CE 623A: Experimental Methods in

Structural Engineering
Lecture Notes

Chinmoy Kolay
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kanpur 208016

January 11, 2023

Contents

Course Outline 1

Safety Guidelines 3

Report Writing Guidelines 5

1 Introduction 8
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Course Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Laboratory Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Some Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Strain Measurements 16
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 ERSG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 Types of ERSG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Effects of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Transverse Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Strain Analysis and Rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.1 Tee Rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.2 Rectangular Rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6.3 Delta Rosette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6.4 Correction for Principla Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.5 Plane Shear Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

i
CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Strain Measurements
CE 623A: Experimental Methods in Structural Engineering

Chinmoy Kolay
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

Contents

1. Introduction

2022-23-II Semester 16 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Strain-Displacement Relationships
❑ State of strain may be characterized
by 6 cartesian components or

❑ By 3 principal components with

associated 3 principal directions

❑ Six cartesian components:

➢ Normal strains
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
• 𝜖𝑥𝑥 = ; 𝜖𝑦𝑦 = ; 𝜖𝑧𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

➢ Shear strains [Figure from Dally & Riley]

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
• 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + ;𝛾 = + ;𝛾 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

Strain Measurements
❑ Strain-gauge applications are confined to free surfaces

❑ 2D state of stress in x-y plane can be expressed in terms of 𝜖𝑥𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦

❑ 𝜖𝑥𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are slopes of displacement surfaces 𝑢 and 𝑣

❑ However, in-plane displacements 𝑢 and 𝑣 are so small that they cannot be

measured over entire surface

Strain Measurements (cont.)

❑ One displacement component is
usually measured over a small
region
𝑙𝑥 −𝑙0 Δ𝑢
❑ 𝜖𝑥𝑥 = =
𝑙0 Δ𝑥
Before deformation

❑ Measured strain is not exact as it is

determined over a finite length 𝑙0

❑ Error depends on strain gradient After deformation

and gauge length 𝑙0 [Figure from Dally & Riley]

2022-23-II Semester 17 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Error Due to Strain Gradient and Gauge Length 𝒍𝟎

❑ Let the strain be determined at the ❑ Strain quadratic
center of line segment 𝜖𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝑘3
❑ Strain constant: 𝜖𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘1 ➢ Error is introduced because
➢ No error 𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≠ 𝜖𝑥𝑥 ቚ 𝑙
𝑥= 20

❑ Strain varying linearly 1 𝑙0

𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝑘3
𝜖𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑙0 0
➢ No error because 𝑘1 𝑙02 𝑘2 𝑙0
= + + 𝑘3
𝑙
3 2
0
‫׬‬0 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝑘2 𝑑𝑥 𝑙0 𝑘1 𝑙02 𝑘2 𝑙0
𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝜖𝑥𝑥 ቚ = + + 𝑘3
𝑙0 2 𝑙
𝑥= 20 4 2
= 𝜖𝑥𝑥 ቚ 𝑙
𝑥= 0 𝑘1 𝑙02
2 ➢ Error 𝑒 = 𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝜖𝑥𝑥 ȁ𝑥=𝑙0 =
2
12

Error Due to Strain Gradient and Gauge Length 𝒍𝟎 (cont.)

❑ Strain quadratic: 𝜖𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘1 𝑥 2 + 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝑘3
➢ Error: 𝑒 ∝ 𝑘1 and 𝑒 ∝ 𝑙02
➢ For sharp gradient, 𝑘1 will be large and error will be more unless 𝑙0 is
reduced to an absolute minimum

❑ For any other distribution error can be analyzed

❑ Conclusion
➢ Error is introduced if the strain variation is nonlinear

❑ Great efforts have been made to reduce the gauge length 𝑙0

Gauge Length
❑ Challenges in reducing gauge length
➢ Mechanical difficulties
➢ Strain to be measured is a small quantity
• Say, you want to measure strain with an accuracy of ±1 𝜇𝜖 over a gage length of 3 mm
• The strain gauge must measure corresponding displacement to an accuracy of ±1 ×
10−6 × 3 = ±3 × 10−6 mm

❑ Smallest gauges commercially available are of electrical-resistance type strain

gauges (ERSG)

2022-23-II Semester 18 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Gauge Length (cont.)

❑ ERSG gauge length range: 0.2 – 120 mm
➢ For general structural applications use 2 – 5 mm gauges

[https://www.kyowa-ei.com/eng/technical/strain_gages/selection_chart.html]

10

Types of Strain Gauges

❑ Four types of gauges are typically used
➢ Mechanical
➢ Optical
➢ Electrical
➢ Acoustical

11

Types of Strain Gauges (cont.)

❑ Mechanical strain gauges
➢ Uses levers, gears or similar means for magnification of strain

Whittemore strain gauge

[National Institute of Standards and Technology Digital Collections, Gaithersburg, MD 20899
https://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15421coll3/id/393/]

12

2022-23-II Semester 19 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

2. ERSG

13

Electrical Strain Gauges

❑ Principle:
➢ Change in some electrical characteristic of gauge material caused by strain
in specimen on which gauge is mounted

❑ Electrical variables that can be considered

➢ Resistance, 𝑅
➢ Capacitance, 𝐶
➢ Inductance, 𝐿

❑ Electrical resistance strain gauges are the most commonly used gauges

14

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

❑ Brief history of ERSG
➢ In 1856 William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) discovered:
• Resistance of wire changes as a function of strain
• Different materials have different sensitivities
• Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure these resistance changes accurately
➢ In 1938, Simmons at Caltech and Ruge at MIT discovered independently
that fine wire bonded directly to a surface would respond to surface strain
➢ First strain gauge manufacturer in the US was Baldwin Lima Hamilton
Corporation (now BLH Electronics)
• Strain gauges were designated as SR-4 gauges, named after Simmons and Ruge

15

2022-23-II Semester 20 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges (cont.)

❑ ERSG has revolutionized instrumentation in labs and industry

❑ Today, bonded-foil gauge monitored with a Wheatstone bridge has become a

highly perfected measuring system

16

Basic Principle of ERSG

𝐿 𝜋𝐷 2
❑ Resistance of a conductor 𝑅 = 𝜌 ❑ For circular c/s with 𝐴 = gives
𝐴 4
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐷
➢ 𝐿 = length =2
𝐴 𝐷
➢ 𝐴 = cross-sectional area ➢ 𝐷 = diameter of conductor
➢ 𝜌 = specific resistance (resistivity)
❑ Thus, we get
of the material
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌
➢ = 𝜖 1 + 2𝜇 +
❑ Differentiating we get 𝑅 𝜌
𝑑𝐷Τ𝐷
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐴 • Where Poisson’s ratio, 𝜇 = −
➢ = + − 𝑑𝐿Τ𝐿
𝑅 𝜌 𝐿 𝐴

17

Basic Principle of ERSG (cont.)

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌
❑ = 𝜖 1 + 2𝜇 +
𝑅 𝜌

change in resistance per unit resistance

❑ Gauge factor, 𝐹 = change in length per unit length

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌
𝑅 𝜌
❑ 𝐹= = 1 + 2𝜇 +
𝜖 𝜖

1 Δ𝑅
❑ Local strain 𝜖 =
𝐹 𝑅
➢ 𝐹 and 𝑅 values are given by manufacturer
➢ User only needs to measure ΔR

18

2022-23-II Semester 21 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Basic Principle of ERSG (cont.)

❑ If the resistivity does not vary with strain, we get
➢ 𝐹 = 1 + 2𝜇

❑ For a typical value of 𝜇 = 0.3, we get

➢ 𝐹 = 1.6

❑ If resistance material is strained to its plastic region, 𝜇 = 0.5 and resistivity

remains essentially constant
➢ This leads to 𝐹 = 2

❑ For most commercial strain gauges 𝐹~2

❑ Gauge factors for materials vary from −140 to +175

19

Basic Principle of ERSG (cont.)

𝑅 = 350 ± 1 Ω
𝐹 = 2.07 ± 1%

20

Characteristics of Good ERSG

❑ High gauge factor

❑ High resistance per unit length

❑ Gauge factor must be stable over a wide range of temperatures

❑ Resistance should be function of strain only

❑ Large strain range

21

2022-23-II Semester 22 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Characteristics of ERSG Materials

[Table from Holman]

22

Types of ERSG
❑ Bonded wire type
➢ Wire sizes of 12 – 25 𝜇m
➢ Base materials of paper, Bakelite and epoxy film

❑ Foil type (most commonly used)

➢ Foils are less than 0.025 mm thick
➢ Etched on metal foil like PCBs

❑ Semiconductor type
➢ Uses silicon base material
➢ Brittle wafers of thickness about 0.25 mm
➢ High gauge factor (𝐹~100)
[Figures from Holman]

23

Structure of a Foil Strain Gauge

https://www.kyowa-ei.com/eng/technical/strain_gages/principles.html

24

2022-23-II Semester 23 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Strain Gauge Bonding Procedure

https://www.kyowa-ei.com/eng/product/movie/strain_gages/strain_gages_01.html

25

ERSG Installation
❑ Two important points
Gauge 1

➢ Surface must be absolutely clean Gauge 2

➢ Allow sufficient time for curing of adhesive

➢ It may have hardened around the edges, but may still be wet under the
gauge

❑ Problem associated with strain gauge installation

➢ Temperature effects
➢ Moisture effects
➢ Wire problems

26

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge

❑ ERSG uses the principle of Wheatstone bridge

❑ 4 resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4

❑ Excitation voltage = 𝑉

❑ Bridge output voltage = 𝐸

Wheatstone bridge circuit

❑ Assumptions
➢ Source resistance of voltage supply is negligibly small
➢ Internal resistance of instrument for measuring bridge output voltage is
very high

27

2022-23-II Semester 24 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

❑ Voltage drop across 𝑅1 , 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑖1 𝑅1
𝑉
❑ Now, 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑖1 𝑖2
❑ Therefore, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉 𝑖4 𝑖3
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑅4
❑ Similarly, 𝑉𝐴𝐷 = 𝑉
𝑅3 +𝑅4
Wheatstone bridge circuit

28

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

❑ Output voltage 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵𝐷 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴𝐷
𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅1 𝑅3 −𝑅2 𝑅4
❑ 𝐸= − 𝑉= 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅4

❑ Balanced condition: 𝐸 = 0 gives

➢ 𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅4 or,
𝑅1 𝑅4
➢ =
𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑖4 𝑖3

Wheatstone bridge circuit

29

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

❑ Consider an initially balanced bridge (i.e., 𝐸 = 0)
➢ 𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅4

❑ Now, each resistance is changed by a ΔR amount

❑ Voltage output Δ𝐸:

(𝑅1 +Δ𝑅1 ) 𝑅3 +Δ𝑅3 −(𝑅2 +Δ𝑅2 )(𝑅4 +Δ𝑅4 ) 𝐴
❑ Δ𝐸 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 (say)
𝑅1 +Δ𝑅1 +𝑅2 +Δ𝑅2 𝑅3 +Δ𝑅3 +𝑅4 +Δ𝑅4 𝐵

30

2022-23-II Semester 25 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

❑ 𝐴 = (𝑅1 +Δ𝑅1 ) 𝑅3 + Δ𝑅3 − (𝑅2 +Δ𝑅2 )(𝑅4 + ΔR 4 )
Δ𝑅1 Δ𝑅2 Δ𝑅3 Δ𝑅4
≈ 𝑅1 𝑅3 − + −
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

➢ Second order terms (e.g., Δ𝑅1 Δ𝑅3 ) have been neglected

31

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

𝑅1 𝑅3 2
❑ 𝐵 = 𝑅1 + Δ𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + Δ𝑅2 𝑅3 + Δ𝑅3 + 𝑅4 + Δ𝑅4 ≈ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2

➢ Second order terms (e.g., Δ𝑅1 Δ𝑅3 ) have been neglected, and
➢ First order terms (e.g., 𝑅1 Δ𝑅3 ) have also been neglected because their values
are much smaller compared with other terms (e.g., 𝑅1 𝑅3 )

32

ERSG Circuit: Wheatstone Bridge (cont.)

𝐴 𝑅1 𝑅2 Δ𝑅1 Δ𝑅2 Δ𝑅3 Δ𝑅4
❑ Thus, Δ𝐸 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 − + −
𝐵 𝑅1 +𝑅2 2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

❑ In many cases, bridge circuit is made up of equal resistances

𝐹𝑉
❑ Therefore, Δ𝐸 = 𝜖1 − 𝜖2 + 𝜖3 − 𝜖4
4
Δ𝑅Τ𝑅
➢ Where 𝐹 = = gauge factor
𝜖
➢ Bridge output is proportional to sum of strain in opposite arms and to
difference of strain in adjacent arms

33

2022-23-II Semester 26 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Typical Strain Gauge Applications

❑ Wheatstone bridge has four arms

❑ Often one or two arms are used to measure strains

❑ Three possible circuits:

➢ Full bridge: four active gauges
➢ Half bridge: two active gauges or one active and one dummy gauge
➢ Quarter bridge: one active gauge

34

Full Bridge Circuit

❑ Bridge output 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐹𝑉
➢ Δ𝐸 = 𝜖1 − 𝜖2 + 𝜖3 − 𝜖4
4
𝑅4 𝑅3
❑ Full bridge in beam bending
➢ 𝜖1 = 𝜖3 = −𝜖2 = −𝜖4 = 𝜖 (say)
𝑅1 𝑅2
➢ Δ𝐸 = 𝐹𝑉𝜖
Δ𝐸

➢ Bridge sensitivity
𝑅4 𝑅3
Δ𝐸 𝑉
➢ 𝑆= = 𝐹𝑉
𝜖 https://www.kyowa-
ei.com/eng/file/download/technica
l/strain_gages/pdf_index_001_eng.
pdf

[Figure from Dally and Riley]

Full bridge in beam bending

35

Full Bridge Circuit (cont.)

❑ Load cell application 𝑅1 𝑅2
➢ 𝜖1 = 𝜖3 = 𝜖 (say)
➢ 𝜖2 = 𝜖4 = −𝜇𝜖 (due to Poisson effect) 𝑅4 𝑅3

𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉
➢ Δ𝐸 = 𝜖 + 𝜇𝜖 + 𝜖 + 𝜇𝜖 = 1+𝜇 𝜖
4 2
➢ Bridge sensitivity
Δ𝐸 𝐹𝑉
➢ 𝑆= = 1+𝜇
𝜖 2

[Figure from Mihai]

36

2022-23-II Semester 27 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Half Bridge Circuit

❑ Bridge output
𝑅1
➢ 𝜖1 = −𝜖2 = 𝜖 (say)
𝑅2
𝐹𝑉
➢ Δ𝐸 = 𝜖
2
➢ Bridge sensitivity
Δ𝐸 𝐹𝑉
➢ 𝑆= =
𝜖 2

https://www.kyowa-
ei.com/eng/file/download/technical/strain_gages/pdf_index_001_eng.pdf

37

Half Bridge Circuit (cont.)

❑ Bridge output
➢ 𝜖1 = 𝜖3 = 𝜖 (say)
𝐹𝑉
➢ Δ𝐸 = 𝜖
2
➢ Bridge sensitivity
Δ𝐸 𝐹𝑉
➢ 𝑆= = Uniaxial load cell
𝜖 2 [Kakoty 2019]

➢ Bending effect gets cancelled

https://www.kyowa-
ei.com/eng/file/download/technical/strain_gages/pdf_index_001_eng.pdf

38

Quarter Bridge Circuit

❑ One active gauge: 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2
❑ 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 , 𝑅4 are constant
𝑅4 𝑅3
𝐹𝑉
❑ Bridge output Δ𝐸 = 𝜖
4 1

Δ𝐸 𝐹𝑉
❑ Bridge sensitivity 𝑆 = =
𝜖1 4
Δ𝐸

https://www.kyowa-
ei.com/eng/technical/strain_gages/measurement.html

Tension test
specimen

39

2022-23-II Semester 28 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Effects of Temperature
❑ Temperature variation may occur during the measurement of strain
➢ “During the measurement means” between recording of reference value
(i.e., balanced condition) and loaded state (i.e., unbalanced condition)

❑ Electrical resistance of a strain gauge varies not only with strain, but also with
temperature

❑ Also, relationship between strain and resistance change, the gauge factor,
itself varies with temperature

40

Effects of Temperature (cont.)

❑ Thermal output (temperature-induced apparent strain)
➢ Once an installed strain gauge is connected to strain indicator and the
instrument is balanced
➢ Subsequent change in temperature of gauge will produce a resistance
change in the gauge
➢ This temperature-induced resistance change is independent of mechanical
(stress-induced) strain
➢ This resistance change is called thermal output (apparent strain) of the
gauge

41

Effects of Temperature (cont.)

❑ Thermal output (temperature-induced apparent strain)…
➢ Most serious error source in the practice of static strain measurement
➢ If not controlled/corrected, thermal output can be much greater than the
strain to be measured

❑ Caused due to two concurrent and algebraically additive effects in strain

gauge installation
➢ Variation in gauge resistance due to temperature
➢ Differential thermal expansion between the grid conductor and the test
material

42

2022-23-II Semester 29 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Thermal Output (Temperature-Induced Apparent Strain)

43

Thermal Output (cont.)

44

Compensation for Thermal output (Temperature Compensation)

❑ Dummy gauge mounted on unstrained specimen made from identical
material as the test part

❑ Dummy gauge always subjected to the same temperature as active gauge

➢ Hypothetical condition!

❑ 𝜖1 = 𝜖𝑚 + 𝜖𝑡

❑ 𝜖2 = 𝜖𝑡
𝐹𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅2
❑ Δ𝐸 = 𝜖𝑚 + 𝜖𝑡 − 𝜖𝑡
4
𝐹𝑉
= 𝜖
4 𝑚
𝑅4 𝑅3

45

2022-23-II Semester 30 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Gauge Factor Variation with Temperature

❑ In some cases, error due to this effect is small and can be ignored

46

Gauge Factor Variation with Temperature (cont.)

47

3. Transverse
Sensitivity

48

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CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Transverse Sensitivity
❑ Behaviour of gauge in response to strain perpendicular to primary sensing
axis of gauge

❑ For a gauge oriented in any arbitrary direction in any strain field

𝑎
Δ𝑅
= 𝐹𝑎 𝜖𝑎 + 𝐹𝑡 𝜖𝑡 𝑡
𝑅
➢ 𝜖𝑎 = strain parallel to gauge axis

➢ 𝜖𝑡 = strain perpendicular to gauge axis

➢ 𝐹𝑎 = axial gauge factor
➢ 𝐹𝑡 = transverse gauge factor
• 𝐹𝑎 and 𝐹𝑡 are as determined in a uniaxial strain (not uniaxial stress) field

49

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

Δ𝑅
❑ = 𝐹𝑎 𝜖𝑎 + 𝐹𝑡 𝜖𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎 𝜖𝑎 + 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑡 (1) 𝑎
𝑅
𝐹𝑡 𝑡
➢ Where 𝐾𝑡 = = transverse sensitivity
𝐹𝑎

❑ When the gauge is calibrated in a uniaxial stress field, 𝜖𝑡 = −𝜇𝜖𝑎

➢ 𝜇 = Poisson’s ratio
Δ𝑅
❑ Then, = 𝐹𝑎 𝜖𝑎 − 𝐾𝑡 𝜇𝜖𝑎 = 𝐹𝑎 1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑎 (2)
𝑅

Δ𝑅
❑ Gauge manufactures: = 𝐹𝜖𝑎 (3)
𝑅
➢ 𝐹 = manufacturer’s gauge factor

50

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ From (2) & (3), F = 𝐹𝑎 1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 (4) 𝑎

❑ Substituting (4) in (1) 𝑡

Δ𝑅 𝐹𝜖𝑎 𝜖𝑡
= 1 + 𝐾𝑡 (5)
𝑅 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑎

❑ True value of strain

Δ𝑅Τ𝑅 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
𝜖𝑎 = (6)
𝐹 1+𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑡 Τ𝜖𝑎

❑ Uncorrected strain 𝜖𝑎′ which is obtained if only one gauge factor 𝐹 is

considered
Δ𝑅Τ𝑅
𝜖𝑎′ = (7)
𝐹

51

2022-23-II Semester 32 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Using (6) with (7) 𝑎

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝑡
𝜖𝑎 = 𝜖𝑎′ (8)
1+𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑡 Τ𝜖𝑎

❑ Percent error
′ −𝜖
𝜖𝑎 𝑎
𝜂𝜖 = × 100% (9)
𝜖𝑎

❑ Substituting (8) in (9)

𝜖
𝐾𝑡 𝜖 𝑡 +𝜇
𝑎
𝜂𝜖 = × 100% (10)
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡

52

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Error due to transverse sensitivity
➢ Rule-of-thumb
𝜖𝑡
𝜂𝜖 ≈ 𝐾𝑡 × 100%
𝜖𝑎
• Holds good if ȁ𝜖𝑡 /𝜖𝑎 ȁ
is not close to 𝜇

[Figure from Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN 509]

53

Example 1
❑ Determine the error in measuring Poisson’s strain in steel 𝜇 = 0.3 using a
gauge with transverse sensitivity of 𝐾𝑡 = 0.1%

❑ Solution: 𝜖𝑡
𝜖
𝐾𝑡 𝜖 𝑡 +𝜇 𝜖𝑎
𝑎
➢ 𝜂𝜖 = × 100%
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
1
𝐾𝑡 − +𝜇
𝜇
= × 100% = −0.3%
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡

𝐾𝑡 = 0.1%

54

2022-23-II Semester 33 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Example 2
❑ Now determine the error in measuring the longitudinal strain in the same
material using the same gauge

𝜖𝑎

𝜖𝑡

➢ Answer: 𝜂𝜖 = 0

55

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

Note:
We used 𝐹, 𝐹𝑎 and 𝐹𝑡 instead
of 𝑆𝑔 , 𝑆𝑎 and 𝑆𝑡 , respectively

[Table from Dally & Riley]

56

Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Summary
➢ Any gauge which is:
• installed on a material with a Poisson’s ratio different from that used by manufacturer; or
• installed on steel, but subjected to other than uniaxial stress state; or
• even installed on steel with a uniaxial stress state, but aligned with other than the max
principal stress,
➢ exhibits a transverse-sensitivity error which may require correction

57

2022-23-II Semester 34 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Correction for Transverse Sensitivity

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
❑ Recall (8): 𝜖𝑎 = 𝜖𝑎′
1+𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑡 Τ𝜖𝑎

❑ First procedure
𝜖𝑡
➢ Requires a priori knowledge of the ratio of the strain field
𝜖𝑎
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ Correction factor 𝐶𝐹 = 𝜖 (11)
1+𝐾𝑡 𝜖 𝑡
𝑎

➢ Instead of using gauge factor 𝐹 use a modified gauge factor

𝐹 1+𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑡 Τ𝜖𝑎
𝐹∗ = =𝐹 (12)
𝐶𝐹 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡

58

Corrections for Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Second procedure
➢ Strain field is unknown
➢ Requires determination of strains in both 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions
➢ Let the measured uncorrected strains along 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions be 𝜖𝑥′ and 𝜖𝑦′
➢ Using (8)
1
➢ 𝜖𝑥′ = 𝜖𝑥 + 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑦 (13)
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
1
➢ 𝜖𝑦′ = 𝜖𝑦 + 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑥 (14)
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
• Unprimed quantities are true strains

59

Corrections for Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Second procedure…
➢ Solving (13) and (14),
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑦′ ≈ (1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 ) 𝜖𝑥′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑦′ (15)
1−𝐾𝑡2
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑥′ ≈ (1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 ) 𝜖𝑦′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝑥′ (16)
1−𝐾𝑡2

• 1 − 𝐾𝑡2 is generally more than 0.995, and can be taken as unity

60

2022-23-II Semester 35 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

4. Strain Analysis
and Rosette

61

Rosettes
❑ For a general biaxial stress state with unknown principal directions
➢ Three independent strain measurements are required to determine principal
strains and stresses

❑ When principal directions are known in advance

➢ Two independent strain measurements are needed to obtain principal
strains and stresses

❑ Strain gauge rosettes are used for this purpose

62

Rosettes (cont.)
❑ Tee rosettes
➢ Two mutually perpendicular girds

❑ Rectangular
Tee Rosette
➢ Three grids with second and third
grids angularly displaced from the
first grid by 45° and 90°,
respectively
Rectangular Rosette
❑ Delta
➢ Three grids with second and third
grids 60° and 120° away,
respectively, from the first grid

Delta Rosette
63

2022-23-II Semester 36 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Rosettes (cont.)
❑ Functionally equivalent forms of rectangular and delta rosettes

[Figure from Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN 515]

64

Rosettes Construction (cont.)

❑ Planar rosette ❑ Stacked rosette
➢ Etched from the strain-sensitive ➢ Manufactured by assembling and
foil as an entity with all gauge laminating two or three properly
elements lying in one plane oriented single-element gauges
➢ Use this if strain gradient is not ➢ Use this when
too high • space for installation is small or
• a steep strain gradient exists

65

Strain Analysis
❑ Three gauge elements A, B and C placed at arbitrary angles relative to 𝑥 and 𝑦
axes
➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥 cos 2 𝜃𝐴 + 𝜖𝑦 sin2 𝜃𝐴 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃𝐴 cos 𝜃𝐴
𝜖𝑥 +𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑥 −𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
= + cos 2𝜃𝐴 + sin 2𝜃𝐴 (17a)
2 2 2
𝜖𝑥 +𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑥 −𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = + cos 2𝜃𝐵 + sin 2𝜃𝐵 (17b)
2 2 2
𝜖𝑥 +𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑥 −𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
➢ 𝜖𝐶 = + cos 2𝜃𝐶 + sin 2𝜃𝐶 (17c)
2 2 2
➢ Solve the three equations for 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑦
C B

A
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵
𝜃𝐴
𝑥
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CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Strain Analysis (cont.)

❑ Principal strains and principal directions
1 1 2 2
➢ 𝜖1,2 = 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 ± 𝜖𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (18)
2 2
𝛾𝑥𝑦
➢ tan 2𝜙 = (19)
𝜖𝑥 −𝜖𝑦

• Where 𝜙 = angle between principal axis and 𝑥 axis

𝑦
C B

A
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵
𝜃𝐴
𝑥
67

Stress-Strain Relations
❑ Strains in terms of stresses Note: 𝐺 = 2
𝐸
1+𝜇
1
➢ 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜇 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 (20a)
𝐸
1
➢ 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜇 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 (20b)
𝐸
1
➢ 𝜖𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜇 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 (20c)
𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥
➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = , 𝛾𝑦𝑧 = and 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = (20d)
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

❑ Stresses in terms of strains

𝐸
➢ 𝜎𝑥 = 1 − 𝜇 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜇 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧 (21a)
1+𝜇 1−2𝜇
𝐸
➢ 𝜎𝑦 = 1 − 𝜇 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜇 𝜖𝑧 + 𝜖𝑥 (21b)
1+𝜇 1−2𝜇
𝐸
➢ 𝜎𝑧 = 1 − 𝜇 𝜖𝑧 + 𝜇 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 (21c)
1+𝜇 1−2𝜇
➢ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝐺𝛾𝑦𝑧 and 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝐺𝛾𝑧𝑥 (21d)

68

Stress-Strain Relations (cont.)

❑ For 2D state of stress in x-y plane
➢ 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0

❑ From (20), strains in terms of stresses

1
➢ 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜇𝜎𝑦 (22a)
𝐸
1
➢ 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜇𝜎𝑥 (22b)
𝐸
𝜇
➢ 𝜖𝑧 = − 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 (22c)
𝐸
𝜏𝑥𝑦
➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = (22d)
𝐺

69

2022-23-II Semester 38 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Stress-Strain Relations (cont.)

❑ For 2D state of stress in x-y plane…

❑ Using (21) or solving (22), stresses in terms of strains

𝐸
➢ 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜇𝜖𝑦 (23a)
1−𝜇2
𝐸
➢ 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜇𝜖𝑥 (23b)
1−𝜇2

➢ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐺𝛾𝑥𝑦 (23c)

❑ Useful relationship in experimental stress analysis

𝜇
➢ 𝜖𝑧 = − 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 (24)
1−𝜇
• Obtained using (21c)

70

Tee Rosette
❑ Used only when the principal strain directions are known in advance

❑ Examples: cylindrical pressure vessels and shafts in torsion

𝐵 𝜎𝑧 = longitudinal or axial stress

𝜎𝜃 = circumferential or hoop stress

𝜎𝜃
𝑧 𝜎𝑧
𝑟
𝜃
Long thin walled cylindrical pressure vessel

71

Tee Rosette on Cylindrical Pressure Vessel

❑ Using (20)
1
➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜇 𝜎𝑟 + 𝜎𝜃 (25a)
𝐸
1
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝜃 = 𝜎𝜃 − 𝜇 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑟 (25b)
𝐸

❑ Solve for 𝜎𝑧 and 𝜎𝜃

𝐸 𝐵
➢ 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜖𝐴 + 𝜇𝜖𝐵 (26a)
1−𝜇2
𝐸 𝐴 𝜎𝑟 = 0 at the outer surface
➢ 𝜎𝜃 = 𝜖𝐵 + 𝜇𝜖𝐴 (26b)
1−𝜇2
𝜎𝜃
𝑧 𝜎𝑧
𝑟
𝜃
Long thin walled cylindrical pressure vessel

72

2022-23-II Semester 39 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Tee Rosette: Correction for Transverse Sensitivity

❑ As presented earlier, if 𝜖𝐴′ and 𝜖𝐵′ are the measured uncorrected strains in
gauges 𝐴 and 𝐵 then,

❑ The true strains are [see (15) and (16)]

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝐴′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐵′ ≈ (1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 ) 𝜖𝐴′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐵′ (27a)
1−𝐾𝑡2
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴′ ≈ (1 − 𝜇𝐾𝑡 ) 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴′ (27b)
1−𝐾𝑡2

73

Tee Rosette for Shear Strain in Shaft

Shear stresses in a circular bar in torsion

B
A
Tensile and compressive stresses acting Tee rosette orientation for
on a stress element oriented at 45° to measuring 𝛾
the longitudinal axis

74

Tee Rosette for Shear Strain in Shaft (cont.)

❑ Using (17),
𝜖𝑥 +𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
➢ 𝜖𝐴 = − (28a)
2 2
𝜖𝑥 +𝜖𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = + (28b)
2 2

❑ Therefore, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐵 (29)

➢ If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are connected to two adjacent arms of Wheatstone bridge, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 is
directly measured
𝑦

B B
A 45°
𝑥
45°
Tee rosette orientation for A
measuring 𝛾
75

2022-23-II Semester 40 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Tee Rosette for Shear Strain in Shaft (cont.)

❑ Correction for transverse sensitivity
➢ Let the measured uncorrected strains be 𝜖𝐴′ and 𝜖𝐵′
➢ So, the uncorrected shear strain [see (29), (13) and (14)]
′ = 𝜖′ − 𝜖′ = 1 1
➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐵 𝐴 𝜖𝐵 + 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐴 + 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐵
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡

′ = 1−𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐵 −𝜖𝐴 1−𝐾𝑡

➢ Therefore, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 (30)
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝑥𝑦
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ From (30), 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = ′ =
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝜖𝐴′ (31)
1−𝐾𝑡 1−𝐾𝑡
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
• = correction factor
1−𝐾𝑡

76

Rectangular Rosette
❑ Using (17), 𝑦

➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥 (32a)
1 C
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 (32b) B 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
2
𝜃𝐵 = 45°
➢ 𝜖𝐶 = 𝜖𝑦 (32c) 𝜃𝐶 = 90°
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵 A
𝑥
❑ Solving the above three equations
➢ 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝐴 (33a)
➢ 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝐶 (33b)
➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2𝜖𝐵 − 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶 (33c)

❑ Thus, by measuring 𝜖𝐴 , 𝜖𝐵 and 𝜖𝐶 , the cartesian components of strains 𝜖𝑥 and

𝜖𝑦 and 𝛾𝑥𝑦 can be determined
77

Rectangular Rosette (cont.)

❑ Principal strains and principal directions

❑ Using (18), (19) and (33),

1 1 2 2
➢ 𝜖1,2 = 𝜖𝐴 + 𝜖𝐶 ± 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶 + 2𝜖𝐵 − 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶 (34)
2 2
2𝜖𝐵 −𝜖𝐴 −𝜖𝐶
➢ tan 2𝜙 = (35)
𝜖𝐴 −𝜖𝐶
• Where 𝜙 = angle between principal axis and 𝑥 axis

C
B 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
𝜃𝐵 = 45°
𝜃𝐶 = 90°
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵 A
𝑥
78

2022-23-II Semester 41 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur

CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Rectangular Rosette (cont.)

❑ Mohr’s strain circle 𝑦
𝛾
−
2
𝜖1 C
𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥 B 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
𝜖𝐵 𝜃𝐵 = 45°
𝜃𝐶 = 90°
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵 A
𝑥
𝛾max
𝛾𝑥𝑦 2
2
𝜖
𝛾𝑥𝑦
2

𝜖2
𝜖𝐶 = 𝜖𝑦 1 2 2
𝑅= 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶 + 2𝜖𝐵 − 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶
𝜖𝐴 + 𝜖𝐶 /2 2
𝛾
+
2
79

Rectangular Rosette (cont.)

❑ Principal stresses [see (23)]
𝐸
➢ 𝜎1 = 𝜖1 + 𝜇𝜖2 (36a)
(1−𝜇2 )
𝐸
➢ 𝜎2 = 𝜖2 + 𝜇𝜖1 (36b)
(1−𝜇2 )

➢ Substituting (34)
𝜖𝐴 +𝜖𝐶 1 2 2
➢ 𝜎1,2 = 𝐸 ± 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐶 + 2𝜖𝐵 − 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝑐 (37)
2 1−𝜇 2 1+𝜇

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Rectangular Rosette: Correction for Transverse Sensitivity

❑ For gauges 𝐴 and 𝐶, correction is same as that for tee rosette [see (27)]
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝐴′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐶′ (38a)
1−𝐾𝑡2
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝐶 = 𝜖𝐶′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴′ (38b)
1−𝐾𝑡2

❑ Centre gauge 𝐵 requires a special procedure as there is no gauge

perpendicular to 𝐵

C
B 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
𝜃𝐵 = 45°
𝜃𝐶 = 90°
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵 A
𝑥
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CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Rectangular Rosette: Correction for Transverse Sensitivity (cont.)

❑ Let 𝐷 be a dummy gauge perpendicular to 𝐵
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐷′
1−𝐾𝑡2

➢ Note: 𝜖𝐴′ + 𝜖𝐶′ = 𝜖𝐵′ + 𝜖𝐷′

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
❑ Therefore, 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴′ − 𝜖𝐵′ + 𝜖𝐶′ (38c)
1−𝐾𝑡2

D (dummy) C
B 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
𝜃𝐵 = 45°
𝜃𝐶 = 90°
𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵 A
𝑥
82

Delta Rosette
❑ Using (17), 𝑦

➢ 𝜖𝐴 = 𝜖𝑥 (39a) C B
1
➢ 𝜖𝐵 = 𝜖𝑥 + 3𝜖𝑦 + 3𝛾𝑥𝑦 (39b) 𝜃𝐶 𝜃𝐵
4 𝑥
A
1
➢ 𝜖𝐶 = 𝜖𝑥 + 3𝜖𝑦 − 3𝛾𝑥𝑦 (39c) 𝜃𝐴 = 0°
4
𝜃𝐵 = 60°
𝜃𝐶 = 120°
❑ Solving the above three equations
➢ 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝐴 (40a)
1
➢ 𝜖𝑦 = 2 𝜖𝐵 + 𝜖𝐶 − 𝜖𝐴 (40b)
3

➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2(𝜖𝐵 − 𝜖𝐶 )/ 3 (40c)

83

Delta Rosette: Corrections for Transverse Sensitivity

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 2
❑ 𝜖𝐴 = 1+ 𝜖𝐴′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐵′ + 𝜖𝐶′ (39a)
1−𝐾𝑡2 3 3

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 2
❑ 𝜖𝐵 = 1+ 𝜖𝐵′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐶′ + 𝜖𝐴′ (39a)
1−𝐾𝑡2 3 3

1−𝜇𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 2
❑ 𝜖𝐶 = 1+ 𝜖𝐶′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖𝐴′ + 𝜖𝐵′ (39a)
1−𝐾𝑡2 3 3

➢ Above equations are from Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN-509

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CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Correction of Principal Strains

❑ For any rosette, principal strains can be calculated directly from uncorrected
gauge readings

❑ Corrections for transverse sensitivity can then be applied to principal strains

➢ Because errors in principal strains are independent of type of rosette used as
long as all gauge elements have the same 𝐾𝑡

85

Correction of Principal Strains (cont.)

❑ Using (15) and (16), corrected principal strains
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖1 = 𝜖1′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖2′ (40a)
1−𝐾𝑡2
1−𝜇𝐾𝑡
➢ 𝜖2 = 𝜖2′ − 𝐾𝑡 𝜖1′ (40b)
1−𝐾𝑡2

86

Correction For Transverse Sensitivity: Notes

❑ It was assumed that all gauge elements have the same 𝐾𝑡
➢ This is true for stacked rosettes
➢ Not exactly true for planar rosettes

❑ Corrections for transverse sensitivity with different 𝐾𝑡 are given in Appendix

of Micro-Measurement Tech Note TN-509

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CE 623A: Experimental Methdos in Structural Engineering Strain Measurements

Plane Shear or Torque Gauges

𝜖𝐴 −𝜖𝐵
❑ Shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
sin 2𝛼

❑ If 𝛼 = 45°, we get a tee rosette B

➢ 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 𝜖𝐴 − 𝜖𝐵

❑ Two- and four-element shear gauges are available

A

Two-element shear gauge Four-element shear gauge

88

Two- and Four-Element Shear Gauges

90° rosette for direction shear strain Full shear bridge

measurement

[Figures from Micro-Measurements Tech Note TN-512-1]

89

References
❑ Chapters 2 & 10 of Holman

❑ Chapters 5-7 and 9 of Dally & Riley

❑ Chapter 8 of Nachtigal

❑ Additional material posted in course site

➢ Micro-Measurements Tech Notes TN-504-1, TN 509, TN 515 and TN-512-1

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2022-23-II Semester 45 C. Kolay, CE, IIT Kanpur