figure ‘θ’
‘ is the
angle of friction.
The coefficient
icient of static friction is equal to the tangent of
the angle of friction.
𝜇 = tan 𝜃
31. What is rolling friction?

Ans: The force of friction that comes into play when a body rolls
over the surface of another body is called rolling friction.
Example: When a wheel rolls over a road, rolling friction comes
into play.
32. Give few advantages of friction.

Ans: Advantages of friction:
1. It is due to friction between the ground and the feet that we are able to walk.
2. The brakes of a vehicle cannot work without friction.
fri
3. Various parts of a machine are able to rotate because of friction between belt and pulley.
4. The tyres of vehicle are made rough to increase friction.
33. Give few disadvantages of friction.

Ans: Disadvantages of friction:
1. Wear and tear of machinery is due to friction.
2. A large amount of power is wasted in overcoming friction and the efficiency of the machines
decreases considerably.
3. Excessive friction between rotating parts of a machine produces enough heat and causes damage to
the machinery.
34. Describe methods of reducing friction.

Ans: Methods of reducing friction:
1. By polishing: The bumps and depressions between surfaces in contact get minimised. This reduces
friction considerably.
2. Lubrication: It fills up the depressions between the surfaces in contact and hence reduces friction.
3. Streamlining: Friction due to air resistance is considerably reduced by streamlining the shape
(sharp in front) of the body.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
35. Why is it easier to pull a lawn roller than to push it?

Ans: The force of friction is more in case ooff push than in case of pull. So it is easier to pull a body than
to push it.
36. What is centripetal force?

Ans: A force required to make a body move along a circular path with
uniform speed is called centripetal force. It always acts along the radius and
towards the centre of the circular path. It is given by
𝑚𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = = 𝑚𝑟𝜔
𝑟
37. Find an expression for the maximum speed of circular motion of a car in a circular horizontal track
of radius ‘r’. The coefficient of static friction between the car tyres and the road along the surfaces
is 𝝁S.
Ans: When a car negotiates a curved level road, the force of
friction between the road and the tyres provides the necessary
centripetal force required to keep the car in motion around the
curve.
As shown in figure, consider a car of weight 𝑚𝑔 going around a
circular level road of radius 𝑟 with a constant speed 𝑣. The force
of friction 𝑓 and 𝑓 act inward at the inner and the outer tyres respectively.
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅
Total friction force
𝑓 = 𝑓 + 𝑓 = 𝜇(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) = 𝜇𝑚𝑔
For the car to stay on the road, the maximum force of friction must be equal to or greater than the
centripetal force i.e.,
𝑚𝑣
𝜇𝑚𝑔 ≥
𝑟
⇒ 𝑣 ≤ 𝜇𝑟𝑔
The maximum speed with which the car can turn safely is
𝑣 = 𝜇𝑟𝑔
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
If the speed exceeds 𝑣 , the car will skid and go off the road. This is because the maximum friction
is insufficient to provide the necessary centripetal force.
38. What is meant by banking of roads?

Ans: The system of raising the outer edge of a curved road above its inner edge is called banking of
curved road. The angle through which the outer edge of the curved road is raised above the inner edge
is called angle of banking.
Banking of road increases the maximum limit of veloci
velocity
ty of vehicle by providing the necessary
centripetal force and reduces the wear and tear of tyres.
39. Obtain an expression for the maximum speed with which a vehicle can safely negotiate a curved
road banked at an angle 𝜽. The coefficient of frictio
friction
n between the wheels and the road is 𝝁.
Ans: As shown in figure, consider a car of weight
𝑚𝑔 going along a curved path of radius 𝑟 with speed
𝑣 on a road banked at an angle 𝜃.. The forces acting
on the vehicle are
1. Weight 𝑚𝑔 acting vertically downward.
2. Normal reaction 𝑅 of the road acting at an angle
𝜃 with the vertical.
3. Force of friction 𝑓 (= 𝜇𝑅) acting downwards
along the inclined plane.
Equating the forces along the horizontal and vertical directions respectively, we gget
𝑚𝑣
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = … (1)
𝑟
and
𝑚𝑔 + 𝑓 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … (2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑣
=
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑟𝑔
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
Dividing numerator and denominator of L.H.S. by 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, we get

𝑓
tan 𝜃 + 𝑅 𝑣
=
𝑓 𝑟𝑔
1 − 𝑅 tan 𝜃
tan 𝜃 + 𝜇 𝑣 𝑓
= ∵𝜇=
1 − 𝜇 tan 𝜃 𝑟𝑔 𝑅
𝜇 + tan 𝜃
𝑣 = 𝑟𝑔
1 − 𝜇 tan 𝜃
𝜇 + tan 𝜃
𝑣= 𝑟𝑔
1 − 𝜇 tan 𝜃
Special case: Where there is no friction between the road and the tyres, 𝜇 = 0, so that the safe limit for
maximum speed is
𝑣= 𝑟𝑔 tan 𝜃
The angle of banking 𝜃 for minimum wear and tear of tyres is given by
𝑣
tan 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
6. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Work done by a constant force and a variable force, kinetic energy, work-energy
work theorem, power.
Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces, conservation of mechanical energy
(kinetic and potential energies), non-conservative
conservative forces, motion in a vertical circle, elastic and inelastic collisions in
one and two dimensions.
============================================================================
1. Define the term work?

Ans: Work is said to be done whenever a force acts on a body and the body moves through some
distance in the direction of the force.
2. Calculate the workk done by a constant force.

Ans: When force and displacement are inclined to each other at an angle θ (as shown in figure)
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

× 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 × 𝑠
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑠⃗
3. Define SI and CGS unit of work.
Ans:
SI unit of work is joule (J): Onee joule of work is said to be done when a force of one newton displaces
a body through a distance of one metre in its own direction.
1𝐽 = 1𝑁×1𝑚
CGS unit of work is Erg (erg): One erg of work is said to be done if a force of one dyne displaces a
body through a distance of one centimetre in its own direction.
1 𝑒𝑟𝑔 = 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 × 1 𝑐𝑚
1 𝐽 = 10 𝑒𝑟𝑔
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
4. Explain how we can find the work done by a variable force.

Ans: Let the small work done 𝑑𝑊 by a variable force 𝐹⃗ during a small displacement 𝑑𝑠⃗ is
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑑𝑠⃗
Then the total work done can be calculated by integration
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑑𝑠⃗
5. What is mechanical energy?

Ans: The energy produced by mechanical means is called mechanical energy. It has two forms:
(i) Kinetic energy (ii) Potential energy
6. Define kinetic energy.

Ans: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic
energy.
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣
2
7. State and prove work-energy theorem.

Ans: Work-Energy Theorem: It states that the work done by the net force acting on a body is equal to
the change produced in the kinetic energy of the body.
Proof: Suppose a force 𝐹⃗ acts on a body of mass 𝑚 and produces displacement 𝑑𝑠⃗ in its own
direction(𝜃 = 0 ). The small work done is
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 cos 0 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠
According to Newton’s second law of motion
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
If the applied force increases the velocity from 𝑢 to 𝑣, then the total work done on the body will be
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ·𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝐹𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑣
𝑊= 𝑚 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑣
𝑊=𝑚 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚
2
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
2 2
𝑊 =𝐾 −𝐾
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
This proves work-energy theorem.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
8. Define potential energy.

Ans: Potential energy is the energy stored in a body or a system by virtue of its position in a field of
force or by its configuration.
9. Define gravitational potential energy.

Ans: The gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by
the body by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
10. Derive an expression for the potential energy of an elastic stretched spring.
Ans: Consider an elastic spring of negligibly small mass with its one
end attached to a rigid support. Its one end is attached to a block of
mass 𝑚 which can slide over a smooth horizontal surface.
If the block is pulled through distance x from the equilibrium
position, the spring gets stretched and due to elasticity, a restoring
spring force 𝐹 is set up in the spring.
According to Hooke’s law
𝐹 ∝𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Where k is spring constant of the spring. The negative sign shows 𝐹
acts in the opposite direction of x.
To keep the spring stretched by distance x, an external force F equal and opposite to 𝐹 has to be
applied. So
𝐹 = −𝐹 = +𝑘𝑥
The total work done in stretching
retching the spring through distance x is given by
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑊= 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘
2
1
𝑊= 𝑘𝑥
2
This work done is stored as the elastic potential energy U of the spring.
1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
11. What are conservative forces?

Ans: A force is conservative if the work done by the force in displacing a particle from one point to
another is independent of the path followed by the particle and depends only on the end points. The
work done by a conservative force in moving an object along a closed path is zero.
Example: Gravitational force, Electrostatic force, Elastic force of a spring are all conservative forces.
12. What are non-conservative

conservative forces?
Ans: If the amount of work done in moving an object against a force from one point to another depends
on the path along
long which the body moves, then such a force is called a non-conservative
non conservative force. The
work done in moving an object against a non-conservative
non conservative force along a closed path is not zero.
Example: Friction and Viscosity are non
non-conservative forces.
13. Show that thee total mechanical energy of a freely falling body is conserved.
Ans: Consider a body of mass 𝑚 lying at position A at a height ℎ
above the ground. As the body falls, its kinetic energy increases and
potential energy decreases.
At point A: The body is at rest.

K.E. of the body, 𝐾 =0
P.E. of the body, 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Total mechanical energy, 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
At point B:: Suppose the body falls freely through height x and reaches the point B with
velocity 𝑣. Then
𝑣 − 0 = 2𝑔𝑥 [𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠]
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑥
K.E. of the body, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚2𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥
P.E. of the body, 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥)

Total mechanical energy, 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔 (ℎ − 𝑥) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
At point C:: Suppose the body finally reaches a point C on the ground with velocity 𝑣ʹ.
𝑣ʹ − 0 = 2𝑔ℎ [𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠]
𝑣ʹʹ = 2𝑔ℎ
K.E. of the body, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣ʹ = 𝑚2𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
P.E. of the body, 𝑈 =0

Total mechanical energy, 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Clearly, total mechanical energy remains constant (= 𝑚𝑔ℎ) at

all points. Thus total mechanical energy is conserved during
free fall of a body.
Figure shows the variation of K.E. and P.E. and the constancy
of total energy with height.
14. Discuss the motion in vertical circle of a body tied to one end of a string.
OR
Derive the expression for the velocity of the body and tension in the string at any point. Hence find
(a) tension at the bottom and at the top of the circle (b) minimum velocity at the lowest point so that
it is just able to loop the loop and (c) the minimum velocity at the top.
Ans: Consider a body of mass 𝑚 tied to the one end of a string and
rotating in a vertical circle of radius 𝑟, as shown in figure.
Velocity at any point: Suppose the body passes through lowest point
L with velocity 𝑢 and through any point P with velocity 𝑣. In moving
from L to P,, it has moved up through a vertical height LN = ℎ.
According to the law of conservation of energy,
(𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. ) 𝑎𝑡 𝐿 = (𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑃
1 1
𝑚𝑢 + 0 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 2𝑔ℎ … (1)
𝑣= 𝑢 − 2𝑔ℎ
This equation gives the velocity 𝑣 at any point.
Tension along the string at any point:

int: The forces acting on the body at point P are
1. Weight 𝑚𝑔 acting vertically downwards.
2. Tension T along the string
The component 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 of the weight along the string acts opposite to T,, so that the net centripetal
force is
𝑚𝑣
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 + … (2)
𝑟
From right angled ∆𝑂𝑃𝑁,
𝑂𝑁 𝑟 − ℎ
cos 𝜃 = = … (3)
𝑂𝑃 𝑟
Using equations (1) and (3), equation (2) becomes
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝑟−ℎ 𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 + (𝑢 − 2𝑔ℎ)
𝑟 𝑟
𝑚
𝑇 = (𝑢 + 𝑔𝑟 − 3𝑔ℎ) … (4)
𝑟
This equation gives the tension along the string at any point of the circle.
(a) Tension in the string at the bottom and at the top.

At the lowest point L, ℎ = 0, hence the tension in the string is
𝑚
𝑇 = (𝑢 + 𝑔𝑟) … (5)
𝑟
At the highest point H, ℎ = 2𝑟, hence the tension in the string is
𝑚
𝑇 = (𝑢 + 𝑔𝑟 − 6𝑔𝑟)
𝑟
𝑚
𝑇 = (𝑢 − 5𝑔𝑟) … (6)
𝑟
Now,
𝑚 𝑚
𝑇 − 𝑇 = (𝑢 + 𝑔𝑟) − (𝑢 − 5𝑔𝑟)
𝑟 𝑟
𝑇 − 𝑇 = 6𝑚𝑔
Thus, the difference in tensions at the lowest and the highest points is equal to six times the weight of
the revolving body.
(b) Minimum velocity of projection at the lowest point for looping the loop.
The body will be able to cross the highest point H if TH is positive i.e.,
𝑇 ≥0
𝑚
(𝑢 − 5𝑔𝑟) ≥ 0
𝑟
𝑢 ≥ 5𝑔𝑟
𝑢≥ 5𝑔𝑟
Hence, 5𝑔𝑟 is the minimum velocity which

the body must possess at the bottom of the
circle so as to go round the circle completely
i.e., for looping the loop.
(c) Minimum velocity at the top: If 𝑉 is the velocity which the body possesses at the highest point H in
case of just no slacking of the string, then ℎ = 2𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑢 − 2𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = 5𝑔𝑟 − 2𝑔. 2𝑟 [∵ 𝑢 = 5𝑔𝑟]
𝑉= 𝑔𝑟
This gives the minimum or cirtical velocity at the highest point.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
15. Define the term collision.

Ans: Collision:
sion: A collision is said to occur between two bodies, either if they physically collide against
each other or if the path of one is affected by the force exerted by the other.
For a collision to take place, the actual physical contact is not necessary (E
(Example:
xample: In Rutherford
scattering of α-particles
particles by gold nucleus).
16. Define elastic collision. Give its characteristics.

Ans: Elastic collision: If there is no loss of kinetic energy during a collision, it is called an elastic
collision.
Characteristics of elastic collision:
1. Total linear momentum is conserved.
2. Total energy is conserved.
3. Total kinetic energy is conserved.
4. Forces involved during the collision are conservative.
5. The mechanical energy is not converted into heat, light or sound etc.
Example: Collisions of air particles (atoms/molecules of gas) are elastic collisions.
17. Define inelastic collision. Give its characteristics.

Ans: Inelastic collision: If there is a loss of kinetic energy during a collision, it is called an inelastic
collision.
Characteristics
acteristics of inelastic collision:
1. Total linear momentum is conserved.
2. Total energy is conserved.
3. Total kinetic energy is not conserved.
4. Some of the forces involved during the collision are non-conservative.
5. A part of mechanical energy is converted into heat, light or sound etc.
Example: Collision between two vehicles, collision between a bat and ball.
18. Discuss the elastic collision of two bodies in one dimension.

Ans: Elastic collision in one dimension: As shown in figure, consider two perfectly elastic bodies A and
B of masses 𝑚 and 𝑚 moving along the same straight line with velocities 𝑢 and 𝑢 respectively. Let
𝑢 > 𝑢 . After some time, the two bodies collide head
head-on and continue moving in the same direction
with velocities 𝑣 and 𝑣 respectively the two bodies will separate after the collision if 𝑣 < 𝑣 .
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
As linear momentum is conserved in any collision, so

𝑚 𝑢 +𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣 … (1)
⇒ 𝑚 𝑢 −𝑚 𝑣 =𝑚 𝑣 −𝑚 𝑢
𝑚 (𝑢 − 𝑣 ) = 𝑚 (𝑣 − 𝑢 ) … (2)
Since kinetic energy is also conserved in an elastic collision, so

1 1 1 1
𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑚 𝑢 −𝑚 𝑣 =𝑚 𝑣 −𝑚 𝑢
𝑚 (𝑢 − 𝑣 ) = 𝑚 (𝑣 – 𝑢 )
𝑚 (𝑢 + 𝑣 )(𝑢 − 𝑣 ) = 𝑚 (𝑣 + 𝑢 )(𝑣 − 𝑢 ) … (3)
Dividing equation (3) by (2), we get
(𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = (𝑣 + 𝑢 )
𝑢 −𝑢 =𝑣 −𝑣 … (4)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝐵 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝐴 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Thus, in an elastic one-dimensional collision, the relative velocity of approach before collision is equal
to the relative velocity of separation after the collision.
(b) Velocities of the bodies after the collision. From equation (4), we get
𝑣 =𝑢 −𝑢 +𝑣
Putting this value of 𝑣 in equation (1), we get
𝑚 𝑢 + 𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 (𝑢 − 𝑢 + 𝑣 )
(𝑚 − 𝑚 )𝑢 + 2𝑚 𝑢 = (𝑚 + 𝑚 )𝑣
(𝑚 − 𝑚 ) 2𝑚
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑢 … (5)
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) (𝑚 + 𝑚 )
Interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2 in the above equation, we get
(𝑚 − 𝑚 ) 2𝑚
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑢 … (6)
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) (𝑚 + 𝑚 )
Equations (5) and (6) give the final velocities of the colliding bodies in terms of their initial velocities.
19. Discuss the elastic collision of two bodies in two dimensions.

Ans: Elastic collision in two dimensions: As shown in figure, suppose a particle of mass 𝑚 moving
along X-axis with velocity 𝑢 collides with another particle of mass 𝑚 at rest. After the collision, let
the two particles move with velocities 𝑣 and 𝑣 , making angles 𝜃 and 𝜃 with X-axis.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
After the collision, the rectangular components of the momentum of 𝑚 are

1. 𝑚 𝑣 cos 𝜃 , along +ve X-axis
axis
2. 𝑚 𝑣 sin 𝜃 , along +ve Y-axis
After the collision, the rectangular components of the momentum of 𝑚 are
1. 𝑚 𝑣 cos 𝜃 , along +ve X-axis
axis
2. 𝑚 𝑣 sin 𝜃 , along -ve Y-axis
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum along X-axis,

𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚 𝑣 cos 𝜃 … (1)
The initial momentum of 𝑚 and 𝑚 along Y-axis is zero.
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum along Y-axis,

0 = 𝑚 𝑣 sin 𝜃 − 𝑚 𝑣 sin 𝜃 … (2)
As the kinetic energy is conserved in an elastic collision, so

1 1 1
𝑚 𝑢 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 … (3)
2 2 2
The four unknown quantities 𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝜃 and 𝜃 cannot be calculated using the three equations (1), (2)
and (3). By measuring one of the four unknowns, say 𝜃 , experimentally; the values of other three
unknowns can be solved using these equations.
20. Discuss perfectly inelastic collision of two bo

bodies in one dimension.
Ans: Perfectly inelastic
lastic collision in one dimension: In physics, a perfectly inelastic collision occurs,
when the maximum amount of kinetic energy is lost. The colliding bodies stick together in a perfectly
inelastic collision. Thus, in case of perfectly inelastic collision, linear momentum is conserved but the
kinetic energy is not conserved.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
As shown in figure, consider two bodies A and B of masses 𝑚 and 𝑚 moving along the same straight
line with velocities 𝑣 and 𝑣 respectively. Let 𝑣 > 𝑣 . After some time, the two bodies collide and
stick together. They move with a common velocity say 𝑣.
As linear momentum is conserved, so

𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑣 + 𝑚 𝑣 = (𝑚 + 𝑚 )𝑣
𝑚 𝑣 +𝑚 𝑣
𝑣=
(𝑚 + 𝑚 )
21. What is coefficient of restitution?

Ans: The coefficient of restitution gives a measure of the degree of restitution of a collision and is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of relative velocity of separation after collision to the magnitude
of relative velocity of approach before collision. It is given by
|𝑣 − 𝑣 | 𝑣 −𝑣
𝑒= =−
|𝑢 − 𝑢 | 𝑢 −𝑢
For a perfectly elastic collision 𝑒 = 1 and for a perfectly inelastic collision 𝑒 = 0.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
7. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O 33 O 34 O 35 O 36 O 37 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Centre of mass of a two-particle

particle system, momentum conservation and centre of mass motion. Centre of mass of a
rigid body, centre of mass of a uniform rod.
Momentum of a force, torque, angular momentum, law of conservation of angular momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body ro

rotation
tation and equations of rotational motion, comparison of linear and
rotational motions.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects (no derivation).
Statement of parallel and perpendicular axes theorem

theorems and their applications.
============================================================================
1. Define centre of mass.

Ans: The centre of mass of a system of particles is a fixed point at which the whole mass of the system
may be supposed to be concentrated for describing its translatory motion.
When an external force is applied to the system, this point moves in the same way as a single particle
of mass equal to that of the system would move when acted upon by the same external force.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
2. Write the expression for centre of mass of two particle system.

Ans: Consider a system of two particles 𝑃 and 𝑃 of masses 𝑚 and 𝑚 .
Let 𝑟⃗ and 𝑟⃗ be their position vectors with respect to the origin O, as
shown in figure.
The position vector 𝑅⃗ of centre of mass C of the two-particle system is
given by
𝑚 𝑟⃗ + 𝑚 𝑟⃗
𝑅⃗ =
𝑚 +𝑚
Special case:
𝑟⃗ + 𝑟⃗
𝐼𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚 (𝑠𝑎𝑦), 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅⃗ =
2
Thus the centre of mass of two equal masses lies exactly at the centre of the line joining the two
masses.
Cartesian
tesian coordinates of CM. If (x
( 1,y1) and (x2,y2) are the coordinates of the locations of the two
particles, the coordinates of their centre of mass are given by
𝑚 𝑥 +𝑚 𝑥
𝑥 =
𝑚 +𝑚
𝑚 𝑦 +𝑚 𝑦
𝑦 =
𝑚 +𝑚
3. Show that the total linear momentum of a system of particles is conserved in the absence of any
external force.
Ans: Consider a system of n particles of masses 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑚 , … … , 𝑚 moving with velocities
𝑣⃗ , 𝑣⃗ , 𝑣⃗ , … … , 𝑣⃗ having linear momentum 𝑝⃗ , 𝑝⃗ , 𝑝⃗ , … … , 𝑝⃗ respectively. Suppose the forces
𝐹⃗ , 𝐹⃗ , 𝐹⃗ , … … , 𝐹⃗ exerted on them.
In the absence of any external force
𝐹⃗ =0
𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + … … + 𝐹⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑝
𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑𝑝⃗
+ + + ……+ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ + … … + 𝑝⃗ ) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ + 𝑝⃗ + … … + 𝑝⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where 𝑃⃗ is the total linear momentum of the system.
Hence if no external force acts on a system, the total linear momentum of the system is conserved. This
is the law of conservation of linear momentum.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
4. Write the relation between the total linear momentum of the system and velocity of centre of mass.
Ans: Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3,……mn. Total mass of the system
𝑀 = 𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚 + ……+𝑚
Total momentum of the system is given by
𝑃⃗ = 𝑀𝑣⃗
Where 𝑣⃗ is the velocity of centre of mass. Thus, the total linear momentum of a system of particles is
equal to the product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of its centre of mass.
5. What is a rigid body?

Ans: A body is said to be rigid if it does not undergo any change in its size and shape, however large
the external force may be acting on it.
OR
A rigid body is one whose constituent particles retain their relative positions even when they move
under the action of an external force.
6. Name the two kinds of motion which a rigid body can execute.
Ans: A rigid body can have two kinds of motion:
1. Translatory motion.
2. Rotational motion.
7. State the factors on which the position of the centre of mass of a rigid body depends.
Ans: The position of centre of mass of a rigid body depends on two factors:
1. The geometrical shape of the body.
2. The distribution of mass in the body.
8. How can we locate the centre of mass of rigid bodies of regular geometrical shape and having
uniform mass distribution?
Ans: For bodies having regular shape and uniform mass distribution, the centre of mass lies at their
geometrical centre. The position of centre of mass of some regular bodies are given in table below.
S.No. Shape of body Position of centre of mass
1. Long thin rod Middle point of the rod.
2. Thin circular ring Geometrical centre of the ring
3. Circular disc Geometrical centre of the disc
4. Rectangular lamina Point of intersection of diagonals
5. Rectangular cubical block Point of intersection of diagonals
6. Cylinder Middle point of the axis
7. Solid or hollow sphere Geometrical centre of the sphere
8. Triangular lamina Point of intersection of the medians
9. Right circular cone A point of its axis at a distance of ℎ 4 from its base, ℎ= height of cone
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
9. Where is the centre of mass of uniform rod lies?

Ans: The centre of mass of a uniform thin rod lies at its middle
point.
10. Define the term Moment of Force or torque.

Ans: The torque or moment of force is the turning effect of the
force about the axis of rotation. It is measured as the product
of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and the axis of rotation.
Figure shows a body free to rotate about a vertical axis through

O. A horizontal force F applied on it at point P rotates it about
this axis. If d is the distance of the line of action of the force
from the axis of rotation, then the torque or moment of force F
about the axis of rotation is
𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝑂𝑁 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
SI unit of torque
que is newton metre ((Nm) and its CGS unit is dyne
centimetre (dyne cm)
11. How a torque can be expressed as a vector product of two vectors?

Ans: Consider a particle P in the X-Y plane. Suppose its
position vector is 𝑂𝑃⃗ = 𝑟⃗ with respect to the origin O as
shown in figure.
The torque acting on the particle is
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
In magnitude
𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
12. What is a couple? Write the expression for the moment of couple.
Ans: A pair of equal and opposite forces acting on a body along two different lines of action constitute
a couple.
Moment of couple:
Moment or torque of the couple about O is
𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐴𝑂 + 𝐹 × 𝑂𝐵
𝜏 = 𝐹 × (𝐴𝑂
( + 𝑂𝐵) = 𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑑
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Physical example of couple:

1. Our fingers apply couple to turn the lid.
2. Torque is applied to turn the steering of a vehicle.
3. Torque is applied while paddling a bicycle.
13. What is the work done by a torque?

Ans: 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊=𝜏𝜃
14. Define the term Angular Momentum.

Ans: The angular momentum of a particle rotating about an axis is defined as the moment of the linear
momentum of the particle about that axis. It is measured as the product of linear momentum and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action from the axis of rotation.
𝐿⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
It is a vector quantity. Its direction can be found by using right hand thumb rule
15. Deduce the relation between angular momentum and torque.

Ans: Torque is given by
𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗
Angular momentum is given by
𝐿⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. time t, we get
𝑑 𝑑
𝐿⃗ = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐿⃗ = × 𝑝⃗ + 𝑟⃗ ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝑑 𝑑𝑝⃗
𝐿⃗ = 𝑣⃗ × 𝑝⃗ + 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ ∵ = 𝐹⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐿⃗ = 0⃗ + 𝜏⃗ ∵ 𝑣⃗ × 𝑝⃗ = 𝑣⃗ × 𝑚𝑣⃗ = 0⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜏⃗ = 𝐿⃗
𝑑𝑡
Thus the torque acting on a particle is equal to its rate of change of angular momentum.
16. What do you mean by rotational motion of a body?

Ans:
A body is said to possess rotational motion if all its particles
move along circles in parallel planes. The centre of these
circles lie on a fixed line perpendicular to the parallel planes
and is called the axis of rotation.
17. What is meant by the term equilibrium?

Ans: A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium if both the linear momentum and angular momentum of
the rigid body remain constant with time.
A body under the action of several forces will be in equilibrium, if it possesses the following two
equilibria simultaneously:
1. Translational equilibrium: The resultant of all the external forces acting on the body must be zero.
𝐹⃗ =0
2. Rotational equilibrium: The resultant of torques due to all the forces acting on the body about any
point must be zero.
𝜏⃗ =0
18. Write the three equations of rotational motion.

Ans: Equations of rotational motion:
1. 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 𝛼𝑡
1
2. 𝜃 = 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
2
3. 𝜔 − 𝜔 = 2𝛼𝜃
Where
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜔 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜔 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
19. Define the term Moment of Inertia.

Ans: The moment of inertia of a rigid body about a fixed axis is
defined as the sum of the products of the masses of the particles
constituting the body and the squares of their respective distances
from the axis of rotation.
Consider a rigid body rotating with uniform angular velocity ω about
an axis YYʹ,ʹ, as shown in figure. Suppose the body consists on n
particles of masses 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑚 , … … , 𝑚 situated at distances
𝑟 , 𝑟 , 𝑟 , … … , 𝑟 respectively from the axis of rotation. The moment
of inertia of the body about the axis YYʹ
YY is given by
𝐼 = 𝑚 𝑟 + 𝑚 𝑟 + 𝑚 𝑟 ……+ 𝑚 𝑟
𝐼= 𝑚𝑟
The SI unit of moment of inertia is kg m2 and its CGS unit is g cm2.
20. State the factors on which the moment of inertia depends.

Ans: Factors on which moment of inertia depends:
1. Mass of the body.
2. Size and shape of the body.
3. Distribution of mass about the axis of rotation.
4. Position and orientation of the axis of rotation w.r.t. the body.
21. Write the expression for the rotational kinetic energy of a body in terms of moment of inertia and
angular velocity.
Ans: Consider a body rotating about an axis with angular velocity ω and having moment of inertia I
about this axis. Then the rotational kinetic energy of the body is given by
1
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = (𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎)(𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
1
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐼𝜔
2
Note: For Translational motion

1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = (𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎)(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
2
1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣
2
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
22. Define Radius of Gyration.

Ans: The radius of gyration of a body about its axis of rotation may be defined as the distance from the
axis of rotation at which, if the whole mass of the body were
were concentrated, its moment of inertia about
the given axis would be the same as with the actual distribution of mass.
Moment of inertia of a body about an axis of rotation is
𝐼= 𝑚𝑟
If k is the radius of gyration about this axis then
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑘
……
Where 𝑘 = = 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.
23. On what factors does the radius of gyration depends?

Ans: Factors on which radius of gyration depends:
1. Position and direction of the axis of rotation.
2. Distribution of mass about the axis of rotation.
24. Write the values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects.
Ans: Moment of inertia for simple geometrical objects.
Moment of
Body Axis Figure
Inertia
Passing
through centre
Thin rod of 1
and 𝐼= 𝑀𝐿
length L 12
perpendicular
to the rod
Through its one

Thin rod of end and 1
𝐼= 𝑀𝐿
length L perpendicular 3
to its length
94
XI PHYSICS 22-23
Passing
through its
Circular ring of
centre and 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅
radius R
perpendicular
to its plane
Circular ring of 1
Diameter 𝐼= 𝑀𝑅
radius R 2
Passing
through its
Circular disc of 1
centre and 𝐼= 𝑀𝑅
radius R 2
perpendicular
to its plane
Circular disc of 1
radius R 4
Right circular
cylinder of 1
Symmetry axis 𝐼= 𝑀𝑅
radius R and 2
length L
Solid sphere of 2
radius R 5
25. State and prove perpendicular axis theorem.

Ans: The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the
sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about any two mutually perpendicular axes in its own
plane and intersecting each other at the point where the perpendicular axis passes through the lamina.
95
22-23 XI PHYSICS
Consider a plane lamina lying in the XOY plane, as shown in figure. Consider one particle of mass 𝑚
situated at point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).. Clearly, the distances of the particle form X-, Y- and Z-axes
axes are 𝑦, 𝑥 and 𝑟
respectively, such that
𝑟 =𝑦 +𝑥
Moment of inertia of the particle about X-axis = 𝑚𝑦
Moment of inertia of whole lamina about X-axis 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑦
Moment of inertia of the particle about Y-axis = 𝑚𝑥

Moment of inertia of whole lamina about Y-axis 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥
Moment of inertia of whole lamina about Z-axis 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 .

Now
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟𝑟 = 𝑚(𝑦 + 𝑥 ) = 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼
This proves the theorem of perpendicular axes.
26. State and prove parallel axis theorem.

Ans: The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to its moment of inertia about a parallel
axis through its centre of mass plus the product of the mass of the body and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.
Proof: Let I be the moment of inertia of a body of mass M aabout an
axis PQ. Let RS be a parallel axis passing through the centre of
mass C of the body and at distance d form PQ. Let ICM be the
moment of inertia of the body about the axis RS.
Consider a particle P of mass 𝑚 at distance x from RS and so at
distance (𝑥 + 𝑑) from PQ.
Moment of inertia of the particle about the axis PQ = 𝑚(𝑥 + 𝑑)
Moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis PQ is
𝐼= 𝑚(𝑥 + 𝑑)
𝐼= 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑑 + 2𝑚𝑥𝑑
Now,
∑ 𝑚𝑥 = 𝐼
∑ 𝑚𝑑 = (∑ 𝑚)𝑑 = 𝑀𝑑
∑ 2𝑚𝑥𝑑 = 2𝑑(∑ 𝑚𝑥) = 2𝑑 × 0 = 0
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
This is because a body can balance itself about its centre of mass, so the algebraic sum of moments
(∑ 𝑚𝑥) of masses of all its particles about the axis RS is zero. Hence
𝐼=𝐼 + 𝑀𝑑
This proves
oves the theorem of parallel axes.
axe
27. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod about an axis through its
centre and perpendicular to its length. Also determine the radius of gyration about the same axis.
Ans: Consider a thin uniform rod AB of length L and mass M, free to rotate
ate about an axis YYʹ
YY through
its centre O and perpendicular to its length.
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑 =
𝐿
Consider a small mass element of length dx at a distance x
from O.
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
Moment of inertia of small element about YY
YYʹ
𝑀 𝑀
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
The moment of inertia of the whole rod about YY
YYʹʹ can be obtained by integrating the above expression
between the limits 𝑥 = −𝐿/2 and 𝑥 = +𝐿/2. Therefore,
𝑀
𝐼= 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
/
𝑀 𝑀 𝑥
𝐼= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝐿 𝐿 3 /
𝑀 𝐿 𝐿
𝐼= − −
3𝐿 2 2
𝑀 𝐿 𝐿 𝑀 𝐿
𝐼= + = ×
3𝐿 8 8 3𝐿 4
𝑀𝐿
𝐼=
12
YYʹ. Then
Let k be the radius of gyration of the rod about the axis YY
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑘
𝑀𝐿
∴ = 𝑀𝑘
12
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝐿
𝑘=
2√3
Thus, the radius of gyration of a uniform thin rod about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its length is 𝑘 = .
√
28. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod about an axis through its one
end and perpendicular
ar to its length using parallel axes theorem. Given the moment of inertia about
𝟏
the centre of mass is 𝟏𝟐 𝑀𝐿 .
Ans: By using theorem of parallel axes

𝐼=𝐼 + 𝑀𝑑
𝑀𝐿 𝐿
𝐼 = +𝑀
12 2
𝑀𝐿 𝑀𝐿
𝐼 = +
12 4
𝑀𝐿
𝐼 =
3
29. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular ring about an axis passing
through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
Ans: Consider a thin uniform circular ring of radius R and mass M.. As shown in figure, we wish to
determine its moment of inertia I about an axis YY
YYʹ passing through its centre O and perpendicular to
its plane. The ring can be imagined to be made of a large number of small elements. Consider one such
element of length 𝑑𝑥.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑅
𝜋𝑅
Moment of inertia of the small element about the axis YY
YYʹ,
𝑀 𝑀𝑅
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑅 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋
The small elements lie along the entire circumference of the ring i.e., from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑅. Hence
YYʹ will be
the moment of inertia of the whole ring about the axis YY
𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝑅
𝐼= 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥] = [2𝜋𝑅 − 0]]
2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
30. Derive an expression for the moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular ring about its diameter
using perpendicular axes theorem.
Ans: According to the theorem of perpendicular axes, the moment
of inertia about an axis YYʹʹ through O and perpendicular to the
ring is equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about two
perpendicular diameters AB and CD
CD, as shown in figure.
𝐼 +𝐼 =𝐼 ʹ
𝐼 + 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅
𝑀𝑅
𝐼 =
2
Here 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the ring about any diameter.
31. Write the relation between angular momentum and moment of inertia for a rigid body.
Ans: Relation between angular momentum and moment of inertia of a rigid body:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
In vector notation,
𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝜔⃗
32. State the law of conservation of angular momentum .

Ans: Law of conservation of angular momentum: It states that if no external
external torque acts on the system
then the total angular momentum of the system remains conserved.
𝜏⃗ =0
𝑑
𝐿⃗ = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝐿⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
33. The angular velocity of revolution of the earth around the sun increases, when it comes closer to the
sun. Why?
Ans: The angular velocity of a planet revolving in an elliptical
orbit around the sun increases, when it comes closer to the sun
because its moment of inertia about the axis through the sun
decreases and its angular velocity increases. When it goes far
awayy from the sun, its moment of inertia increases and hence
angular velocity decreases so as to conserve angular
momentum.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
34. How does an ice-skater,

skater, a ballet dance or an acrobat vary her angular speed by outstretching her
arms and legs?
Ans: When an ice-skater
skater or a ballet dancer stretches her hands and leg outward (as shown in figure),
her moment of inertia increases and hence angular speed decreases to conserve angular momentum.
When she folds her arms and brings the stretched leg close to the other, her moment of inertia
decreases and hence angular speed increases.
35. A person is standing on a rotating table with metal spheres in his hands. If he withdraws his hands
to his chest, what will be the effect on his angular speed?
Ans: As shown in figure, if a person stands on a turn-
turn
table with some heavy weights in his hands stretched
out and the table is rotated slowly, his angular speed at
once increases, as he draws his arms inward. As
moment of inertia decreases, the angular speed
increases
reases so as to conserve total angular momentum.
36. When a diver leaves the diving board, he brings his hands and feet closer together in order to make a
somersault. Why?
Ans: After leaving the spring board, the diver curls
her body by pulling her arms and legs towards the
centre of her body. This decreases her moment of
inertia and she spins fast in midair. Just before hitting
the water surface, she stretches out her arms. This
decreases her moment of inertia and the diver enters
water at a gentle speed (shown
hown in figure).
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
37. Give the analogy between translational and rotational motion.

Ans:
Linear Motion Rotational Motion
Quantity Symbol/Expression Quantity Symbol/Expression
Mass 𝑚 Moment of Inertia 𝐼 = ∑𝑚 𝑟
Displacement 𝑠 Angular displacement 𝜃
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
Velocity 𝑣= Angular velocity 𝜔=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
Acceleration 𝑎= Angular acceleration 𝛼=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Linear momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 Angular momentum 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝐿
Force 𝐹= = 𝑚𝑎 Torque 𝜏= = 𝐼𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Work done 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 Work done 𝑊 = 𝜏𝜃
1 1
Linear kinetic energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 Rotational kinetic energy 𝐾= 𝐼𝜔
2 2
Power 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 Power 𝑃 = 𝜏𝜔
Impulse 𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 Angular impulse 𝜏∆𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔 − 𝐼𝜔
First eq. of motion 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 First eq. of motion 𝜔 = 𝜔 + 𝛼𝑡
1 1
Second eq. of motion 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 Second eq. of motion 𝜃 = 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡
2 2
Third eq. of motion 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 2𝑎𝑠 Third eq. of motion 𝜔 − 𝜔 = 2𝛼𝜃
______________________________________________________________________________________
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
8. GRAVITATION
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Universal law of gravitation. Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with
altitude and depth.
Gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential, escape velocity, orbital velocity of a satellite, geo-stationary
satellites.
============================================================================
1. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

Ans: To explain the motion of planets, Kepler formulated the following three laws:
1. Law of orbits (first law): Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun
situated at one of the two foci.
2. Law of areas (second law): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time i.e., the areal velocity (area covered per unit time) of a planet
around the sun is constant.
3. Law of periods (third law): The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is
proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its elliptical orbit.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
2. State Universal law of Gravitation or New

Newton’s law of Gravitation.
Ans: Newton’s law of Gravitation: This law states that every particle in the universe attracts every
other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square
re of the distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the two
particles.
Consider two bodies of masses 𝑚 and 𝑚 separated by
distance 𝑟.. According to the law of gravitation, the force of
attraction 𝐹 between them is
1
𝐹∝𝑚 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹∝
𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
Or 𝐹∝
𝑟
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟
Where 𝐺 is a constant called universal gravitational constant.
3. Define universal gravitational constant.

Ans: By Newton’s law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two bodies is gi
given
ven by
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟
If 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑟 = 1 𝑚,, then 𝐹=𝐺
The universal gravitational constant may be defined as the force of attraction between two bodies of
unit mass each and placed unit distance apart.
In SI system, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
In CGS system, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑚 𝑔
4. Why G is called universal gravitational constant?

Ans: The value of 𝐺 does not depend on the nature and size of the bodies. It also does not depend on
the nature of the medium between the two bodies. That is why 𝐺 is called universal gravitational
constant.
5. What is meant by acceleration due to gravity?

Ans: The acceleration
on produced in a freely falling body under the gravitational pull of the earth is
called acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by 𝑔.. It is a vector quantity having direction towards the
centre of the earth.
In SI system, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠
In CGS system, 𝑔 = 980 𝑐𝑚𝑠
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
6. How are 𝒈 and 𝑮 related to each other?

Ans: Suppose the mass of earth 𝑀 and radius of earth 𝑅 . Then the
acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 and universal gravitational constant 𝐺are
related as
𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑅
7. What are the various factors on which the value of g at any place on the earth depends?
Ans: Factors on which 𝑔 depends:
1. Altitude
2. Depth
3. Shape of the earth
4. Rotation of the earth
8. Show that the value of g decreases with the altitude or height.

Ans: Consider the earth to be a sphere of mass M, radius R and
centre O.. Then the acceleration due to gravity at a point A on the
surface of the earth will be
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= … (1)
𝑅
If 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity at a point B at a height ℎ
from the earth’s surface, then
𝐺𝑀
𝑔 = … (2)
(𝑅
( + ℎ)
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get

𝐺𝑀
𝑔 (𝑅 + ℎ)
=
𝑔 𝐺𝑀
𝑅
𝑔 𝑅
= … (3)
𝑔 (𝑅 + ℎ)
𝑔 𝑅 ℎ
= = 1+
𝑔 ℎ 𝑅
𝑅 1+𝑅
𝑔 2ℎ ℎ
=1− + 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑔 𝑅 𝑅
If ℎ ≪ 𝑅, then ≪ 1,, so that higher powers of can be neglected, we get

𝑔 2ℎ
=1−
𝑔 𝑅
104
XI PHYSICS 22-23
2ℎ
𝑔 = 𝑔 1− … (4)
𝑅
Both equations (3) and (4) show that the value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with the
increase in height ℎ,, that is why the value of 𝑔 is less at mountains than at plains.
9. Show that the value of g decreases with depth.

Ans: Consider the earth to be a sphere of mass M, radius R and centre O.. The acceleration due to
gravity at any point A on the surface will be
𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑅
Assuming the earth to be a homogeneous sphere of average
density 𝜌,, then its total mass will be
4
𝑀 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜋𝑅 𝜌
3
4
𝐺 × 3 𝜋𝑅
𝑅 𝜌 4
∴𝑔= = 𝜋𝐺𝑅𝜌
𝑅 3
Let 𝑔 be the acceleration due to gravity at a point B at depth d
below the surface of the earth. A body at B experiences gravitational force due to inner shaded sphere
of radius (𝑅 − 𝑑) and mass Mʹ , where
4
𝑀ʹ = 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑) 𝜌
3
𝐺𝑀ʹ 4
∴ 𝑔 = = 𝜋𝐺(𝑅 − 𝑑)𝜌
𝑅 3
4
𝑔 𝜋𝐺(𝑅 − 𝑑)𝜌
⇒ =3
𝑔 4
3 𝜋𝐺𝑅𝜌
𝑔 (𝑅 − 𝑑) 𝑑
= =1−
𝑔 𝑅 𝑅
𝑑
𝑔 = 𝑔 1−
𝑅
Clearly, the acceleration due to gravity decreases with the increase in depth d.. That is why the
acceleration due to gravity is less in mines than that on earth’s surface.
10. What happens to g at the centre of the earth?

Ans: Value of acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface of the earth is given by
𝑑
𝑔 = 𝑔 1−
𝑅
At the centre of the earth d = R, so
𝑅
𝑔 = 𝑔 1− = 𝑔(1 − 1) = 𝑔 × 0 = 0
𝑅
Hence, the value of acceleration due to gravity at the centre of earth is zero.
105
22-23 XI PHYSICS
11. What do you mean by gravitational potential energy?

Ans: The gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy associated with it due to its position in
the gravitational field of another body and is measured by the amount of work done in bringing a body
b
from infinity to a given point in the gravitational field of the other.
12. Derive an expression for the gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m located at distance r
from the centre of the earth.
Ans: As shown in figure, suppose the earth is a uniform sphere of mass M and radius R. We wish to
calculate the potential energy of a body of mass 𝑚 located at point P such that OP = r and r > R.
Suppose at any instant the body is at point 𝐴 such that

𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥
The gravitational force of attraction on the body at 𝐴 is
𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
𝑥
The small work done in moving the body through small distance 𝐴𝐵(= 𝑑𝑥)
is given by
𝑀𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
The total work done in bringing the body from infinity (𝑥 = ∞) to the point
𝑃 (𝑥 = 𝑟) will be
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊
𝑀𝑚
𝑊= 𝐺 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑥
1 1
𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑟 ∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=−
𝑟
By definition, this work done is the gravitational potential energy 𝑈 of the body of mass 𝑚 located at
distance 𝑟 from the centre of the earth.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈=−
𝑟
The negative sign in the above equation indicates that the potential energy is due to the gravitational
attraction between the earth and the body.
106
XI PHYSICS 22-23
13. Define gravitational potential.

Ans: The gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational field of a body is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑚
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟
The gravitational potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is 𝐽/𝑘𝑔.
At the surface of earth 𝑟 = 𝑅,, so the potential at the surface of earth is
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑅
14. Write the relation between gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy.
Ans:
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑚
15. Define escape velocity.

Ans: Escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected vertically upwards
in order that it may just escape the gravitational field of the earth.
16. Derive an expression for the escape velocity of an object from the surface of the earth.
Ans: Consider the earth to be a sphere of mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅 with centre O. Suppose a body of mass
𝑚 lies at point P at distance 𝑥 from its centre, as shown in figure. The
gravitational force of attraction on the body at P is
𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
𝑥
The small work done in moving the body through small distance
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑑𝑥 against the gravitational force is given by
𝑀𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
The total work done in moving the body from the surface of the earth
𝑥 = 𝑅 to a region beyond the gravitational field of the earth 𝑥 = ∞ will
be
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊
𝑀𝑚
𝑊= 𝐺 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
107
22-23 XI PHYSICS
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
𝑥
1 1
𝑊 = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 −
∞ 𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊=
𝑅
If 𝑣 is the escape velocity of the body, then the kinetic energy 𝑚𝑣 imparted to the body at the
surface of the earth will be just sufficient to perform the work W.

1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 =
2 𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣 =
𝑅
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣 =
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
𝐴𝑠 𝑔= 𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅
𝑅
2𝑔𝑅
𝑣 =
𝑅
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅
Clearly, the escape velocity does not depend on the mass of the body projected.
For the earth, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 and 𝑅 = 6.4 × 10 𝑚, so
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅 = 2 × 9.8 × 6.4 × 10

𝑣 = 11.2 × 10 𝑚𝑠 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠
17. Does the value of escape velocity depend on the location from where it is projected?
Ans: Escape velocity is given by
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅
Yes, it depends on the location from where the body is projected.
18. Define orbital velocity.

Ans: Orbital velocity is the velocity required to put the satellite into its orbit around the earth.
108
XI PHYSICS 22-23
19. Derive an expression for the orbital velocity of a satellite.

Ans: As shown in figure, let
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑅 + ℎ = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
According to the law of gravitation, gravitational force on

satellite is
𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
(𝑅 + ℎ)
The centripetal force required by the satellite to keep it in its orbit is
𝑚𝑣
𝐹=
𝑅+ℎ
In equilibrium, the centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of earth.
𝑚𝑣 𝑀𝑚
=𝐺
𝑅+ℎ (𝑅 + ℎ)
𝐺𝑀
𝑣 =
𝑅+ℎ
𝐺𝑀
𝑣 =
𝑅+ℎ
𝐺𝑀
𝐴𝑠 𝑔= 𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅
𝑅
𝑔𝑅 𝑔
𝑣 = =𝑅
𝑅+ℎ 𝑅+ℎ
When the satellite revolves close to the earth, ℎ ≈ 0, and the orbital velocity will become
me
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅
20. Find the orbital velocity of a satellite orbiting very close to the surface of the earth.
Ans: When the satellite revolves close to the earth, ℎ ≈ 0,, and the orbital velocity is given by
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅
For the earth, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠 and 𝑅 = 6.4 × 10 𝑚, so
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅 = 9.8 × 6.4 × 10
𝑣 = 7.92 × 10 𝑚𝑠 = 7.92 𝑘𝑚𝑠
109
22-23 XI PHYSICS
21. Find the ratio of the orbital velocity and escape velocity.
Ans: The escape velocity of a body from the earth’s surface is
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅
The orbital velocity of a satellite revolving close to the ea
earth’s surface is
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅
𝑣 2𝑔𝑅
∴ = = √2
𝑣 𝑔𝑅
or 𝑣 = √2 𝑣
22. What are geostationary satellites?

Ans: A satellite which revolves around the earth in its
equatorial plane with the same angular speed and in the
same direction as the earth rotates about its own axis is
called a geostationary or synchronous satellite.
23. State the necessary conditions for a satellite to be geostationary.

Ans: Necessary conditions for a satellite to be geostationary:
1. It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the equatorial plane of the earth.
2. Its sense of rotation should be same as that of the earth i.e., from west to east.
3. Its period of revolution around the earth should be exactly same as that of the earth about its own
axis i.e., 24 hours.
4. It should revolve at a height of 36,000 km above the earth’s surface.
______________________________________________________________________________________
110
XI PHYSICS 22-23
9. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Elasticity, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus of rigidity
(qualitative idea only), Poisson’s ratio, elastic energy.
============================================================================
1. Define deforming force.

Ans: A force which changes the size or shape of a body is called a deforming force.
2. Define elasticity.
Ans: If a body regains its original size and shape after the removal of deforming force, it is said to be
elastic body and this property is called elasticity.
3. Define stress.
Ans: The internal restoring force set up per unit area of cross-section of the deformed body is called
stress.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
SI unit of stress is 𝑁𝑚 and the dimensional formula is [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ]
4. Describe different types of stress.

Ans: Types of stress:
1. Tensile stress
2. Compressional stress
3. Hydrostatic stress
4. Tangential or shearing stress
5. Define strain.
Ans: The ratio of the change in any dimension produced in the body to the original dimension is called
strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
111
22-23 XI PHYSICS
As strain is the ratio of two like quantities, it has no units and dimensions.
6. What are different types of strain?

Ans: Types of strain:
1. Longitudinal strain
2. Volumetric strain
3. Shear strain
7. Define elastic limit.

Ans: The maximum stress within which the body rregains
egains its original size and shape after the removal
of deforming force is called elastic limit.
8. State Hooke’s law.

Ans: Hooke’s law: It states that within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain.
Thus, within the elastic limit,
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The constant of proportionality is called modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity of the
material.
9. Discuss stress-strain graph for a loaded steel wire.

Ans: Figure shows a stress-strain
strain curve for a metal wire which is
gradually being loaded.
1. The initial part OA of the graph is a straight line

indicating that stress is proportional to strain. Upto the
point 𝐴,, Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point 𝐴 is called the
proportional limit. In this region, the wire is perfectly
elastic.
2. After the point 𝐴,, the stress is not proportional to strain and a curved portion 𝐴𝐵 is obtained. The
portion 𝑂𝐵 of the graph is called elastic region and the point 𝐵 is called elastic limit or yield point.
3. Beyond the point 𝐵,, the strain increases more rapidly than stress. If the load is removed at any
point 𝐶,, the wire does not come back to its original length but
but traces dashed line 𝐶𝐸. Even on
reducing the stress to zero, a residual strain equal to 𝑂𝐸 is left in the wire. The material is said to
have acquired a permanent set.
112
XI PHYSICS 22-23
4. Further increase in load beyond 𝐶 produces a large increase in strain or length of the wire. The
stress corresponding to the highest point 𝐷 on the graph is called ultimate strength or tensile
strength of the material. Beyond this point additional strain is produced even if the wire is unloaded
and finally the wire breaks at the fracture point 𝐸.
10. Define modulus of elasticity.

Ans: The modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity of a body is defined as the ratio of stress to
the corresponding strain, within the elastic limit.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity is 𝑁𝑚 and its dimensions are [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ].
11. What are different types of moduli of elasticity?

Ans: Corresponding to the three types of strain, we have three important moduli of elasticity:
1. Young’s modulus (𝑌), i.e., the modulus of elasticity of length.
2. Bulk modulus (𝜅), i.e., the modulus of elasticity of volume.
3. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (𝜂), i.e., modulus of elasticity of shape.
12. Define Young’s modulus of elasticity.

Ans: Young’s modulus: Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain
is called Young’s modulus of the material of the wire.
As shown in figure, suppose a wire of length 𝑙 and cross-sectional area 𝐴
suffers an increase in length ∆𝑙 under a force 𝐹 acting along its length 𝑙.
Then Young’s modulus is given by
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝑌= 𝐴
∆𝑙
𝑙
𝐹 𝑙
𝑌= .
𝐴 ∆𝑙
13. Define Bulk modulus of elasticity

Ans: Bulk modulus: Within the elastic limit, the ratio of normal
stress to the volumetric strain is called modulus of elasticity.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜅=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹/𝐴 𝑃𝑉
𝜅= =−
(−∆𝑉)/𝑉 ∆𝑉
113
22-23 XI PHYSICS
Where 𝑃(= 𝐹/𝐴) is the normal pressure. Negative sign shows that the volume decreases with the
increase in stress (or pressure).
14. Define Modulus of Rigidity.

Ans: Modulus of Rigidity: Within the elastic limit, the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain is called
modulus of rigidity.
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂=
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹/𝐴 𝐹 𝐹 𝑙
𝜂= = = .
𝜃 𝐴𝜃 𝐴 ∆𝑙
15. Define Poisson’s ratio.

Ans: Poisson’s ration: Within elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ration.
Suppose the length of a loaded wire increases from 𝑙 to 𝑙 + ∆𝑙 and its diameter
decreases from 𝐷 to 𝐷 − ∆𝐷.
∆𝑙
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙
∆𝐷
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −
𝐷
Poisson’s ratio is
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∆𝐷/𝐷
𝜎=−
∆𝑙/𝑙
The negative sign indicates that longitudinal and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
As the Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains, it has no units and dimensions.
16. Define elastic potential energy.
114
XI PHYSICS 22-23
Ans: When a wire is stretched, interatomic forces come into play which opposes the change. Work has
to be done against these restoring forces. The work done in stretching the wire is stored in it as its
elastic potential energy.
17. Write the expression for the elastic potential energy density.
Ans: Expression for elastic potential energy density:
1
𝑢= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2
But 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛,

1
𝑢= 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 × (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
2
______________________________________________________________________________________
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
10. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O 33 O 34 O 35 O 36 O 37 O 38 O 39 O
40 O 41 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Pressure due to a fluid column, Pascal’s law and its applications (hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes), effect of gravity
on fluid pressure.
Viscosity, Stokes’s law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, critical velocity, Bernoulli’s theorem and its
simple applications.
Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure across a curved surface, application of surface
tension ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary
capillary-rise.
============================================================================
1. Define the term fluid.

Ans: A fluid is a substance that can flow. Both, liquids and gases are fluids.
2. Define the term thrust.

Ans: The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called thrust. Thrust is a
force, so its SI unit is 𝑁.
3. Define the term pressure.

Ans: The pressure at a point on a surface is the thrust acting normally per unit area around that point.
If a force 𝐹 acts normally over a flat area 𝐴, then the pressure is
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
The SI unit of pressure is pascal (𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑎)
1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑁/𝑚
4. Derive an expression for the pressure exerted by a liquid column.

Ans: Pressure exerted by a liquid column: As shown in figure,
Consider a vessel of height ℎ and cross-sectional
cross area 𝐴 filled with a
liquid of density 𝜌 . Pressure exerted by the liquid column on the
bottom of the vessel is
116
XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝑃= = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴
(𝐴ℎ)𝜌𝑔
𝑃= [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦]
𝐴
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
5. State Pascal’s law.

Ans: Pascal’s law can be stated in the following ways:
1. The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all directions.
2. The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points if they are at the same height.
3. A change in pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to
everyy point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
6. How Pascal’s law is applied in a hydraulic lift?

Ans: Hydraulic lift is an application of Pascal’s law. It is used to lift heavy objects. It is a force
multiplier.
As shown in 2nd figure, consider
der two cylinders 𝐶 and
𝐶 connected to each other by a pipe. The cylinders are
fitted with water-tight
tight frictionless pistons of different
cross-sectional
sectional areas. The cylinders and the pipe
contain a liquid. Suppose a force 𝑓 is applied on the
smaller piston of cross-sectional
sectional area 𝑎. Then
Pressure exerted on the fluid,
𝑓
𝑃=
𝑎
According to Pascal’s law, the same pressure 𝑃 is also
transmitted to the larger piston of cross-sectional
cross area
𝐴.
Force exerted on larger piston is
𝐹 = 𝑃×𝐴
𝑓 𝐴
𝐹= ×𝐴= ×𝑓
𝑎 𝑎
As 𝐴 > 𝑎, therefore 𝐹 > 𝑓.
Hence, by making the ratio 𝐴/𝑎 large, very heavy loads

(like cars and trucks) can be lifted easily by the application
of a small force.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
7. Explain the working of hydraulic brakes with a suitable diagram.

Ans: The hydraulic brakes used in automobiles are based on Pascal’s law of transmission of pressure in
a liquid, i.e., the pressure exerted at any point of an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in all
directions.
Figure shows the hydraulic brake system in an automobile. When the pressure is applied on the brake
paddle, the lever system pushes the piston 𝑃 into the master cylinder containing the brake oil.
The brake oil of the master cylinder is pushed through a strong tube to the wheel cylinder provided
with pistons 𝑃 and 𝑃 of larger cross-sectional area. Thus a larger force is transmitted to the pistons 𝑃
and 𝑃 , in accordance with Pascal’s law. The pistons 𝑃 and 𝑃 are pushed outwards. The brake shoes
get pressed against the inner rim of the wheel, retarding the motion of wheel.
8. Explain how is Pascal’s law is affected in the presence of gravity.

Ans: As shown in figure, consider a liquid at rest in a container. Imagine a cylindrical element of the
liquid of cross-sectional area 𝐴 and height ℎ. Let 𝑃 and 𝑃 be the liquid pressures at its top point 1 and
bottom point 2.
As the liquid cylinder is at rest, the resultant horizontal force should be zero, various force acting on it
in the vertical direction are:
1. Force due to the liquid pressure at the top,

𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐴 ↓ (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)
2. Force due to the liquid pressure at the bottom,
𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐴 ↑ (𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)
3. Weight of the liquid cylinder,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔 ↓ (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)
Where 𝜌 is the density of the liquid.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
As the liquid is in equilibrium,

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹 +𝑊 =𝐹
𝐹 −𝐹 =𝑊
𝑃 𝐴 − 𝑃 𝐴 = 𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃 − 𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
This is modified Pascal’s law, in presence of gravity.
Note:
1. Due to the effect of gravity, the speed of jet stream coming out of holes increases with the increase
in depth from the surface of water.
2. Thickness of the walls of dams is more at the bottom since pressure at the bottom is more.
______________________________________________________________________________________
9. What is viscosity?
Ans: Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which an internal force of friction comes into play
when a fluid is in motion and which opposes the relative motion between its different layers.
10. Explain the cause of viscosity.

Ans: Consider a liquid flowing steadily over a fixed
horizontal surface. As shown in figure, the layer in contact
with the fixed surface remains stationary while the velocity
of every other layer increases uniformly upwards.
Consider any two adjacent layers 𝑎 and 𝑏. The upper fast

moving layer 𝑎 tends to accelerate the lower slow moving
layer 𝑏 while the slow moving layer 𝑏 tends to retard the fast moving layer 𝑎. As a result, a backward
119
22-23 XI PHYSICS
dragging tangential force 𝐹, called viscous drag comes into play which tends to destroy the relative
motion. To maintain the motion, an external force has to be applied to overcome the backward viscous
force.
11. Define coefficient of viscosity.

Ans: As shown in figure, suppose a liquid is flowing steadily
in the form of parallel layers on a fixed horizontal surface.
Consider two layers 𝑃 and 𝑄 at distances 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 from
the solid surface and moving with velocities 𝑣 and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
respectively. Then is the rate of change of velocity with
distance in the direction of increasing distance and is called

velocity gradient.
According to Newton, a force of viscosity 𝐹 acting tangentially between two layers is
1. Proportional to the area 𝐴 of the layers in contact.
𝐹∝𝐴
2. Proportional to the velocity gradient between the two layers

𝑑𝑣
𝐹∝
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝐹∝𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝜂 is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. It depends on the nature of the liquid and gives
a measure of viscosity. Negative sign shows that the viscous force acts in a direction opposite to
the direction of motion of the liquid.
𝑑𝑣
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹 = 𝜂 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
Hence, coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential viscous force required
to maintain a unit velocity gradient between its two parallel layers each of unit area.
12. State Stokes’ law.

Ans: According to Stokes’ law the backward viscous force acting n a small spherical body or radius 𝑟
moving with uniform velocity 𝑣 through fluid of viscosity 𝜂 is given by
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
13. Deduce Stokes’ law by the method of dimensions.

Ans: The viscous force 𝐹 acting on a sphere moving through a fluid may depend on:
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
1. Coefficient of viscosity 𝜂 of the fluid

2. Radius 𝑟 of the spherical body
3. Velocity 𝑣 of the body
Let 𝐹 = 𝑘𝜂 𝑟 𝑣 … (1)
Where 𝑘 is dimensional constant. The dimensions of various quantities are
[𝐹] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 ], [𝜂] = [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ]
[𝑟] = [𝐿], [𝑣] = [𝐿𝑇 ]
Substituting these dimensions in equation (1)
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 ] = [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 ] [𝐿] [𝐿𝑇 ]
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 ] = [𝑀 𝐿 𝑇 ]
Equating the powers of 𝑀, 𝐿 and 𝑇 on both sides, we get
𝑎 = 1, −𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1, − 𝑎 − 𝑐 = −2
Solving these equations, we get
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐=1
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝜂𝑟𝑣
For a small sphere, 𝑘 is found to be 6𝜋. Hence
This proves Stokes’ law.
14. Define terminal velocity.

Ans: The maximum velocity acquired by a body while falling through a viscous medium is called its
terminal velocity. It is denoted by 𝑣 .
15. Derive an expression for terminal velocity.

Ans: Consider a spherical body of radius 𝑟 falling through
a viscous liquid of density 𝜎 and coefficient of viscosity 𝜂.
Let 𝜌 be the density of the body. As the body falls, the
various forces acting on the body are as shown in figure.
These are:
1. Weight of the body acting vertically downwards
4
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 ↓
3
2. Upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.
4
𝑈 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 ↑
3
3. Force of viscosity 𝐹 acting in the upward direction. According to Stokes’ law:
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
When the body attains terminal velocity 𝑣 = 𝑣 , the acceleration becomes zero, hence net force on
the body becomes zero.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑈+𝐹 =𝑊
4 4
𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔
3 3
4 4
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 − 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔
3 3
4
6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3
4 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
𝑣 = .
3 6𝜋𝜂𝑟
2 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
𝑣 =
9 𝜋𝜂𝑟
______________________________________________________________________________________
16. What is streamline flow?

Ans: When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid pasing a given point moves along the
same path and has the same velocity as its predecessor, the flow is called streamline flow or steady
flow. Streamline flow is possible only if the velocity of the liquid is less than a certain value called the
critical velocity.
17. Define streamline.

Ans: A streamline may be defined as the path, the tangent to which at
any point gives the direction of the flow of liquid at that point.
18. What is turbulent flow?

Ans: When the liquid velocity exceeds a certain limiting value, called
critical velocity, the liquid flow becomes zig-zag. The path and the
velocity of a liquid particle changes continuously, haphazardly. This
flow is called turbulent flow.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
19. What is meant by critical velocity of liquid?

Ans: The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow upto which the flow is
streamline and above which the flow becomes turbulent.
The critical velocity 𝑣 of a liquid flowing through a tube is given by
𝑘𝜂
𝑣 =
𝜌𝐷
Where 𝑘 is a dimensional constant. Thus the critical velocity of a liquid depends on
1. Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid 𝜂
2. Density of the liquid 𝜌
3. Diameter of the tube 𝐷
20. What is laminar flow?

Ans: In a steady flow, a liquid flows in the form of layers
sliding past one another without getting mixed. Such a flow is
called laminar flow.
21. What is Reynold’s number?

Ans: Reynold’s number is a dimensionless number which determines the nature of the flow of the
liquid through a pipe. For a liquid of viscosity 𝜂, density 𝜌 and flowing through a pipe of diameter 𝐷,
Reynold’s number is given by
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅 =
𝜂
If 𝑅 < 2000, the flow is laminar.
If 𝑅 > 3000, the flow is turbulent.
If 2000 < 𝑅 < 3000, the flow is unstable. It may change from laminar to turbulent and vice-versa.
22. State equation of continuity.

Ans: Equation of continuity states that during the
streamlined flow of the non-viscous and
incompressible fluid through a pipe of varying cross-
section, the product of area of cross-section and the
normal fluid velocity (𝑎𝑣) remains constant
throughout the flow.
𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
OR
The liquid velocity at any section of pipe is inversely proportional
to the area of cross-section of the pipe at that section
1
𝑣∝
𝑎
That is, smaller the area of cross-section, larger is the velocity of
flow.
23. What are different forms of energy possessed by a liquid?

Ans: A liquid in motion possesses following three types of energy:
1. Kinetic energy: due to the motion of the liquid. 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣
2. Potential energy: due to the position of the liquid. 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
3. Pressure energy: due to the pressure of the liquid. 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑉
24. What is velocity head?

Ans: The kinetic energy per unit weight of the liquid is known as velocity head.
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 2 𝑚𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔
1𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
2𝑔
25. What is potential head?

Ans: The potential energy per unit weight is known as potential head.
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑔
26. What is pressure head?

Ans: Pressure energy per unit weight is known as pressure head.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑉
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑃 𝑚
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ∵𝜌=
𝜌𝑔 𝑉
27. State Bernoulli’s theorem.

Ans: Bernoulli’s theorem states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
per unit volume of an incompressible, non-viscous fluid in a streamline, irrotational flow remains
constant along a streamline.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Mathematically,
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
28. Prove Bernoulli’s theorem.

Ans: Consider a non-viscous
viscous and incompressible fluid flowing steadily in pipe of varying cross
cross-section.
Let 𝜌 be the density of the fluid. Since the fluid is incompressible, so the mass of fluid entering the pipe
is equal to the mass of fluid flowing out.
This mass is given by

𝑚 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑚 = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌 = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌 … (1)
⇒ 𝐴 𝑣 =𝐴 𝑣 … (2)
Change in kinetic energy of the fluid

1 1
= 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞. (1)
2 2
Change in potential energy of the fluid

= 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌𝑔(ℎ − ℎ ) 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞. (1)
Net work done on the fluid

=𝐹 𝑠 −𝐹 𝑠
= 𝑃 𝐴 × 𝑣 ∆𝑡 − 𝑃 𝐴 × 𝑣 ∆𝑡
= 𝑃 𝐴 × 𝑣 ∆𝑡 − 𝑃 𝐴 × 𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞. (2)
= 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡(𝑃 − 𝑃 )
By the conservation of energy,

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
1
𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡(𝑃 − 𝑃 ) = 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) + 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡𝜌𝑔(ℎ − ℎ )
2
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
1
(𝑃 − 𝑃 ) =
𝜌(𝑣 − 𝑣 ) + 𝜌𝑔(ℎ − ℎ )
2
1 1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
2 2
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
This proves Bernoulli’s principle.
29. On the basis of Bernoulli’s principle, explain the lift of an aircraft wing.
Ans: Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body, such as aeroplane wing, by virtue of its motion
through a fluid. This upward force (dynamic lift) makes aeroplane fly.
As shown in figure, the cross-section of the wing
of an aeroplane looks like an aerofoil. The wing is
so designed that its upper surface is more curved
(and hence longer) than the lower surface and the
front edge is broader than the rear edge. As the
aircraft moves, the air moves faster over the upper
surface of the wing than on the bottom.
According to Bernoullie’s principle, the air
pressure above the upper surface decreases below
the atmospheric pressure and that on the lower
surface increases above the atmospheric pressure.
The difference in pressure provides an upward lift,
called dynamic lift, to the aircraft.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
30. What are cohesive forces?

Ans: The force of attraction between the molecules of
the same substance is called cohesive force.
31. What are adhesive forces?

Ans: The force of attraction between the molecules of
two different substances is called adhesive force.
32. Define surface tension.

Ans: Surface tension is the property by virtue of which the free surface of a liquid at rest behaves like
an elastic stretched membrane tending to contract so as to occupy minimum surface area.
33. Define surface energy.

Ans: The extra energy possessed by the molecules of surface film of unit area compared to the
molecules in the interior is called surface energy. It is equal to the work done in increasing the area of
the surface film by unit amount.
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
The SI unit of surface energy is 𝐽𝑚
𝑚 .
34. Define the term angle

gle of contact. On what factors does it depend?
Ans: Angle of contact is defined as the angle 𝜃 between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of
contact and the solid surface inside the liquid.
The value of angle of contact depends upon following factors:
1. Nature of the solid and the liquid in contact.
2. Cleanliness of the surface in contact.
3. Medium above the free surface of the liquid.
4. Temperature of the liquid.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
35. Discuss different cases of angle of contact.

Ans: Different cases of angle of contact.
1. Adhesive force = Cohesive force: Liquid surface is plane and 𝜃 = 90 .
2. Adhesive force > Cohesive force: Liquid wets the solid surface and has concave meniscus. 𝜃 < 90 .
3. Adhesive force < Cohesive force: Liquid does not wet the solid surface and has a convex meniscus. 𝜃 > 90 .
36. Show that there is always excess pressure on the concave side of the meniscus.
Ans: When the free surface of a liquid is curved, there is a difference of pressure between the liquid
side and the vapour side of the surface. We consider three possible liquid surfaces:
1. As shown in 1st figure, if the surface is plane, pressure on both sides of the surface is same i.e.,
𝑃 =𝑃
nd
2. As shown in 2 figure, if the surface is concave, pressure on the vapour side must be greater than
the pressure on the liquid side i.e.,
𝑃 >𝑃
rd
3. As shown in 3 figure, if the surface is convex, pressure on the liquid side must be greater than the
pressure on the vapour side i.e.,
𝑃 >𝑃
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Thus we find that, whenever a liquid surface is curved, the pressure on its concave side is greater then
the pressure on the convex side.
37. Derive an expression for the excess pressure inside a liquid drop.
Ans: Consider a spherical liquid drop of radius 𝑅. Let 𝜎 be the surface
tension of the liquid. Due to its spherical shape, there is an excess
pressure 𝑃 inside the drop over that on outside. This excess pressure
acts normally
ally outwards. Let the radius of the drop increases form 𝑅 to
𝑅 + 𝑑𝑅 under the excess pressure 𝑃
𝑃.
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑅

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝜋(𝑅 + 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑅)
2 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝑅 ) = 4𝜋𝑅 + 8𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅
= 4𝜋(𝑅 + 2𝑅
𝑑𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (4𝜋
( 𝜋𝑅 + 8𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅) − (4𝜋𝑅 ) = 8𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

= 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 8𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅 × 𝜎
= 8𝜋𝜎𝑅 𝑑𝑅
But 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑃 × 4𝜋𝑅 × 𝑑𝑅
Hence,
𝑃 × 4𝜋𝑅 × 𝑑𝑅 = 8𝜋𝜎𝑅 𝑑𝑅
2𝜎
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃=
𝑅
129
22-23 XI PHYSICS
38. Derive an expression for the excess pressure inside a soap bubble.
Ans: Consider a spherical soap bubble of radius 𝑅. Let 𝜎 be the
surface tension of the liquid. Due to its spherical shape, there is an
excess pressure 𝑃 inside the bubble. This excess pressure acts
normally outwards. Let the radius of the bubble increases form 𝑅 to
𝑅 + 𝑑𝑅 under the excess pressure 𝑃.
As a soap bubble has air both inside and outside, so it has two free
surfaces.
∴ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 16𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

= 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 16𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅 × 𝜎
= 16𝜋𝜎𝑅 𝑑𝑅
But 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑃 × 4𝜋𝑅 × 𝑑𝑅
Hence,
𝑃 × 4𝜋𝑅 × 𝑑𝑅 = 16𝜋𝜎𝑅 𝑑𝑅
4𝜎
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃=
𝑅
______________________________________________________________________________________
39. What do you understand by the term capillarity?

Ans: The latin word capilla means hair. A tube of very fine (hair-like) bore is called a capillary tube.
The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube in comparison to the surrounding is called
capillarity.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
40. Derive an expression for the height to which the liquid rises in a capillary tube of radius r.
Ans: Consider a capillary tube of radius 𝑟 dipped in a liquid of surface tension 𝜎 and density 𝜌.
Suppose the liquid wets the sides of the tube. Then its meniscus will be concave. The shape of the
meniscus of water will be nearly spherical (as shown in 1st figure), if the capillary tube is of sufficiently
narrow bore.
As the pressure is greater on the concave side

of a liquid surface, so excess of pressure at a
point 𝐴 just above the meniscus compared to
point 𝐵 just below the meniscus is
2𝜎
𝑃=
𝑅
Where R is the radius of curvature of the
concave meniscus. If θ is the angle of
contact, then from the right angled triangle
shown in 2nd figure, we have
𝑟
= cos 𝜃
𝑅
𝑟
𝑅=
cos 𝜃
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝑃=
𝑟
Due to this excess pressure 𝑃, the liquid rises in the capillary tube to height ℎ till the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the liquid column becomes equal to the excess pressure 𝑃 . Therefore, at
equilibrium, we have
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
= ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑟
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝑟𝜌𝑔
This is the ascent formula for the rise of liquid in a capillary tube.
If we take into account the volume of the liquid contained in the meniscus, then the above formula gets
modified as
2𝜎 cos 𝜃 𝑟
ℎ= −
𝑟𝜌𝑔 3
The ascent formula shows that the height ℎ to which a liquid rises in the capillary tube is inversely
proportional to the radius of the tube i.e.,
1
ℎ∝
𝑟
Hence a liquid rises more in a narrower tube than in wider tube.
131
22-23 XI PHYSICS
41. Briefly describe the cleansing action of detergents.

Ans: Oil stains and grease on dirty clothes cannot be removed by
simply washing the clothes with water because water does not
wet them. By adding detergent or soap to water, the greasy dirt
can be easily removed. Detergent molecules have the shape of a
hairpin, one end of which is attracted to water and the other end
to a molecule of grease, thus forming a water grease interface
and the surface tension is reduced. The dirt can be removed can
carried away by running water.
______________________________________________________________________________________
132
XI PHYSICS 22-23
11. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Heat, temperature thermal expansion, thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases, anomalous expansion of
water, specific heat capacity, CP, CV –calorimetry, change of state- latent heat capacity.
Heat transfer- conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductivity, qualitative ideas of Blackbody radiation,
Wien’s displacement law, Stefan’s law and Greenhouse effect
============================================================================
1. Define Heat.
Ans: Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of hotness or coldness.
The SI unit of heat is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽).
2. Define Temperature.
Ans: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It may be defined as the thermal state
of a body which decides the direction of flow of heat energy from one body to another when they are
placed in thermal contact with each other.
The SI unit of temperature is 𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝐾).
3. Write the relation between temperatures of different scales.

Ans: If the temperature of body is
measured in different scales i.e., Celsius
𝑇 , Fahrenheit 𝑇 , Reaumer 𝑇 and
Kelvin 𝑇 scales, then the relation
between them is
𝑇 − 0 𝑇 − 32 𝑇 − 0 𝑇 − 273.15
= = =
100 180 80 100
133
22-23 XI PHYSICS
4. What is meant by thermal expansion? What are its different types?

Ans: Almost all solids, liquids and gases expand on heating. The increase in the size of a body when it
is heated is called thermal expansion.
Different types of thermal expansion:
1. Linear expansion: It is the increase in the length of a metal rod on heating.
2. Superficial expansion: It is the increase in the surface area of a metal sheet on heating.
3. Cubical expansion: it is the increase in the volume of block on heating.
5. Define coefficient of linear expansion.

Ans: The coefficient of linear expansion of the material of a solid rod is defined as the increase in
length per unit original length per degree rise in its temperature.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛼=
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑙
𝛼=
𝑙 ∆𝑇
The SI unit of 𝛼 is 𝐶 or 𝐾 .
6. Define coefficient of superficial expansion.

Ans: The coefficient of superficial expansion of a metal sheet is defined as the increase in its surface
area per unit original surface area per degree rise in its temperature.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝛽=
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑆
𝛽=
𝑆 ∆𝑇
The SI unit of 𝛽 is 𝐶 or 𝐾 .
7. Define coefficient of cubical expansion.

Ans: The coefficient of cubical expansion of a substance is defined as the increase in volume per unit
original volume per degree rise in its temperature.
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝛾=
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑉
𝛾=
𝑉 ∆𝑇
The SI unit of 𝛾 is 𝐶 or 𝐾 .
8. Write the relation between 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸.

Ans: Relation between 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾:
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
= =
1 2 3
134
XI PHYSICS 22-23
9. What is meant by anomalous expansion of water?

Ans: Anomalous expansion of water:
Almost all liquids expand on being heated but water behaves in a peculiar manner. When water at 0 oC
is heated, its volume decreases and therefore, its density increases, until its temperature reaches 4 oC.
Above 4 oC, the volume increases, and therefore the density decreases. Thus water at 4 oC has the
maximum density.
10. Explain the importance of anomalous

lous expansion of water.
Ans: The anomalous expansion of water has a
favourable effect on aquatic life. Since the density of
water is maximum at 4 oC, water at the bottom of the
lakes remains at 4 oC, even if it freezes at the top.
This allows fish and other marine animals to remain
alive and move freely near the bottom. If water did
not have this property, lakes and ponds would freeze
from the bottom up, which destroy the entire aquatic
animal and plant life.
11. Define specific heat.

Ans: The specific heatt of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance through one degree. It depends on the nature of substance
and its temperature.
135
22-23 XI PHYSICS
If an amount of heat ∆𝑄 is needed to raise the temperature of mass 𝑀 of a substance through ∆𝑇, then
specific heat is given by
∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑀 ∆𝑇
The SI unit is 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 .
12. Define molar specific heat.

Ans: The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on the nature of the substance
If an amount of heat ∆𝑄 is needed to raise the temperature of 𝑛 moles of a substance through ∆𝑇, then
molar specific heat is given by
∆𝑄
𝐶=
𝑛 ∆𝑇
The SI unit is 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 .
13. Define CP.

Ans: Molar specific heat at constant pressure: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 of a gas through 1 𝐶 at constant pressure. It is denoted by 𝐶 .
14. Define CV.

Ans: Molar specific heat at constant volume: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 of a gas through 1 𝐶 at constant volume. It is denoted by 𝐶 .
15. What is calorimetry?

Ans: The branch of physics that deals with the measurement of heat is called calorimetry.
16. State the principle of calorimetry.

Ans: Whenever two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact with one another, they share
heat till their temperatures become equal.
The principle of calorimetry states that the heat gained by the cold body must be equal to the heat lost
by the hot body, provided there is no exchange of heat with the surroundings.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑(𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦)
17. What do you mean by change of state of a substance?

Ans: The transition of a substance from one state to another by heating or cooling it is called change of
state. The common changes of states are as follow:
136
XI PHYSICS 22-23
1. Melting of a solid:
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 ⎯⎯ 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
2. Vaporization of a liquid:
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 ⎯⎯ 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
3. Condensation of vapour:
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 ⎯ 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
4. Freezing of a liquid:
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 ⎯ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
18. Define latent heat.

Ans: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance at constant
temperature and pressure is called latent heat of the substance.
If 𝑚 mass of a substance undergoes a change from one state to another, then the amount of heat
required for the process is
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿
Where 𝐿 is the latent heat of the substance and is a characteristic of the substance.
The SI unit of latent heat is 𝐽𝑘𝑔 .
19. State and explain three modes of heat transfer.

Ans: Heat can be transferred from one place to another through three different modes. These are:
1. Conduction: It is a process in which heat is transmitted form one part of a body at higher
temperature to another part at lower temperature through molecular collisions, without any actual
flow of matter. Solids are heated through conduction.
2. Convection: It is the process by which heat is transmitted through a substance from one point to
another due to the bodily motion of the heated particles of the substance. Fluids get heated through
convection.
3. Radiation: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to another without heating
the intervening medium. Heat from the sun reaches the earth by the process of radiation.
20. On what factors does the amount of heat flowing through a substance depend?
Ans: As shown in figure, consider a block of a material of cross-sectional area 𝐴 and thickness 𝑑.
Suppose its opposite faces are at temperatures 𝑇 and 𝑇 (𝑇 > 𝑇 ).
It is found that the amount of heat 𝑄 that flows from hot to cold face during the steady state is
1. Directly proportional to the cross-sectional area 𝐴,
2. Directly proportional to the temperature difference (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) between the opposite faces,
3. Directly proportional to time 𝑡 for which the heat flows,
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
4. Inversely proportional to the thickness 𝑑 of

the block,
5. Depends on the nature of the material of the
block.
𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 )𝑡
𝑄∝
𝑑
𝑄=𝐾
𝑑
The proportionality constant 𝐾 is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the given material. Its
value depends on the nature of the material.
21. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Ans: The heat flowing through a material is given by
𝑄=𝐾
𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 1, 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 1, 𝑡 = 1, 𝑑 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑄=𝐾
Hence, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the quantity of heat that flows
per unit time through a unit cube of the material when its opposite faces are kept at a temperature
difference of one degree.
22. What is a black body?

Ans: A black body is one which neither reflects nor transmits but absorbs whole of the heat radiation
incident on it. The absorptive power of a black body is unity.
23. What are black body radiations?

Ans: When a black body is heated to a high temperature, it emits radiations of all possible wavelengths
within a certain wavelength range. The radiations emitted by a black body are called full or black body
radiations.
The wavelength range of emitted radiation is independent of the material of the body and depends only
on the temperature of the black body.
24. State Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Ans: Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the total amount
of energy radiated per second per unit area of a perfectly
black body is directly proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature of the body. Thus,
𝐸∝𝑇
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇
Where 𝜎 is called Stefan’s constant. Its value in SI system is 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 𝐾 .
138
XI PHYSICS 22-23
25. State and illustrate Wien’s displacement law.

Ans: Wien’s displacement law states
that the wavelength 𝜆 corresponding
to which the energy emitted by a
perfect black body is maximum, is
inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature 𝑇 of the black body i.e.,
1
𝜆 ∝
𝑇
𝑏
𝜆 =
𝑇
Where 𝑏 is a constant of
proportionality and is called Wien’s
constant.
It value in SI system is 𝑏 = 2.9 × 10 𝑚𝐾.
26. What is Greenhouse effect?

Ans: The greenhouse effect is a natural
process that warms the Earth's surface.
Greenhouse gases include water
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, ozone and some
artificial chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The
absorbed energy warms the
atmosphere and the surface of the
Earth.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
12. THERMODYNAMICS
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O 22 O 23 O 24 O 25 O 26 O
27 O 28 O 29 O 30 O 31 O 32 O 33 O 34 O 35 O 36 O 37 O 38 O 39 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature (Zeroth law of thermodynamics), heat, work and internal energy.
First law of thermodynamics.
Second law of thermodynamics: gaseous state of matter, change of condition of gaseous state- isothermal, adiabatic,
reversible and irreversible and cyclic processes. Heat engine and refrigerator
============================================================================
1. What is Thermodynamics?
Ans: Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and
the inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy. It mainly deals with the transformation of heat
into mechanical work and vice-versa.
2. Define Thermodynamic system.

Ans: Thermodynamic system is an assembly of a very large number of particles having a certain value
of pressure, volume and temperature.
3. Define Thermodynamic variables.

Ans: The quantities like pressure, volume and temperature which help us to study the behaviour of a
thermodynamic system are called thermodynamic variables.
4. Define Equation of state.

Ans: The mathematical relation between the pressure, volume and temperature of thermodynamic
system is called its equation of state. For example, the equation of state for 𝑛 moles of an ideal gas can
be written as
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
5. Define Thermal equilibrium.

Ans: Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if they have the same
temperature.
140
XI PHYSICS 22-23
6. State Zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Ans: Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two
systems 𝐴 and 𝐵 are separately in thermal equilibrium with
a third system 𝐶 , then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
7. Explain the concept of temperature.

Ans: Zeroth law of thermodynamics implies that there exists a scalar quantity called temperature which
has the same value for all systems which are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
8. Define internal energy of a system.

Ans: The internal energy of a system is the sum of molecular kinetic and potential energies in the frame
of reference relative to which the centre of mass of the system is at rest.
Note:
The intermolecular potential energy of a real gas is a function of its volume.
The internal kinetic energy of a gas is a function of its temperature.
9. Distinguish between heat and work as two different modes of heat transfer.
Ans: Difference between heat and work:
Heat is a mode of transfer of energy due to temperature difference between the system and the
surroundings.
Work is a mode of transfer of energy due to mechanical means (by moving the piston of a cylinder
containing the gas).
10. State the sign convention used in the measurement of heat, work and internal energy.
Ans: Sign convention:
1. Heat absorbed by a system is positive. Heat given out by a system is negative.
2. Work done by a system is positive. Work done on a system is negative.
3. The increase in internal energy of a system is positive. The decrease in internal energy of a system
is negative.
11. What is an indicator diagram?

Ans: A graphical representation
of the state of a system with the
help of two thermodynamic
variables is called indicator
diagram of the system.
Importance of 𝑃 − 𝑉 diagram: The area under the P-V diagram is numerically equal to the work done
by a system or on the system.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
12. What is a non-cyclic process?

Ans: A non-cyclic process is one in which the system does not
return to its initial state.
13. What is a cyclic process?

Ans: Any process in which the system returns to its initial state
after undergoing a series of changes is known as a cyclic process.
14. Show that the area under 𝑷 − 𝑽 diagram gives the work done by a system (in a non-cyclic process).
Ans: In figure, the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 represent the initial state
(𝑃 , 𝑉 ) and final state (𝑃 , 𝑉 ) respectively of a system on a
𝑃 − 𝑉 diagram. At any point 𝑎, let 𝑃 and 𝑉 be the pressure and
volume respectively. Suppose that the volume increases from 𝑉
to 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 corresponding to a point 𝑏 on the indicator diagram
such that the pressure remains almost constant. Then
𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑃 and 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑑𝑉
The small work done when the system changes from state 𝑎 to 𝑏,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑎𝑑 × 𝑐𝑑
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑
The total work done by the gas during the expansion from the initial state 𝐴(𝑃 , 𝑉 ) to the final state
𝐵(𝑃 , 𝑉 ) will be
𝑊 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴
𝑊= 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑃 − 𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
142
XI PHYSICS 22-23
15. Show that the net work done during a cyclic process is numerically equal to the area of the loop
representing the cycle.
Ans: Suppose a gas first expands from state 𝐴 to state 𝐵 along path 𝐴𝑋𝐵 and then undergoes
compression to return to state 𝐴 along the path 𝐵𝑌𝐴.
Work done by the gas during the expansion is
𝑊 = +𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑋𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴
During expansion, work is done by the gas which is taken
positive.
Work done on the gas during the compression is
𝑊 = −𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝑌𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐵
During compression, work is done on the gas which it taken
negative.
The net work done during the cyclic process is
𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊
𝑊 = +𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑋𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐴 − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝑌𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐵
𝑊 = +𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑋𝐵𝑌𝐴
Conclusions: For a cyclic process:

1. Work done per cycle is numerically equal to the area of the loop representing the cycle.
2. If the loop is traced clockwise, the work done is positive and work is done by the system.
3. If the loop is traced anticlockwise, the work done is negative and work is done on the system.
16. State first law of Thermodynamics.

Ans: According to the 1st Law of Thermodynamics, if
some heat is supplied to a system which is capable of
doing work, then the quantity of heat absorbed by the
system will be equal to the sum of the increase in its
internal energy and the external work done by the
system on the surroundings.
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉
1st Law of Thermodynamics is simply the law of conservation of energy.
17. Define specific heat.

Ans: The specific heat of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance through one degree. It depends on the nature of substance
143
22-23 XI PHYSICS
If an amount of heat ∆𝑄 is needed to raise the temperature of mass 𝑀 of a substance through ∆𝑇, then
specific heat is given by
∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑀 ∆𝑇
The SI unit is 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 .
18. Define molar specific heat.

Ans: The molar specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of the substance through one degree. It depends on the nature of the substance
If an amount of heat ∆𝑄 is needed to raise the temperature of 𝑛 moles of a substance through ∆𝑇, then
molar specific heat is given by
∆𝑄
𝐶=
𝑛 ∆𝑇
The SI unit is 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 .
19. Why a gas has two principal specific heat capacities?

Ans: When the gases are heated, there occurs an appreciable change in their volume. So energy is
required for expansion and we have two specific heats one at constant pressure and the other at
constant volume. In case of solids and liquids, expansion is negligible, so they have only one specific
heat i.e., at constant volume.
20. Define CP.

Ans: Molar specific heat at constant pressure: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 of a gas through 1 𝐶 at constant pressure. It is denoted by 𝐶 .
Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume

21. Define CV.
Ans: Molar specific heat at constant volume: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 of a gas through 1 𝐶 at constant volume. It is denoted by 𝐶 .
144
XI PHYSICS 22-23
22. Why CP > CV ?

Ans: When a gas is heated at constant volume, all the heat supplied is used to increase the temperature
or internal energy of the gas.
When a gas is heated at constant pressure, the gas
expands. It does work against the external pressure.
The heat supplied is used in two ways: (i) partly to
increase the internal energy and (ii) partly to do
work against external pressure. So at constant
pressure, an additional amount of heat equivalent to
word done is utilised.
23. What is an isothermal process?

Ans: An isothermal process is one in which the pressure and volume of the system changes but the
temperature of the system remains constant.
24. Derive an expression for the work done during an isothermal process.
Ans: Consider 𝑛 moles of an ideal gas contained in a cylinder having
conducting walls and provided with frictionless and movable piston, as
shown in figure. Let 𝑃 be the pressure of the gas.
Work done by the gas when the piston moves up through a small
distance 𝑑𝑥 is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional
sectional area of the piston and 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥, is the
small increase in the volume of the gas. Suppose the gas expands
isothermally form initial state (𝑃
( , 𝑉 ) to the final state (𝑃 , 𝑉 ).
The total amount of work done will be
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑊
145
22-23 XI PHYSICS
𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
For 𝑛 moles of a gas, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇, therefore

𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
𝑉
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
1
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 [ln 𝑉]
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 [ln 𝑉 − ln 𝑉 ]
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉
𝑉 𝑃
𝑊 = 2.303𝑛𝑅𝑇 log = 2.303𝑛𝑅𝑇 log
𝑉 𝑃
This is the expression for work done in isothermal process.
25. What is an adiabatic process?

Ans: An adiabatic process is one in which the pressure, volume and temperature of the system change
but there is no exchange of heat between the system and the surroundings (a = not, dia = through, bates
= heat, so the Greek word adiabatic means heat not passing through)
26. Derive an expression for the work done during an adiabatic process.
Ans: Consider 𝑛 moles of an ideal gas contained in a cylinder having insulating walls and provided
with frictionless and movable piston, as shown in figure. Let 𝑃 be the pressure of the gas.
146
XI PHYSICS 22-23
Work done by the gas when the piston moves up through a

small distance 𝑑𝑥 is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the piston and
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥, is the small increase in the volume of the gas.
Suppose the gas expands adiabatically form initial state
(𝑃 , 𝑉 ) to the final state (𝑃 , 𝑉 ).
The total amount of work done will be
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑊
𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
For an adiabatic change 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡), where 𝛾 = is the ratio of specific heats of gas.
Therefore
𝑃 = 𝐾𝑉
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑊 =𝐾 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑊 =𝐾
1−𝛾
𝐾
𝑊 = [𝑉 ]
1−𝛾
𝐾
𝑊 = 𝑉 −𝑉
1−𝛾
1
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑉 − 𝐾𝑉
𝛾−1
But, 𝐾 = 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑃 𝑉 , therefore
1
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 𝑉 −𝑃 𝑉 𝑉
𝛾−1
1
𝑊 = [𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃 𝑉 ]
𝛾−1
Also, 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
1
𝑊 = [𝑛𝑅𝑇 − 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ]
𝛾−1
𝑛𝑅
𝑊 = [𝑇 − 𝑇 ]
𝛾−1
147
22-23 XI PHYSICS
27. What are the limitations of first law of thermodynamics?

Ans: Limitations of 1st Law of Thermodynamics:
1. It does not indicate the direction of transfer of Heat.
2. It does not tell anything about the conditions under which heat can be converted into mechanical
work.
3. It does not indicate the extent to which heat energy can be converted into mechanical work
continuously.
28. State second law of Thermodynamics.

Ans: 2nd Law of Thermodynamics can be stated in two equivalent ways:
1. Kelvin-Plank statement: It is impossible to construct an engine, which will produce no effect other
than extracting heat from a reservoir and performing an equivalent amount of work.
2. Clausius statement: It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by any external agency, to
transfer heat from a body to another at higher temperature (from cold body to hot body).
29. What is a reversible process?

Ans: Any process which can be made to proceed in the reverse direction by variation in its conditions
such that any change occurring in any part of the direct process is exactly reversed in the corresponding
part of reverse process is called a reversible process.
Note: A complete reversible process is an idealised concept as it can never be realised because
dissipative forces cannot be completely eliminated.
30. What is an irreversible process?

Ans: Any process which cannot be retraced in the reverse direction exactly is called an irreversible
process. Most of the processes occurring in nature are irreversible processes.
31. What is a heat engine?

Ans: Heat engine is a device which converts continuously heat
energy into mechanical energy in a cyclic process.
32. Explain the principle and construction of a heat engine.

Ans: Principle of heat engine: A system whose various parts are at
different temperatures always tends to attain the state of thermal
equilibrium. This tendency can be utilized to deliver some work to
the surroundings via some suitable arrangement, as shown in figure.
148
XI PHYSICS 22-23
33. Explain the working of a heat engine.

Ans: In every cycle of operation, the working
substance (gas) absorbs a definite amount of
heat 𝑄 from the source at higher temperature
𝑇 , converts a part of this heat energy into
mechanical work 𝑊 and rejects the remaining
heat 𝑄 to the sink at lower temperature 𝑇 . The
work done 𝑊 in a cycle is transferred to the
environment by some arrangement e.g., the
working substance may be in a cylinder with a
moving piston that transfers mechanical energy
to the wheels of a vehicle via a shaft.
34. Define efficiency of heat engine.

Ans: The efficiency of heat engine is defined as the ratio
of the net work done by the engine in one cycle to the
amount of heat absorbed by the working substance from
the source.
𝑊
𝜂=
𝑄
where
𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑄 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
By the law of conservation of energy, 𝑄 =𝑊 +𝑄

Therefore, 𝑊 =𝑄 −𝑄
𝑊 𝑄 −𝑄
𝜂= =
𝑄 𝑄
𝑄
𝜂 =1−
𝑄
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
35. What is Carnot engine?

Ans: Carnot engine is an ideal reversible heat
engine that operates between two temperatures
𝑇 (source) and 𝑇 (sink). It was first conceived
by a French engineer, Sadi Carnot in 1824. It
operates through a series of two isothermal and
two adiabatic processes called Carnot cycle.
36. State Carnot theorem.

Ans: Carnot Theorem states that
1. No engine working between two given temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of the
Carnot engine working between the same two temperatures and
2. The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance (nature
of gas in the cylinder of engine).
37. Distinguish between the terms refrigerator and heat pump.

Ans: A Carnot engine working in the reverse direction is a refrigerator or a heat pump.
1. If the device is used to pump heat into a portion of space (the room in a building where the outside
environment is cold), then the device is called a heat pump.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
2. If the device is used to cool a portion of space,

like the inside of a chamber and higher
temperature reservoir is the surrounding, then
this device is called refrigerator.
38. Explain the working of a refrigerator.

Ans: In a refrigerator, the working substance absorbs an amount of heat 𝑄 from the cold reservoir at
temperature 𝑇 . An amount of work 𝑊 is done on it by some external agency (a compressor pump
driven by an electric motor) and rejects a larger quantity of heat 𝑄 to the source at temperature 𝑇 , as
shown in figure (a).
In domestic refrigerators, food and ice constitute the cold reservoir and the surroundings act as hot
reservoir. Work is done by an electric motor and Freon (𝐶𝐶𝑙 𝐹 ) is used as a working substance,
shown if figure (b).
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
39. Obtain an expression for the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.

Ans: Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is defined as the
ratio of the amount of heat removed (𝑄 ) per cycle to the mechanical
work (𝑊) required to be done on it.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑄
𝛽=
𝑊
By the law of conservation of energy, 𝑄 = 𝑊 + 𝑄
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑄 −𝑄
𝑄
𝛽=
𝑄 −𝑄
𝑇
𝛽=
𝑇 −𝑇
______________________________________________________________________________________
152
XI PHYSICS 22-23
13
13. KINETIC THEORY
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas.
Kinetic theory of gases- assumption, concept of pressure, Kinetic interpretation of temperature, rms speed of gas
molecules, degrees of freedom, law of equipartition of energy (statement only) and application to specific heat
capacities of gases, concept of mean free path, Avogadr
Avogadro’s number.
============================================================================
1. State Boyle’s law.

Ans: Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
1
𝑉∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 =𝑃 𝑉
2. State Charles’ law.

Ans: Charles’ law states that if the pressure
remains constant, the volume of a given
mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.
𝑉
𝑉∝𝑇 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑉 𝑉
=
𝑇 𝑇
3. State Gay Lussac’s law.

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22-23 XI PHYSICS
Ans: Gay Lussac’s law states that if the volume remains constant, the pressure of a given mass of a gas
is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
𝑃
𝑃∝𝑇 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑃 𝑃
=
𝑇 𝑇
4. State and derive perfect gas equation.

Ans: Ideal/Perfect gas equation: This equation gives the relation between pressure 𝑃 , volume 𝑉 ,
temperature 𝑇 and number of moles 𝑛 of a gas. The equation is
where 𝑅 is the universal gas constant.
Derivation:
According to Boyle’s law, for a given mass of a gas at constant temperature,
1
𝑉∝
𝑃
According to Charles’ law, for a given mass of a gas at constant pressure,
𝑉∝𝑇
Combining the above two laws,
𝑇
𝑉∝
𝑃
𝑃𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
For one mole of a gas, the constant has same value for all gases and is called universal gas constant,
denoted by 𝑅. So the above equation becomes
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
For 𝑛 moles of a gas,
5. Define universal gas constant.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
Ans: For an ideal gas,

𝑃𝑉
𝑅=
𝑛𝑇
The universal gas constant represents the work done by (or on) a gas per mole per Kelvin.
The SI unit of universal gas constant is 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 .
6. Determine the numerical value of R.

Ans: Consider one mole (𝑛 = 1) of a gas at S.T.P. (Standard Temperature and Pressure). Then
𝑃𝑉
𝑅=
𝑇
Standard Pressure is 𝑃 = 0.76 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 0.76 × 13.6 × 10 × 9.8 𝑁𝑚
Standard Temperature is 𝑇 = 273.15 𝐾
Volume of one mole of gas at S.T.P. is 𝑉 = 22.4 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 22.4 × 10 𝑚
Therefore,
(0.76 × 13.6 × 10 × 9.8) × (22.4 × 10 )
𝑅=
273.15
𝑅 = 8.31 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
7. Define Boltzmann’s constant. Determine its numerical value.

Ans: Boltzmann’s constant is defined as the gas constant per molecule of a gas. If 𝑁 is Avogadro’s
number, then
𝑅 8.31 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
𝑘 = = = 1.38 × 10 𝐽𝐾
𝑁 6.02 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙
8. State the postulates of kinetic theory of gases.

Ans: The kinetic theory of gases was developed by Clausius and Maxwell (1857-1859). This theory is
based on the following assumptions:
1. All gases consist of molecules. The molecules are rigid, elastic spheres identical in all respects for
a given gas and different for different gases.
2. The size of the molecules is negligible compared with the average distance between the molecules.
3. The molecules are in a state of continuous random motion, moving in all directions with all
possible velocities.
4. During the random motion, the molecules collide with one another and with the walls of the vessel.
During collisions, their velocities are changed in magnitude and direction.
5. The collisions are perfectly elastic and there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the
molecules. This implies that total kinetic energy is conserved.
6. Between two collisions, a molecule moves in a straight path with a uniform velocity.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
7. The collisions are almost instantaneous.

8. The molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas.
9. Explain how a gas exerts pressure.

Ans: A gas exerts pressure due to the continuous collisions of its molecules with the walls of the vessel.
10. Derive an expression for the pressure exerted by an ideal gas.

Ans: Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical vessel. Suppose
the sides of the cube are parallel to the co-ordinate axes, as
shown in figure. Let 𝑛 be the number of gas molecules per unit
volume and 𝑚 be the mass of each molecule.
A molecule moving with velocity 𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 hits the planar

wall (perpendicular to x-axis) of area 𝐴.
As the collision is elastic, the molecule rebounds with the same velocity. The 𝑦 − and 𝑧 − components
of velocity do not change while the 𝑥 − component reverses sign. So the velocity after the collision is
−𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 .
The change in momentum of the molecule = (−𝑚𝑣 ) − (𝑚𝑣 ) = −2𝑚𝑣

By the conservation of momentum, the momentum imparted to the wall in each collision = 2𝑚𝑣
In small time interval ∆𝑡, all those molecules which lie within distance 𝑣 ∆𝑡 from the wall of area 𝐴
will hit this wall in time ∆𝑡. On the average, half of such molecules are moving towards the wall and
other half away from the wall.
1
∴ Number of molecules hitting the wall of area 𝐴 in time ∆𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝑛
2
1
Total momentum transferred to the wall in time ∆𝑡 is ∆𝑝 = (2𝑚𝑣 ) × 𝑛𝐴𝑣 ∆𝑡 = 𝑛𝑚𝐴𝑣 ∆𝑡
2
∆𝑝
Force exerted on the wall of area 𝐴 = = 𝑛𝑚𝐴𝑣
∆𝑡
Force 𝑛𝑚𝐴𝑣
Pressure on the wall = = = 𝑛𝑚𝑣 or 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣
Area 𝐴
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
As molecules move with different velocities, so we replace 𝑣 by its average value 𝑣 in the above
equation. Therefore,
𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣
Again, the gas is isotropic. So the molecular velocities are almost equally distributed in different
directions. By symmetry,
1 1
𝑣 =𝑣 =𝑣 = 𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 = 𝑣
3 3
where 𝑣 is the mean square velocity of the molecules.
Hence,
1
𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑣
3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑚
Now, density of gas, 𝜌 = = = 𝑛𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1
1
∴ 𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3
1
or 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣
3
where 𝑣 = 𝑣 , is the root mean square velocity of the molecules.
11. Discuss the kinetic interpretation of temperature.

Ans: According to kinetic theory of gases, the pressure of a gas is given by
1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣
3
1𝑀
𝑃= 𝑣
3𝑉
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀𝑣
3
But 𝑀𝑣 is the average kinetic energy 𝐸 of one mole of the gas.

2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐸
3
The ideal gas equation for one mole of gas is 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
2
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇
3
3
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇
2
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
The above equation gives the mean kinetic energy of one mole of gas.
If 𝑁 is the Avogadro’s number, then the mean kinetic energy per molecule is given by
𝐸 3 𝑅𝑇 3
𝐸= = = 𝑘 𝑇
𝑁 2𝑁 2
𝑅
𝑘 = 𝑖𝑠 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁
1 3
Clearly, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘 𝑇
2 2
3𝑘 𝑇
𝑣 =
𝑚
3𝑘 𝑇
𝑣 = 𝑣 =
𝑚
𝑣 ∝ √𝑇
Thus, faster the motion of the molecules of a gas, higher will be their kinetic energy and hence higher
will be the temperature of the gas.
12. Define rms speed of gas molecules.

Ans: Root mean square speed (𝑣 ) is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of the
speeds of the individual molecules of a gas.
𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 + ……+ 𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑣 =
𝑛
3𝑘 𝑇 3𝑅𝑇 3𝑃𝑉
𝑣 = = =
𝑚 𝑀 𝑀
13. What do you mean by degrees of freedom?

Ans: The degrees of freedom of a dynamical system are defined as the total number of co-ordinates or
independent quantities required to describe completely the position and configuration (arrangement of
constituent atoms in space) of the system. For example, a particle has one translational degree of
freedom for motion in a line, two for motion in a plane and three for motion in space.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
14. State the law of equipartition of energy.

Ans: It states that in any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the energy is equally distributed
amongst its various degrees of freedom and the energy associated with each degree of freedom per
molecule is 𝑘 𝑇, where 𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature of the system.
15. Using law of equipartition of energy find the specific heat capacities (CV and CP) of a monoatomic
gas. Hence find the ratio of specific heats for it.
Ans:
Total internal energy of one mole of monoatomic gas
3 3
𝑈 = 𝑘 𝑇 × 𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2
The molar specific heat at constant volume
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 3 3
𝐶 (𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐) = = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 2
The molar specific heat at constant pressure
3 5
𝐶 (𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐) = 𝐶 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅
2 2
Specific heat ratio
5
𝐶 𝑅 5
𝛾= = 2 = = 1.67
𝐶 3 3
2 𝑅
16. What is meant by mean free path of a gas molecule?

Ans: The mean free path of a gas molecule
may be defined as the average distance
travelled by the molecule between two
successive collisions.
𝑘 𝑇
𝜆̅ =
√2𝜋𝑑 𝑃
where 𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑑 is the diameter of the spherical molecule, 𝑇 is the absolute
temperature of gas and 𝑃 is the pressure of gas.
17. What is Avogadro’s number?

Ans: Avogadro’s number is the number of atoms present in one gram atom of an element or the
number of molecules present in one gram molecule of the substance. In general, it is the number of
particles in one mole of the substance. Its most accepted value is
𝑁 = 6.023 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙
______________________________________________________________________________________
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
14. OSCILLATIONS
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Periodic motion- time period, frequency, displacement as a function of time, periodic functions and their applications.
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) and its equations of motion, phases, oscillations of a loaded spring- restoring force
and force constant, energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and potential energies, simple pendulum derivation of expression for its
time period. Free, forced and damped oscillations (qualitative ideas only), resonance
============================================================================
1. Define periodic motion.

Ans: Any motion that repeats itself over and over again at regular intervals of time is called periodic or
harmonic motion. The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its time
period (𝑇).
Example: Motion of any planet around the sun.
2. Define oscillatory motion.

Ans: If a body moves back and forth repeatedly about its mean position, its motion is said to be
oscillatory or vibratory or harmonic motion.
Example: Motion of pendulum of a clock.
3. What is simple harmonic motion (SHM)?

Ans: A particle is said to execute Simple Harmonic Motion if it moves to and fro about a mean position
under the action of a restoring force which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean
position and is always directed towards the mean position.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹∝𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Here, 𝑘 is a positive constant called force constant or spring factor and is defined as the restoring force
produced per unit displacement. The SI unit of 𝑘 is 𝑁𝑚 . The negative sign in the above equation
shows that the restoring force 𝐹 always acts in the opposite direction of the displacement 𝑥.
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
4. State some important characteristics of SHM.

Ans: Some important characteristics of SHM:
1. The motion of the particle is periodic.
2. It is the oscillatory motion of simplest kind in which the particle oscillates back and forth about its
mean position with constant amplitude and fixed frequency.
3. Restoring force acting on the particle is proportional to its displacement from the mean position.
4. The force acting on the particle always opposes the increase in its displacement.
5. A simple harmonic motion can always be expressed in terms of a single harmonic function of sine
or cosine.
5. Write down the differential equation of SHM.

Ans: In SHM, the restoring force acting on the particle is proportional to its displacement. Thus,
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
By Newton’s second law,
𝑑 𝑥
𝐹=𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Therefore,
𝑑 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘
=− 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑘
Put =ω , then
𝑚
𝑑 𝑥
= −𝜔 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑥
+𝜔 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡
This is the differential equation of SHM. Here 𝜔 is the angular frequency. The solution of above
equation is
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
It gives the displacement of the particle at any instant 𝑡.
6. Write an expression for the displacement of the harmonic oscillator at any instant ‘t’.
Ans: Differential equation of SHM is
𝑑 𝑥
+𝜔 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡
Its general solution is,
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
It gives the displacement of the particle at any instant 𝑡. Here 𝐴 is the amplitude of the oscillation, 𝜔 is
the angular frequency and 𝜙 is the initial phase (at 𝑡 = 0) of epoch.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
7. Define the terms harmonic oscillator, displacement, amplitude, cycle, time period, frequency
angular frequency, phase and epoch with reference to oscillatory motion.
Ans:
Harmonic Oscillator: A particle executing simple harmonic motion is called harmonic oscillator.
Displacement: The distance of the oscillating particle from its mean position at any instant is called its
displacement. It is denoted by 𝑥.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the oscillating particle on either side of its mean position is
called its amplitude. It is denoted by 𝐴. Thus 𝑥 = ±𝐴.
Cycle: One complete back and forth motion of a particle starting and ending at the same point is called
a cycle or oscillation or vibration.
Time period: The time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation is called its time period. It is
denoted by 𝑇.
Frequency: It is defined as the number of oscillations completed per unit time by a particle. It is
denoted by 𝜐 (𝑛𝑢).
1
𝜐=
𝑇
Angular frequency: It is the quantity obtained by multiplying frequency 𝜐 by a factor of 2𝜋. It is
denoted by 𝜔.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐
Phase: The phase of a vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle as regards its
position and the direction of motion at that instant. It is denoted by 𝜙.
𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
Initial phase or epoch: The phase of a vibrating particle corresponding to time 𝑡 = 0 is called initial
phase or epoch.
At t = 0, 𝜙 = 𝜙
8. Derive an expression for the velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator.
Ans: For a particle executing SHM,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣= = −𝜔𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎= = −𝜔 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 ) or 𝑎 = −𝜔 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
9. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Ans: Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣
2
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 )
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔 (𝐴 − 𝑥 )
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑘(𝐴 − 𝑥 )
2
10. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.
Ans: When the displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position is 𝑥, the restoring force on it is
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
If we displace the particle further through a small distance 𝑑𝑥, then work done against the restoring
force is
𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The total work done in moving the particle from the mean position (𝑥 = 0) to displacement 𝑥 is given
by
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊
𝑊= 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑊=𝑘
2
1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥
2
This work done against the restoring force is stored as the potential energy of the particle.
Hence potential energy of a particle at displacement 𝑥 is given by
1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2
11. Find the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Ans: At any displacement 𝑥, the total energy of the harmonic oscillator is given by
𝐸 =𝐾+𝑈
1 1
𝐸= 𝑘(𝐴 − 𝑥 ) + 𝑘𝑥
2 2
1
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴
2
12. Show that the horizontal oscillations of a massless loaded spring are simple harmonic.
Ans: Consider a massless spring lying on a frictionless horizontal table. Its one end is attached to a
rigid support and the other end to a body of mass 𝑚. If the body is pulled towards right through a small
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
distance 𝑥 and released, it starts oscillating back and forth about its equilibrium position under the
action of the restoring force of elasticity,
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
where 𝑘 is the force constant of the spring. The negative sign indicates that the force is directed
oppositely to 𝑥.
If 𝑎 is the acceleration of the body, then
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎=− 𝑥 = −𝜔 𝑥
𝑚
𝑎∝𝑥
Thus the body executes simple harmonic motion. Its
time period is given by
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚
𝑇= = = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝑘
𝑘
𝑚
Its frequency is
1 1 𝑘
𝜐= =
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚
13. Show that for small oscillations the motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic. Hence find its
time period.
Ans: Consider a simple pendulum of a point mass 𝑚 suspended
by a flexible, inelastic and weightless string of length 𝑙 from a
rigid support, as shown in figure.
Suppose at any instant, the bob lies at position 𝐴 when its

displacement is 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥 from the mean position 𝑂, makes an
angle 𝜃 with the vertical. The forces acting on the bob are
1. Weight 𝑚𝑔 of the bob acting vertically downwards.
2. Tension 𝑇 along the string.
The force 𝑚𝑔 has two components

1. The component 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 acting along the thread is balanced by the tension 𝑇 in the thread.
2. The tangential component 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 is the net force acting on the bob and tends to bring back the
pendulum to the mean position. Thus, the restoring force is
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑥
If 𝜃 is small, then 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 = = . Therefore,
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑙
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔
𝑙
𝑥
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔
𝑙
𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑙
𝑎 = −𝜔 𝑥
𝑎∝𝑥
Thus, the acceleration of the bob is proportional to its displacement 𝑥 and is directed opposite to it.
Hence, for small oscillations, the motion of the bob is simple harmonic. Its time period is
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑙
𝑇= = = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑙
𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔
𝑇 ∝ √𝑙
Thus, the time period of a simple pendulum depends upon its length and is independent of mass of the
bob.
14. Does the time period of a simple pendulum depend upon mass of the bob?
Ans: Time period of a simple pendulum is given by
𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔
The time period of a simple pendulum depends upon its length and is independent of mass of the bob.
15. What are free oscillations?

Ans: If a body, capable of oscillation, is slightly displaced from its position of equilibrium and left to
itself, it starts oscillating with a frequency of its own. Such oscillations are called free oscillations.
In the absence of dissipative forces, such a body vibrates with a constant amplitude and fixed frequency
as shown in figure. Such oscillations are also called undamped oscillations.
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
16. What are damped oscillations?

Ans: The oscillations in which the amplitude decreases gradually with the passage of time are called
damped oscillations. In most of the oscillations, a part of the energy of the oscillating system is lost in
the form of heat, in overcoming resistive forces. As a result, the amplitude of such oscillations
decreases exponentially with time, as shown in figure. eventually, these oscillations die out.
17. What are forced oscillations?

Ans: When a body oscillates under the
influence of an external periodic force, not
with its own natural frequency but with the
frequency of the external periodic force, its
oscillations are said to be forced oscillations.
The external agent which exerts the periodic
force is called the driver and the oscillating
system under consideration is called the
driven body.
18. What are resonant oscillations?

Or
What is resonance?
Ans: It is a particular case of forced
oscillations in which the frequency of the
driving force is equal to the natural frequency
of the oscillator itself and the amplitude of
oscillations is very large. Such oscillations
are called resonant oscillations and
phenomenon is called resonance.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
15. WAVES
1 O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 O 6 O 7 O 8 O 9 O 10 O 11 O 12 O 13 O
14 O 15 O 16 O 17 O 18 O 19 O 20 O 21 O
______________________________________________________________________________________
Syllabus -2022-23
Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal waves, speed of travelling wave, displacement relation for a progressive
wave, principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing waves in strings and organ pipes,
fundamental mode and harmonics, Beats, Doppler effect.
============================================================================
1. What is wave motion?

Ans: Wave motion is a kind of disturbance which travels through a medium due to repeated vibrations
of the particles of the medium about their mean positions, the disturbance being handed over from one
particle to the next.
Note:
In a wave, both information and energy propagate from one point to another but there is no motion of
matter as a whole through a medium.
2. Define Transverse waves.

Ans: Transverse waves are the waves in which the individual particles of the medium oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Figure shows transverse waves in a string:
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22-23 XI PHYSICS
3. Define Longitudinal waves.

Ans: Longitudinal waves are the waves in which the individual particles of the medium oscillate along
the direction of wave propagation.
Figure shows longitudinal waves (sound waves) in air
4. Mention the important properties which a medium must possess for the propagation of mechanical
waves through it.
Ans: Essential properties of a medium for the propagation of mechanical waves:
1. Elasticity
2. Inertia
3. Minimum friction.
5. Define the terms amplitude, time period, frequency, angular frequency, wavelength, wave number,
angular wave number and wave velocity.
Ans: Important definitions in connection with wave motion:
1. Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement suffered by the particles of the medium about their
mean positions. It is denoted by 𝐴.
2. Time period: The time period of a wave is the time in which a particle of the medium completes
one vibration to and fro about its mean position. It is denoted by 𝑇.
3. Frequency: The frequency of a wave is the number of waves produced per unit time in the given
medium. It is equal to the number of oscillations completed per unit time by any particle of the
medium. It is equal to the reciprocal of time period 𝑇 and is denoted by 𝜐.
1
𝜐=
𝑇
SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
4. Angular frequency: The rate of change of phase with time is called angular frequency of the wave.
It is denoted by 𝜔.
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
SI unit of 𝜔 is 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 .
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XI PHYSICS 22-23
5. Wavelength: It is the distance covered by a wave during the time in which a particle of the medium
completes one vibration to and fro about its mean position.
OR
It is the distance between two nearest particles of the medium which are vibrating in the same
phase. It is denoted by 𝜆.
6. Wave number: The number of waves present in a unit distance of the medium is called wave
number. It is equal to the reciprocal of wavelength. Ti is denoted by 𝜐̅ .
1
𝜐̅ =
𝜆
SI unit of wave number is 𝑚 .
7. Angular wave number or propagation constant: The quantity 2𝜋/𝜆 is called angular wave number
or propagation constant of a wave. It represents the phase change per unit path difference. It is
denoted by 𝑘.
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
SI unit of 𝑘 is 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑚 .
8. Wave velocity or phase velocity: The distance covered by a wave per unit time in its direction of
propagation is called its wave velocity or phase velocity. It is denoted by 𝑣.
6. Derive relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength of a wave.

Ans: Distance travelled by a wave in one time period is equal to its wave length. Therefore, speed of
wave is
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜆
𝑣= = 𝜐𝜆
𝑇
7. Write the formula for the speed of transverse waves on a stretched string.
Ans: Speed of transverse wave on a stretched string is
𝑇
𝑣=
𝑚
where 𝑇 is the tension in the string and 𝑚 is mass per unit length or linear mass density.
169
22-23 XI PHYSICS
8. Write Newton’s formula for the speed of sound in air.

air. What correction was made by Laplace in this
formula?
Ans: Newton assumed that sound waves travel through a gas under isothermal conditions. If 𝜅 is the
isothermal volume elasticity (bulk modulus of the gas at constant temperature) and 𝜌 is the density of
gas,, then the speed of sound in the gas will be
𝜅
𝑣=
𝜌
By this formula, the speed of sound comes out to be about 15 % less than the experimental value.
Laplace’s correction: According to Laplace, the sound travels through a gas under adiabatic conditions.
If 𝜅 is the adiabatic bulk modulus of the gas, then the formula for the speed of sound in the gas
would be
𝜅
𝑣=
𝜌
This gives the value in close agreement with the experimental value.
9. What is a progressive wave?

Ans: A wave that travels from one point of the medium to another is called a progressive wave.
10. Write the displacement relation for a plane progressive wave.

Ans: Suppose a simple harmonic wave starts from the origin and travels along the positive direction of
X-axis with speed 𝑣.
The displacement relation for this wave is
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡
where
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
2𝜋
𝜔= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑘= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜆
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
11. State the principle of superposition of waves.

Ans: The principle of superposition of waves states that when a number of waves travel through a
medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement of any particle of the medium at any given ttime is
equal to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to the individual waves.
170
XI PHYSICS 22-23
If 𝑦⃗ , 𝑦⃗ , 𝑦⃗ , . . . . . . , 𝑦⃗ are the displacements due to 𝑛 waves superposing each other at a point, then the
resultant displacement at that point will be
𝑦⃗ = 𝑦⃗ + 𝑦⃗ + 𝑦⃗ + … … + 𝑦⃗
12. Explain the phenomenon of reflection of waves by considering a wave pulse travelling along a
string, whose one end is (i) fixed to a rigid support (ii) tied to a ring which can freely slide up and
down a vertical rod. What is the phase change in each case?
Ans:
1. Reflection of wave from a rigid boundary:
As shown in figure, consider a wave pulse
travelling along a string (rarer medium)
attached to a rigid support, such as a wall
(denser medium). Due to reaction of the
wall, the incident crest is reflected back as a
trough. Hence, when a travelling wave is
reflected from a rigid boundary, it is
reflected back with a phase reversal or phase
difference of π radians.
2. Reflection of a wave from a open boundary:

As shown in figure, when a travelling wave
is reflected from a free or open boundary, it
suffers no phase change.
13. What are stationary waves?

Ans: When two identical waves of same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite directions with
the same speed along the same path superpose each other, the resultant wave does not travel in the
either direction and is called stationary or standing wave.
At some points, the particles of the medium always
remain at rest. These are called nodes. At some other
points, the particles of the medium oscillate with
maximum amplitude. These are called antinodes.
171
22-23 XI PHYSICS
14. Write the important characteristics of stationary waves.

Ans: Characteristics of stationary waves:
1. In a stationary wave the disturbance does not advance
forward.
2. All particles, except at nodes, vibrate simple
harmonically with the same time period.
3. The amplitude of vibrations varies gradually from zero
at the nodes to the maximum at the antinodes.
4. The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is 𝜆/2.
5. The maximum velocity is different at different points. Its value is zero at the nodes and
progressively increases towards the antinodes.
6. There is no transfer of energy across any nodal plane of the medium.
15. Discuss the formation of standing waves in a string fixed at both ends and the different modes of
vibrations.
Ans: On a stretched string, transverse stationary waves are formed due to superposition of direct and
reflected transverse waves.
Consider a string of length 𝐿,, stretched under
tension 𝑇. Let 𝑚 be the mass per unit length of
the string. The speed of the transverse wave on
the string will be
𝑇
𝑣=
𝑚
As the two ends of the string are fixed, they

remain at rest. So there is a node 𝑁 at each end.
The different modes of vibration of stretched
string fixed at both the ends are shown in
figure. These special patterns are called normal
modes.
First mode of vibration: If the string is plucked

in the middle and released, it vibrates in one
segment with nodes at its ends and an antinode
in the middle.
Here length of the string

𝜆
𝐿= 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 2𝐿
2
172
XI PHYSICS 22-23
∴ Frequency of vibration,
𝑣 1 𝑇
𝜐 = = = 𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 2𝐿 𝑚
This is the minimum frequency with which the string can vibrate and is called fundamental note or first
harmonic.
Second mode of vibration: If the string is pressed in the middle and plucked at one-fourth length, then
the string vibrates in two segments.
𝜆
𝐿 = 2. 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 =𝐿
2
𝑣 1 𝑇
𝜐 = = = 2𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 𝐿 𝑚
This frequency is called first overtone or second harmonic.
Third mode of vibration: If the string is pressed at one third of its length from one end and plucked at
one-sixth length, then the string vibrates in three segments.
𝜆 2𝐿
𝐿 = 3. 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 =
2 3
𝑣 3 𝑇
𝜐 = = = 3𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 2𝐿 𝑚
This frequency is called second overtone or third harmonic, and so on.
16. What is an organ pipe? What are open and closed organ pipe?
Ans: Organ pipe is the simplest musical
instrument in which sound is produced by setting
an air column into vibrations. Longitudinal
stationary waves are produced on account of
superposition of incident and reflected stationary
waves.
If both the ends of the pipe are open, it is called an
open pipe. If one end of the pipe is closed, it is
called closed pipe.
173
22-23 XI PHYSICS
17. Discuss the formation of standing waves in an open organ pipe. Hence discuss the different modes
of vibrations and harmonics.
Ans:
Both the ends off an open organ pipe are
open. The waves are reflected from these
ends without change of type. The particles
have maximum displacements at the open
ends. Hence, antinodes are formed at the
open ends. The various modes of vibration
of an open organ pipe are shown in figure.
First mode of vibration:: In the simplest

mode of vibration, there is one node in the
middle and two antinodes at the ends of the
pipe.
Here, length of the pipe,

𝜆 𝜆
𝐿 = 2. = ∴ 𝜆 = 2𝐿
4 2
Frequency of vibration,
𝑣 1 𝛾𝑃
𝜐 = = = 𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 2𝐿 𝜌
This frequency is called fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
Second mode of vibration:: Here antinodes at the open ends are separated by two nodes and one
antinode.

𝜆
𝐿 = 4. =𝜆 ∴ 𝜆 =𝐿
4
𝑣 1 𝛾𝑃
𝜐 = = = 2𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 𝐿 𝜌
This frequency is called first overtone or second harmonic.
Third mode of vibration:: Here antinodes at the open ends are separated by three nodes and two
antinodes.
174
XI PHYSICS 22-23

𝜆 3𝜆 2𝐿
𝐿 = 6. = ∴ 𝜆 =
4 2 3
𝑣 3 𝛾𝑃
𝜐 = = = 3𝜐 (𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜆 2𝐿 𝜌
This frequency is called second overtone or third harmonic.

Hence, various frequencies of an open organ pipe are in the ratio 1:2:3:4….. That is both odd and even
harmonics are present.
Note: In case of closed organ pipe (closed at one end), only odd harmonics are present.
18. What are beats?

Ans: When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling along the same path in the
same direction in a medium superpose upon each other, the intensity of the resultant sound at any point
in the medium rises and falls alternately with time. These periodic variations in the intensity of sound
caused by the superposition of two sound waves of slightly different frequencies are called beats. One
rise and one fall of intensity constitute one beat.
19. Define beat frequency.

Ans: The number of beats produced per second is called beat frequency.
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝜐 =𝜐 −𝜐
175
22-23 XI PHYSICS
20. What is Doppler Effect?

Ans: The apparent change in the frequency of sound when the source, the observer and the medium are
in relative motion is called Doppler Effect.
For example, consider a woman standing on a

railway platform. When a train, blowing its
whistle, approaches her, the pitch of the
whistle appears to rise and it suddenly appears
to drop as the engine moves away from her.
21. Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency of sound when the source is moving towards the
stationary observer with a uniform velocity.
Ans:
Consider a source S moving with speed 𝑣 towards an observer O who is at rest, as shown in figure
below:
If 𝜐 is the frequency of vibration of the source, then it sends out sound waves with speed 𝑣 at a regular
interval of 𝑇 = 1⁄𝜐.
176
XI PHYSICS 22-23
At time 𝑡 = 0, suppose the source is at distance 𝐿 from the observer and emits a compression pulse. It
reaches the observer at time,
𝐿
𝑡 =
𝑣
The source emits next compression pulse after time 𝑇. In the mean time, the source has moved a
distance 𝑣 𝑇 towards the observer and is now at distance 𝐿 − 𝑣 𝑇 from the observer. The second
compression pulse reaches the observer at time,
𝐿−𝑣 𝑇
𝑡 =𝑇+
𝑣
The time interval between two successive compression pulses or the period of the wave as detected by
the observer is
𝑇ʹ = 𝑡 − 𝑡
𝐿−𝑣 𝑇 𝐿
𝑇ʹ = 𝑇 + −
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣
𝑇ʹ = 1 − 𝑇
𝑣
𝑣−𝑣
𝑇ʹ = 𝑇
𝑣
The apparent frequency of the sound as heard by the observer is

1 𝑣 1
𝜐ʹ = = .
𝑇ʹ 𝑣−𝑣 𝑇
𝑣
𝜐ʹ = .𝜐
𝑣−𝑣
Clearly, 𝜐ʹ > 𝜐. Hence, the pitch of sound appears to increase when the source moves towards the
stationary observer.
______________________________________________________________________________________
177

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XI PHYSICS

MARK DISTRIBUTION OF CHAPTERS ................................................................................................................ 3

MARK DISTRIBUTION OF CHAPTERS

3 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 32 23

6 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 21 14

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL

9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 17

10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 41 24

11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 26 20

TOTAL 403 160 70

UNIT I: PHYSICAL WORLD AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER 2: Need for measurement, units of measurement, system of units, SI

UNIT III: LAWS OF MOTION

CHAPTER 5: Intuitive concept of force, Inertia, Newton’s first law of motion,

UNIT IV: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

CHAPTER 11: Heat, temperature thermal expansion, thermal expansion of

CHAPTER 14: Periodic motion- time period, frequency, displacement as a

2. 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐺) = 6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 / 𝑘𝑔 .

3. 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑅) = 8.314 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 .

4. 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑁 ) = 6.023 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 .

5. 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘 ) = 1.38 × 10 𝐽/𝐾.

6. 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝜎) = 5.67 × 10 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 .

7. 𝑊𝑖𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑏) = 2.9 × 10 𝑚 𝐾.

8. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 (𝑀 ) = 2 × 10 𝑘𝑔.

9. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑀 ) = 5.98 × 10 𝑘𝑔

10. 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ (𝑅 ) = 6400 𝐾𝑚 = 6.4 × 10 𝑚.

11. 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 1.5 × 10 𝑚.

12. 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 3.84 × 10 𝑚.

1 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 9.46 × 10 𝑚.

1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1000 𝑘𝑔

1 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 0.4536 𝑘𝑔 = 453.6 𝑔𝑚

1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1 𝑢 = 1.66 × 10 kg

1 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 746 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡.

1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 10 Nm = 10 Pa

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥

𝐼𝑓 |𝑥| << 1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (1 + 𝑥) ≅ 1 + 𝑛𝑥.

3. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝐷

5. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)

7. 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙

9. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 6 × (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)

10. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 = (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)

Fundamental Trigonometric relations

3. sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 1 , 1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 , 1 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃

𝑑[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) ± … . ] 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)

𝑑{𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)} 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)

8. sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐

9. cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 + 𝑐

Physics (042) 100 Marks

Time Allowed: Three hours Max. Marks: 30

Two experiments one from each section (7 + 7) Marks

EXAM PATTERN OF 2021

SECTION S. NO. QUESTION TYPE MARKS

Total internal choices questions 12

WHY TO CHOOSE PHYSICS AS A CAREER?

1. 3 Reasons Why YOU Should Study PHYSICS

2. Discuss the scope of physics by looking at its various sub-disciplines.

3. The scope of physics is truly vast. Elaborate.

4. Physics is a science of excitement. How?

6. What is gravitational force?

7. What is electromagnetic force?

8. What is strong nuclear force?