LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

PANJAB

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE

COURSE NOTES
ON

UNIT 1 – UNIT 3

AGR: 137

COURSE TITLE: FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

EDUCATION.

Credit: 2

1
 INDEX
Lecture.
Name of the Topic Page Number
No.
Extension Education: Definition, need, scope, importance,
1 3-5
objectives, characteristics and History
2 Function and Principles of Extension Education. 6-8
Extension Programme Planning: Objective, Principle and
3 9-12
Steps in Extension Programme Planning.
4 Extension systems in India 13-16
5 Privatization of extension and cyber/e-extension 17-18
Farmer led extension; Market led extension and Expert
6 19-21
system in India.
Rural development : definition, meaning and concept of
7 22-24
rural development, rural development programmes
Community Development Programme: Concept,
8 25-26
Organizational Set-up, Philosophy
Community Development Programme: Stages of
9 Community Development, Principles, Objectives and 27-29
Differentiate between CDP and Extension.
10 Rural Leadership 30-32
11 Rural Administration 33-35
Monitoring and evaluation : concept and definition,
12 36-38
monitoring and evaluation of extension programmes
13 Terminology and Basic concept 39-46

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 Lecture. No. 1.
Extension Education: Definition, need, scope, importance, objectives, characteristics and
History

Extension Education: Definition

Extension education is education for the betterment of people and for changing their behavior i.e.
knowledge, skill and attitude.
OR
Extension education is the dissemination of useful research findings and ideas among rural people
to bring out desirable changes in their social and cultural behavior.
OR
Extension education in an applied behavioral science, the knowledge of which is to be applied for
desirable changes in the behavioral complex of the people.

Meaning of Extension Education:

The word Extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘Ex’ meaning ‘out’ and
‘tensio’meaning ‘stretching’. Thus the term extension education means the type of education,
which is stretched out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of schools and colleges to which
formal type of education is normally confined. In other words the word ‘extension’ used in this
context signifies an OUT OF SCHOOL system of education. The three links in the chain of rural
development are research, teaching and extension.

Extension Education: Concept

The term extension was first used in the United States of America in the first decade of this
century to con notes the extension of knowledge from land grant colleges to the farmers through the
process of informal education.
Need and Scope of Agricultural Extension:
The following nine areas of programme emphasis indicate the scope of Agricultural
Extension work:

1. Efficiency in agricultural production.

2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization.
3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.
4. Management on the farm and in the home.
5. Family living.
6. Youth development.
7. Leadership development.
8. Community development.
9. Public affairs.

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IMPORTANCE OF EXTENSION:
1. The discipline of extension education is to generate knowledge relating to methods, tools and
techniques for the lakhs of field extension functionaries who in turn could utilize it for accelerating
the change process in the society.
2. It also has to take into account the various problems emerging at the social level due to
implementation of developmental programmes.
3. The flow of such information is maintained by the Extension Service through its feedback
mechanism.
4. In India, the aim of extension education is community development, which is possible only by
bringing change in the behavior of rural people.
5. Extension education plays major role in bringing desirable change in rural people.
6. The discipline of extension education is to generate knowledge relating to methods, tools and
techniques for the lakhs of field extension functionaries who in turn could utilize it for accelerating
the change process in the society.
7. It also has to take into account the various problems emerging at the social level due to
implementation of developmental programmes.
8. Extension education is an educational process by which capabilities among people are developed
to understand their problems and resources.

Extension Education: Objectives and characteristics

The objectives are the expression of the ends forwards which our efforts are directed. The
objectives should be such which provide night direction to the large number of people to set a
direction and travel the distance between theory and practice.
Extension education in our country is primarily concerned with the following main
objectives:
1. The basic objectives of the extension education are the overall development of the rural people.
2. To bring about desirable changes in the human behavior, which includes change in knowledge,
skill and attitude?
3. The dissemination of useful and practical information relating to agriculture, including improved
seeds, fertilizers, implements, pesticides, improved cultural practices, dairying, poultry nutrition
etc.
4. To make the people aware that agriculture is a profit table profession.
5. To create an environment for rural people so that they can show their talent, leadership and
efficiency.
6. To provide appropriate solution of the farmer’s problems.
7. To bring the scientist closer to the farmers.

History of Extension Education:

The birth of modern agricultural extension services:-

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 The first agricultural extension service of a modem kind came into existence as the result of
a crisis and the initiative of the occupant of a high office of authority. The crisis was the outbreak of
potato blight in Europe in 1845. In Ireland its effects were particularly severe because the
predominantly peasant population relied on potatoes in their diet, and "the potato famine" persisted
until 1851.
The growth of agricultural education and extension work in continental Europe was to have
a strong impact on the emergence of comparable activity in the United Kingdom. An official
commission on technical education in the early 1880s included a detailed review of the European
developments (Jenkins, 1884). At the end of the decade, a cluster of enactment's, which established
county-based local government, created a board of agriculture, promoted technical (including
agricultural) education, and allocated funds for the purpose, enabled agricultural extension work to
be initiated.

Modern agricultural extension:-

As agricultural extension organizations have grown and changed, they have invariably
become more bureaucratic with distinct hierarchical structures. The work of dispersed extension
workers had to be administered and controlled so that one or more levels of intermediary structure
(for example, district, region) have been created between the field-level agents and their
headquarters. Thus the management of extension activities has become a major preoccupation, and
many organizations have been open to the criticism of being top heavy and top-down in their
approach. However, with funding derived largely from national revenues (or international donors),
senior managers have necessarily had to account for and justify their organization's activities. This
has been equally pronounced in the North as in the South where, after colonial territories gained
their independence, extension work has commonly been rein-vented and staffed by nationals under
the aegis of their new administrations (usually ministries of agriculture).

The future:-
The need for agricultural and rural information and advisory services is likely to intensify in
the foreseeable future. In much of the world, agriculture faces the challenge of keeping pace with
rapidly increasing population with few reserves of potentially cultivable land. Farmers will have to
become more efficient and specialized. From government perspectives, whatever priority is given
to production, extension will remain a key policy tool for promoting ecologically and socially
sustainable farming practices.

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 Lecture. No. 2.
Function and Principles of Extension Education
Functions of Extension:
1. The individual is supreme in democracy.
2. The home is a fundamental unit in a civilization.
3. The family is the first training group of the human race.
4. The foundation of any permanent civilization must rest on the partnership of man and the land.
If we accept these principles as those underlying our extension activities, we must plan our
work in accordance with them.

PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION EDUCATION:

A principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action n a consistent manner.

Thus a principle is a universal truth or a fundamental truth and a settled rule of action.
some of this related to agricultural extension is given here.

1. Principle of Interest and Needs:

2. Principle of Cultural Difference:
3. Principle of Cultural Change:
4. Principle of Participation:
5. Principle of Adaptability in the Use of Teaching Methods:
6. The Grass Toots Principle of Organization:
7. Principle of Leadership:
8. The Whole-family Principle:
9. Principle of Satisfaction:
10. Principle of Evaluation:
11. Principle of Applied Science and Democracy:
12. Principle of Trained Specialists:
13. Principle of Co-operation:

1. Principle of Interest and Needs:

The rural people should voluntarily participate in the extension work. Extension work must
be based on the needs and interests of the people. These interest and needs differ form individual to
individual, form village to village, form block to block and form state to state . To be effective,
extension work must begin with the interested and needs of the people. Many times the interests of
the rural people are not the interest of the extension worker. Even though the sees the needs of the
people better than they do themselves, he must begin with the beds and interests as they (the
people) see them.

2. Principle of Cultural Difference:

The educational methods should be in line with the culture of the people in order to make
extension education effective. Extension work is based of the cultural background of the people
with whom the work is done. Improvement can only begin form the level of the extension worker
has to know the level of the knowledge and the skills of the people methods and tools used by them,
their customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc. before starting the extension programme.

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 In’ a vast country, like India different extension methods need to be used for different states, as
people in these states differ in their thinking living and culture.
The blueprint of the extension programme developed for one area may not be applicable as
such in another area but it can serve as a guide in similar cultural areas.

3. Principle of Cultural Change:

To change the behaviors of the people through extension education, the extension worker
should gain the confidence of the rural people. It is obvious that the change agent who works
personally with the villagers must know what the villagers know and what they think. They should
believe that what the extension worker says has relevance to their daily life. For example,
extension worker shows same demonstrations or trials on the farmer’s field. He gave the
information about positive and negative point of that trial and also discus the about their difficulties
with the farmers. Then the farmers that, he is doing for their welfare only.
Taking the changes in the needs of the rural people into account the extension worker has to
change his area of work. The situation prevailing twenty years ago when the extension service
started and today is quite different, and therefore, with growth and development the extension work
has to be changed to meet the cultural changes among the people.

4. Principle of Participation:
The participation of the people is of fundamental importance of the success of any
educational endeavor. People must share in the development of a programme and must feel that it
is their own programme. Good extension work helps the rural people identifying their problems
and then helping them in solving these problems, people will not feel attached to the work if they
are given ready-made things. Extension helps people to help themselves.
Actual participation and experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence
in them and also they learn more by doing.

5. Principle of Adaptability in the Use of Teaching Methods:

People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also
differ from place to place. These people differ in their level of understanding and knowledge and
therefore, only one extension method will not be of use in providing information to all.
No single extension teaching method is effective under all situations. Written material will
be of use for those who can read it, radio programmes for those who have radio, meetings for those
who can attend. Like these different situations requires difference teaching methods. New
situations also arise where a special combination of method is necessary. Research show that, the
use of more than one extension method carries the message effectively to the people.

6. The Grass Toots Principle of Organization:

A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. The
programme should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organizing the local group is to
demonstrate the value of the new practices or programs so that more people would participate.
Different groups work in rural communities.
The extension worker should pay attention to the needs and interests of these groups while
planning extension programmes. In same places the extension programmes are thrust on the people
and the imposed innovations; many times have no relevance to the interests of these small groups.

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7. Principle of Leadership:
It is said that there is one leader in ten persons. Local leaders are the guardians of local
thoughts and action and can be trained and developed to best serve as interpreters of new ideas to
the villagers. They are the representatives of the local situation. Extension work is based of the full
utilization of local leadership. The selection and training of local leaders to enable them to help to
carry our extension work is essential to the success of the programme.

8. The Whole-family Principle:

The family is the unit of any society. All the members have equal importance and they
should be developing equally. Extension work is for the whole family and it should reach all the
members of the family. Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension
workers have whole-family approach, instead of separate and un-integrated approach.

9. Principle of Satisfaction:
The end product of the efforts of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the
farmer his wife or youngsters as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new
skill or some other changes in behavior. If the peoples are not satisfied by participating in
democratic societies people cannot be made to move like machines.
They continue the things only when they get satisfaction through these innovations.
Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. “A satisfied customer is the best
advertisement”.

10. Principle of Evaluation:

Extension is based upon the methods of science and it needs constant evaluation. It is
necessary to determine the teaching results in an unbiased way. For this it is necessary to review
the development made so far and see whether the extension work is proceeding in the right
direction. The results of such evolutions would help the extension workers in improving the quality
of the programmes in the future.
11. Principle of Applied Science and Democracy:
The extension worker transmits the findings of the laboratories to the farmers, but the
farmer has the freedom to decide the adoption or rejection of the innovation. In democracy,
freedom of thought and the unbiased and objective approach of the scientist, establish facts used in
the solution of problem.
12. Principle of Trained Specialists:
Specialists have the responsibility of solving the problems of the extension workers in their
subject. The subject matter specialist should have a broad outlook and he should know other
subject matter fields related to family problems thereby concentrating on the welfare of the whole
family and making his special.
13. Principle of Co-operation:
In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and buy to
believe on innovations or new ideas, until they see the results with their own eyes. The motive for
improvement must come form the people, and they must practice the new ideas by actually doing
them. It is learning by doing, which is most effective in changing people’s behavior and developing
the confidence to use the new methods in future.

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 Lecture Number: 3
Extension Programme Planning: - Objective, Principle and Steps in Extension Programme
Planning.

Definitions: – Programme, Planning, Project

Planning is a process which involves studying the past and present in order to forecast the
future and in the light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and what must
be done to reach them.
Programme is the total educational job being done in a particular setting.
Project is a specification of work to be done or procedures to be followed in order to
accomplish a particular objectives.
Extension Programme:-
Extension programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions.
Situation is a statement of affairs that includes the cultural, social, economic and physical
conditions in which a particular group of people find themselves at a given period of time.
Problem is a condition that people after study, with or without help, have decided needs
changing.
Solution is a course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory condition to one is more
satisfying.
Aims are generalized and broad statement of directions with respect to given activities.
Objectives are expression of ends towards which our efforts are directed.
Goal is the distance in any given direction one expects to go during a given period of time.
Extension Programme are relatively permanent but requires constant revision.
Objectives of Having a Programme:-
To ensure careful consideration of what is to be done and why.
To furnish a guide against which to judge all new proposals.
To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and evaluated.
To have a means of choosing the important from incidental problems and permanent from
temporary changes.
To develop common understanding about means and ends.
To ensure continuity during changes in personnel.
To help develop leadership.
To avoid waste of time and money and promote efficiency.
To justify expenditure and to ensure flow of funds.
To have available in written form a statement for public use.
Principles of Extension Programme Planning:-
Extension programmes should have clear and significant objectives which could satisfy
important needs of the people.
Extension programmes should involve people at the local level.
Extension programmes should fix up priority on the basis of available resources and time.
Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources.
Extension programmes should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
Extension programme should have definite plan of work.
Extension programmes should provide for evaluation of results and reconsideration of the
programme.
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 Extension programmes should provide for equitable distribution of benefits amongst the
members of the community.
Planning:-
• It’s a process
• Involves studying the past and present
• To forecast future
• Determining the goals to be achieved
• Deciding what must be done to reach them
Steps in Programme Planning:-

STEPS IN PROGRAMME PLANNING

Determination
of objectives
4
Identification of Developing plan of
problems 3 5 work and calendar of
operations

Follow through plan

Analysis of PROGRAMME PROGRAMME
situation 2 6 of work and calendar
DETETERMINATION IMPLEMENTATION of operations

Collection of 1 Evaluation of
7 progress
facts

8
Reconsideration and
revision of the programme

Step 1:- Collection of facts

• Starting point
• Data may be collected from available records and by survey
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 • Information related
– People
– Enterprises
– Technology
– Facilities
– Constraints
• Data may be collected from Panchayats, Cooperatives and other organizations.

Step 2:- Analysis of situation

• Analysis the data in an unbiased way.
• Keep in view the feelings expressed by the client system.
• This shall help in understanding the situation in proper perspective.

Step 3:- Identification of problems

• Identify the problems after analysis
• There may be many problems
• Select urgent and significant problems
• Keep in mind the available resources and time limit
• Selection of large number of problems may lead to failure and frustration.

Step 4:- Determination of objectives and goals

• Set the objectives on the basis of significant needs
• Objectives should be direct and stated in clear terms
• State the objectives in terms of specific goals
• In determination of goals go through the data and information analysed to find out
– What could actually be done
– With available resources and time
– Which will be compatible
– With which the people will cooperate
• Discuss with local people and local institutions.

Step 5:- Developing plan of work and calendar of operations

• Plan should have all the essential details
• Plan of work should be in written form
• It should indicate who shall do what job i.e.
– What the change agent system and client system shall do
– Which institutions, organizations, service departments shall be involved
– What will be the financial requirement and how it shall be met
– What arrangements shall be made for marketing of the produce, training of farmers
etc.
– Calendar of operations shall be prepared on the basis of plan of work
– It should specifically state how and when all significant activities shall be
performed.
– This should be at least for one season or one year – Seasonal plan or annual plan

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Step 6:- Follow through plan of work and calendar of operations
• The extension agent should perform
– Training of participants
– Communication of information
– Conducting method demonstrations
– Making regular visits and monitoring
• solving unforeseen problems and taking corrective steps
• Success or failure of programme depends upon performance of extension worker and
organizational support received at this stage
• Obtaining feedback information at this stage is extremely important.

Step 7:- Evaluation of progress

• Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which we have been able to attain our
objectives.
• Evaluation may be formal or informal

Step 8:- Reconsideration and revision of the programme

• On the basis of evaluation the programme should be reconsidered and revised, if needed
• Reconsideration should be done with
– Participants
– Scientists
– Administrators in organization and local bodies
• It shall help in making necessary corrections and modifications
• The purpose is to make the programme more effective by removing defects

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 Lecture Number: 4
Extension Systems in India.

In India there are 4 major organizational streams are working for rural development :

1. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) institutes and Agriculture Universities.

2. Extension System of Ministry of Agriculture and State Departments of Agriculture.
3. Extension System of Ministry of Rural Development and the State Development Departments.
4. Voluntary organizations, business houses etc.
The programs were as follows:

National Demonstration (1964),

Front line Demonstrations (1971)
Operational Research Project (1972),
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (1974),
Lab to Land Programme (1979),
Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR),(1995)
Institution Village Linkage Programme (IVLP),(1995)
National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), (1998)
Agricultural Technology Management Agency(ATMA),(2005)
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), (2012)

National Demonstration (1964):

Launched in 1964. Based on the concept of increasing the productivity per unit area and time by
using proven agricultural technology.
Basic purpose :-
1. To show the genetic production potentiality of new technology of major crops.
2. To encourage the farmers to adopt and popularize the technologies.
Role:-
1. The main role is to demonstrate.
2. Production potentiality of a unit area.
3. The use of implement for different operation.
4. Use of soil testing labs for use of balanced fertilizer doses.
5. Demonstration in improved cultivation.
6. Provide first hand knowledge
7. Minimize the time lag between the research generated and its application

Front line Demonstrations (1971)

1. The main role is to demonstrate.
2. Production potentiality of a unit area.
3. The use of implement for different operation.
4. Use of soil testing labs for use of balanced fertilizer doses.
5. Demonstration in improved cultivation.
6. Provide first hand knowledge
7. Minimize the time lag between the research generated and its application
8. “Seeing is believing” is the main principle behind the demonstrations.
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Role:-
1. Demonstrate the newly released production technologies on the farmers’ fields.
2. Exploit their maximum potential in a given farming system.
3. Prepare technical leadership in the villages by imparting desired training.
4. Organize the need based training programmes for subject matter specialists and
farmers, after identification of problems.

Operational Research Project (1972),

Initiated in 1972 to identify technological as well as socio- economic constraints and to formulate
and implement a combination of technology modules on area/watershed/target group basis. The
performance of the new technology is to be tested on farmers’ fields at operational level.
Role:-
Test, adopt and demonstrate the new agricultural technologies in farmer’s field in a cluster
of three to four villages or in a watershed area.
Calculate profitability of the new technology meant for increasing
production and economic returns substantially.
Identify socio-economic constraints affecting transfer of new technologies.
Assess the credit worthiness of the new agricultural practices.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (1974),

Established in 1974 at Pondicherry under the Tamilnadu Agricultural university with an
objective of imparting through work experience. Aimed at imparting training to extension workers,
practicing farmers and fisherman who wish to be self-employed. Priority is given to less resources
available area.
Objectives:-
1. To improve productivity in agriculture and allied enterprises.
2. To empower and utilize the energy of rural youth and farm women.
3. To generate employment in farm and non-farm sector.
4. Improve socio-economic condition of rural community.
Role of KVK:-
Impart skill of farmers and rural youths through vocational training
Conduct Frontline Demonstration
Carry out On-farm Testing to fine tune the technologies based on farming
situations and develop location specific technology
Disseminate technologies in the districts by providing training to the extension workers of
the various line departments
Production of quality seed, seedling and different bio-agents, inputs and services to
enhance technology adoption.

Lab to Land Programme (1979),

Implemented in 1979, by ICAR as a part of its Golden Jubilee
celebrations. The aim of the programme is to improve the economic condition of the small and
marginal farmers and landless agricultural laborers, particularly scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes, by transfer of improved technology developed by the agricultural universities, research
institutes etc.

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Role:-
1. Study and understand the background and resource of the selected farmers and landless
agricultural laborers.
2. Assist the farmers to develop feasible farm plans.
3. Guide and help the farmers in adopting improved technologies.
4. Organize training programmes and other extension activities.
5. Make the farmers aware of the various opportunities and agencies.
6. Develop functional relation and linkage with the scientist and institutions for future
guidance, advisory service and help.
7. Utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the agricultural scientist and
extension functionaries.

Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR),(1995)

1. In 1995, the ICAR launched this innovative programme.

2. Introduce technological interventions with emphasis on stability and sustainability along with
productivity of small-farm production systems;
3. Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to sustain technological interventions and
their integration to maintain productivity and profitability taking environmental issues into
consideration in a comparatively well defined farm production system;
4. Introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to increase the agricultural productivity
with marketable surplus in commercial on and off farm production system.
5. Facilitate adoption of appropriate post harvest technologies for conservation and on-
farm value addition of agricultural products, by-products and waste for greater economic
dividend and national priorities;
6. Facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of drudgery, increased efficiency
and higher income of farm women;
7. Monitor socio-economic impact of the technological intervention for different farm production
systems.

National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), (1998)

Launched by ICAR on June 30, 1998, with the support of the World Bank, to strengthen and
complement the existing resources and to augment the output of the National Agricultural Research
System (NARS).
The major role of this component is:
1) Accelerate the flow of technology form research, and extension to farmer.
2) Improve the dissemination of location specific and sustainability enhancing technologies.
3) Decentralize technical and decision making authority to the district level.
4) Create a more effective and financially sustainable public extension system.
5) Step up the privatization of certain technology transfer activities.

Agricultural Technology Management Agency(ATMA),(2005)

1. Strengthen research – extension – farmer linkages.

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2. Provide an effective mechanism for co-ordination and management of activities of different
agencies involved in technology adaption / validation and dissemination at the district level and
below.
1. Increase the quality and type of technologies being disseminated.
2. Move towards shared ownership of the agricultural technology system by key shareholders.
3. Develop new partnerships with the private institutions including NGOs.

National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), (2012)

The Basic Role:

Give the agricultural research and technology development system an explicit development
and business perspective through innovative models. In other words, the agricultural research
system should be able to support agriculture as a business venture and also as a means of security of
livelihood of the rural Indian while maintaining excellence in science.
Make the National Agricultural Research System a 'pluralistic' system where every
organization having stake in agricultural research: public, private or civil society, has to play a role.
Working in well defined partnership groups with clear common goals and understanding on
sharing responsibilities and benefits.
Funding through competition so that a wide choice of excellent innovative ideas come in
from the stakeholders themselves and work with focus, plan and time frames.

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 Lecture Number: 5
Privatization of Extension and Cyber Extension.

❖ Process of funding and delivering the extension services by private individual or

organization is called Private Extension
❖ Privatization is the act of reducing the role of government or increasing the role of
private sector in an activityor in the ownership of assets
❖ Services rendered in the area of agriculture and allied aspects by extension personnel
working in private agencies or organizations for which farmers are expected to pay a
fee (or free) and it can be viewed as supplementary or alternative to public extension
services” .
Weak Points:
1. Extension worker : Farmers ratio-1:1000
2. Inability to reach all farmers
3. Ineffective Extension services
4. No need assessment
5. Women involvement is low
Need of Privatization:-
❖ Indian agriculture is self reliant in food production.
❖ Out of 1,10,000 extension staff of whom around 20% are graduates
❖ Low cost technology
Extension Strategy for 21th century:-
• The primary goal of Government is to Maintain food security.
• India is in process of privatizing its input system to improve farmer access to purchased
inputs and to create a more efficient input supply system.
Concept:-
Privatization of extension refers to services rendered in rural area & allied aspects of
extension personnel working in private agencies or organization for which farmers are expected
to pay a fee & it can be viewed as supplementary or alternative to public extension
services. (Sarvanan & Shivalinge 1980)
Approaches:-
• Share cropping system
• Village extension contract system
• Public extension through private delivery
• Servicefor vouchers.
Strengths of Private Extension System:-
1. More demand - driven rather than supply – driven.
2. High quality of services in terms of satisfying information
needs.
3. Provides formal information mix and choices available to farmers.
4. Enhanced efficiency of staff
5. Assure continuous supply and quality agricultural products
6. More effective because farmer can select an adviser who is the best able to help.

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Cyber extension:-
■ Cyber extension is an agricultural information exchange mechanism over cyber space, the
imaginary space behind the interconnected computer networks through telecommunication
means
■ It utilizes the power of networks, computer communications and interactive multimedia to
facilitate information sharing mechanism
Potential Advantages of Cyber extension:-
■ Continuously available
■ Information rich
■ Offer instant international reach
■ Cut steps from traditional process
■ Receiver-oriented approach
■ Activism
■ Individualism
■ Message
■ Feedback
■ Save money, time and effort
■ Multiplicity of purpose

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 Lecture Number: 6

Farmer led extension, Market led extension and Expert System in extension.
Farmer led extension:
• Beneficiary
• Facilitator
• Decision Maker
• Manager
• Executor
Concept:-
• The Farmer Field School is evolved from the concept that farmers learn optimally from field
observation and experimentation in 1989 (Indonesia).
• In this cyclical learning process, farmers develop the expertise that enables them to make
their own crop management decisions.
• Farmers Field Schools (FFS): A Group Extension Process Based on Adult Non-Formal
Education Methods.
• If I hear it, I forget it. If I see it, I remember it. If I discover it, I own it for life.
• Technically strong facilitator
• Based on crop phenology and time limited
• Group study
• Field School Site
• Activity flow in IPM.
Market led Extension:
• Even after 60 years of independence, the quality, timely and cost effective delivery of
adequate inputs remains a dream
• Farmers are not able to sell their surplus produce remuneratively
• Plenty of distress sales among farmers
Need:-
• Conversion of F-L-E into M-L-E
• Orientation of extension system with knowledge and skills related to the market.
• Minimization of production cost.
• Introduction of export oriented product.
• Modernization of wholesale markets or new markets with new Agricultural policy.
• Transport facilities
• Regular updating of market intelligence
• Production technologies like improved varieties, organic farming, usage of bio-fertilizers
and bio-pesticides, IPM, INM, and right methods of harvesting etc.
• Post-harvest management like processing, grading, standardization of produce, value
addition, packaging, storage, certification, etc. with reference to food grains, fruits and
vegetables, eggs, poultry, fish, etc.
• Contract farming
• Private modern terminal markets
• Food retail chains

19
• Food safety and quality standard
• Certification
• WTO regulations
Market:-
• Markets must be available and profitable. Potential risks include:
– rapid price fluctuations;
– highly competitive markets;
– limited number of buyers.
Problems:-
1. Production related
Seasonality of production: Supply not uniform throughout the year.
Perishability of produce: Problem of storage.
Bulkiness of production: Transportation problem.
2. Market related
Non – availability of MI: Lack of information about the market.
Existence of many middleman
Inferior quality of produce.
3. Extension related
Lack of communication skills.
Lack of credibility.
Insufficient information related with market and many more….
Suggestions:-
1. Training programme for extension worker
2. Workshop on Market-Led Extension at regional level
3. To introduce market-oriented approach into extension subjects.

Expert System in Extension:-

Extension Service:
- Extension workers
- Extension Teaching Methods
Human Resource of Extension:-
• Short supply of extension agents.
• Lower level of education of extension agents.
• Less number of female extension agents.
• More number of farmer per extension worker.
• Poor ratio of SMS to agents.
• More area to be covered by agents.
Meaning:-
Is an intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inferences
procedures to solve problems ( Daniel Hunt,1986 )
Objectives:
• To make farming more efficient and profitable
• To enhance the performance of agricultural extension personnel and farmer
• To reduce the time required in solving the problem.
• To maintain the expert system by continuously upgrading the database

20
 ADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEM
Solves critical problems by making logical deductions without taking much time
It combines experimental and conventional knowledge with the reasoning skills of
specialists
To enhance the performance of average worker to the level of an expert
Limitation of Expert System:-
Expensive computer program
Mostly developed not in regional languages
Requires AC power and internet connection all the time
Complex software requires computer skilled personnel
Need:-
Agricultural technology is constantly changing day by day
To deal with the overgrowing complexities of agricultural technologies.
To make efficient and accurate decisions.
APPLICATION OF EXPERT SYSTEM IN AGRICULTURE
• Crop production estimates
• Crop selection
• Soil management
• Nutrient management
• Plant diseases and pests management
• Weed management
•
Benefits of Expert System:
A. FARMERS

Maximization of benefit.
Efficient use of available resources and infrastructure.
Awareness of cost benefit ratio before actual adoption.
Appropriate Decision making.
Encouraging for diversification.
Encouraging for quality production

B. PRIVATE AGENCIES
Creating scope for developing infrastructure
Generating Rural Employment

21
 Lecture Number: 7
Rural development: definition, meaning and concept of rural development, rural development
programmes
Rural Development: Concept and Definition:-
As a concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the
quality of life rural people. As a phenomenon, it is the result of various physical, technological,
economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors.
Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the
quality of life of rural people. It is an integrated process, which includes social, economical,
political and spiritual development of the poorer sections of the society.
According to Robert chambers, rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group
of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves, and their children more of what they
want and need.
In short, rural development is a process that aims at improving the standard of living of the
people living in the rural areas.
Importance of Rural Development:
Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social
transformation. The basic objective of all rural development endeavors / programmes has been the
welfare of the millions. In order to achieve this, planned attempts have been made to eliminate
poverty, ignorance and inequality of opportunities.
A wide spectrum of programmes has been undertaken so far, to alleviate rural poverty and
ensure improved quality of life for the rural population especially those below the poverty line. In
the initial phase of planned rural development, the concentration was on sectors of agriculture
industry, communication, education and health.
The Ministry of Rural Development places importance now on health, education, drinking
water, housing and road so that the quality of life in rural areas improves and the fruit of economic
reform are shared by all sections of the society.
Rural Development ensures the modernization of the rural society and the transition from its
traditional isolation to integration with the national economy. It is concerned with increased
agricultural production for urban and international markets. This is essential so as to generate
foreign exchange, and to attract revenue to finance public and private consumption and investment.
In order to encourage increased production rural development may offer a package of inputs and
welfare services for the rural masses. Such inputs and welfare services include physical inputs
(such as the provision of feeder roads, water and electrification), social inputs—(namely health and
educational facilities) and institutional inputs such as credit facilities, agricultural research facilities,
rural expansion services among others.
Objective of Rural Development
The main objective of the Rural Development is improving the living standards of rural
people by utilizing the easily available natural and human resources. The other objectives of rural
development programmers are as follow:
1. Development of agriculture and allied activities.
2. Development of village and cottage industries and handicrafts.
3. Development of socio-economic infrastructure which includes setting up of rural
banks, co-operatives, schools etc.
22
 4. Development of community services and facilities i.e. drinking water, electricity, rural
roads, health services etc.
5. Development of Human resource mobilization.
Problems in Rural Development
As we know the 60-70% of rural population in India lives in primitive conditions. This
sorry state exists even after 60 years of independence. So that Rural Development programmes
have urgency in the present condition also. There are many obstacles in the rural development
programmes:-
1. In 21st Century, there is no electricity supply in many villages.
2. Now also many rural peoples using primitive methods of cooking, living and farming and they
have trust on these methods.
3. By using primitive cook stoves, around 300,000 death / year takes plan due to pollution.
4. 54% of India’s population is below 25 years and most of them live in rural areas with very
little employment opportunities.
5. Literacy is the major problem in rural development programme.
6. The poor extension linkage causes slow growth of rural development.
7. Untrained, unskilled, inexperienced staff in extension linkage cannot provide satisfactory help
to rural peoples.
8. Every one want to go to the cities, so that rural people’s remains as ignores part by the policy
makers also.
9. Privatization concept is useful for rural development but, government not praying much
attention to this aspect.
10. Policy makes prepared policies, programmes for betterment of rural people but, if these
programmes are not implemented very well then have no used.

●IMPORTANT THINGS●
Sr. Short
Programme Year Remarks
No Form
Socio-economic
1. Community Development Programme CDP 1952
development of group.

2. Intensive Agriculture District Programme IADP 1960-61 Increase income of people.

3. High Yielding Variety Programme HYVP 1964-65 Wheat & Paddy growing.

4. Institution Village Linkage Programme IVLP 1995-96 Technology Assessment.

4. Watershed Development Programme WDP 1977-78 Conservation Regeneration

6. National Agriculture Technology Project NATP 1998 Technology Transfer

23
 Agricultural Technology Management
7. ATMA 2005-06 Identify specific Needs.
Agency

8. National Horticulture Mission NHM 2004 Horticulture Potential

9. National Agricultural Innovation Project NAIP 2012 Poverty Alleviation

10. Integrated Tribal Development Project ITDP 1996-97 Tribal Development

11. Integrated Rural Development Programme IRDP 1978-79 Poverty Alleviation

12. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana SGSY 1999 Self Employment

13. Prime Minister Employment Yojana PMEY 1993 Self Employment

Development of Women and Children in

14. DWCRA 1982-83 Improve Women Condition
Rural Areas

15. Integrated Child Development Scheme ICDS 1975 Improve Child Nutrition

16. Mahila Samridhi Yojana MSY 1993 Empower Rural Women

17. Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal MAVM 1975 Self Help Group

24
 Lecture Number: 8
Community Development Programme: Concept, Organizational Set-up, Philosophy

Concept:
The community development programme was started in India just after independence
(1952).
The aim of an overall development of rural people. This programme consisted of
agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation, cooperation, public health, education, social
education, communication, village industries etc.
The Community:
A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in
each other for the purpose of making a living
Community Development:
Community development is technically aided and locally organized self help.
Community development is a process of social action in which the people of a community
organize themselves for planning and action, define their needs and problems.
Organizational Set-up for Community Development Extension Service:
The organizational set-up for Community development Programme runs form the national
level through state, district and block levels to the village level.
A) National Level:
Policies are formulated by the National Development Council presided over by the Prime
Minister of India. Membership of the Council consists of the Central ministers of the concerned
ministers, chief ministers of all states, and members of the Planning Commission.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is responsible for giving national guidance,
policy formulation and technical assistance in regard to Agriculture Extension and Community
Development (now Rural Development programmes).
The Agricultural Commissioner, Government of India, top in CDP Administration.
B) State Level:
State Development Committee presided over by the Chief Minister of the state with the
other concerned ministers as its members. This Committee is responsible for the state’s plan and
programmes and for fixing the targets for regions and districts.
State Developments Commissioner is the top-level executive responsible for directing,
coordinating and providing overall guidance for development programmes.
He co-ordinates the activities of different development departments, such as agriculture,
animal husbandry, co-operation, panchayati raj, health, education, irrigation, power and electricity.
C) District Level:
At the district level also, there is usually a District Development or District Planning
Committee presided over by the District Collector or Deputy Commissioner.
In the states, where the Panchayati Raj is operating, the Zila Parishads are responsible for
planning, co-ordinationg and consolidating the development programme in the district.
E) Village Level:
At the village level, the multi-purpose village-level worker is the main extension staff. He
is the last extension functionary in the administrative hierarchy. Usually, in a normal community
development block, there are 10 village-level workers.
25
Philosophy of Community Development Programme:-
The philosophies on which the community development programme should be based are as follows:
1) Work based on “felt needs” The programme should help the community to solve some of the
problems which it feels are existent.
2) Work based on assumption that people want to be free form poverty and pain:
It is assumed that the members of the community want a standard of living that allows them
to be free form pain caused by lack of sufficient social side it is assumed that the people
have four basis wishes a) security b) recognition c) response, d) new experience.
3) It is assumed that people wish to have freedom in controlling their own lines and deciding the
forms of economic, religious, education and political institutions, under which they will live.
4) It is presumed that co-operation, group decision-making, self initiative, social responsibility,
leadership, trustworthiness and ability to work are included in the programme.
5) Self-Help: The people actually plan and work on the solution of their problems themselves. If
the problems of the community are entirely ameliorated through the efforts of some outside
agency, then the development of such things as group decision-making, self-initiative, self-
reliance, leadership etc.
6) It is by getting the participation of the people in improvement activities that they become
developed.
7) The programme involves a change in attitude, habits, ways of thinking relationship among
people in the level of knowledge and intellectual advancement of people, changes in their
skills, i.e. practices of agriculture health etc.

26
 Lecture Number: 9

Community Development Programme: Stages of Community Development, Principles,

Objectives and Differentiate between CDP and Extension.

Stages of Community Development:

There are three stages that community development processes go through:
Stage One: Relationship Building:
Building relationships of trust and developing friendships are crucial to successful
community development. Getting to know the people in your own group and the groups with
which you are working is the first stage in the process of creating a sustainable working
relationship. Take time to get to know the people in your Friendship group.

Stage Two: Process Development:

Once good relationships have been developed, groups can begin to plan activities. This will
involve sharing ideas, dreams, aspirations and visions, and learning about the community in which
you are working. What are their strengths? What are their needs? What are their aspirations?
Stage Three: The Consolidation of Structures and Mechanisms:
At this stage commissions, committees and task forces or interest groups are formed to plan
and implement the activities and programs that have been collectively decided upon. These
structures are also responsible for keeping the information flowing between the groups and out into
the wider community, and often carry out the monitoring and evaluation processes that keep the
programs and activities vibrant and sustainable.

Objectives of Community Development Programme:

1) To change the outlook of all village people.
2) To improve existing village crafts and industries and organizing new ones, providing
minimum essential health services and improving health practices.
3) Providing required educational facilities for children and adults as well as recreational
facilities.
4) Improving housing and family living conditions of villagers.
5) To develop a responsive village leadership, village organization and institutions.
6) To develop village people so that they become self reliant and responsible citizens.
7) To help people that they can increase their income and quality of life.
8) Organizing or arranging trainings for voluntary local leaders like members of panchayats,
village and block advisory committees etc.
Principles of Community Development
Canadians Michael and Julie Bopp described the principles of community development as follow:
1. Harnessing Community Tensions:
For changes to occur there must be a tension in people’s mind between the way things are and the
way people want them to be. There must be a desire for change and a desire to work together to
create the change.
2. Facilitating Consultation about Community Realities and Needs:
As noted in detail below, for community development to work successfully, there has to be
awareness about community needs as decided upon by the community themselves, not as decided
27
upon by outsides.

3. Maintaining Unity and Healthy Human Relations:

It is important to build respectful healthy relationship between members of the group and to work
on managing conflicts as they occur so as to maintain a collective vision.

4. Developing a Common Vision of Sustainable Future:

If community development is to work, it must be sustainable and the process must include
everyone. Stories abound of development processes failing because the resources or the process
were not sustainable or well devised or were done without consultation. We have all seen pictures
of computers lying unused because the hardware or software broke or just because people in the
community didn’t actually see need for computers.

5. Supporting Core Group Development:

It is essential to encourage and support your group. Get to know the people in your group. What
are their interests and skills? How much time can they dedicate to the group’s activities? Everyone
needs to be clear about their capacities and the limits to their time and energy that may exist.
Encourage and build up a strong support base so that the group is not dependent upon only one or
two people. Make sure the group is as representative of the community as it can be-that means
including and listening to the needs of women and children as well.

6. Personal Revitalization and Healing:

Good community development processes provide an opportunity for people to become empowered,
energized and to undo some of the harms of the past.

7. Facilitating Learning:

The entire development process is a learning experience. People can become aware of their
environment, their social and political reality and can learn how to make the steps necessary to
change and improve their situation.

8. Building Effective Organizations:

Formalizing the initial volunteer group is crucial part of the development process. Creating and
implementing formal organization structures creates legitimacy and respect for the organizations
and lets the community know that you are serious about your endeavours. It helps keep people
unified and accountable and is part of the process of developing and implementing plans and
activities.

28
9. Networking with Resources and Allies:

Creating the networks between like minded individuals who then form a group who then network
with other groups in order to learn and share skills and resources and knowledge is a crucial part of
the community development process. The most effective groups are those that are well networked
and work on co-operation with others in their area. Find out whether your area has a friendship
school or rotary club or other group that is already working.

10. Programme Development:

It is important to have a clear programme. An as hoc approach to community development

processes will not work. A programme must be developed in conjunction with the community and
be about community needs and priorities. They must adhere to realistic timelines and have inbuilt
monitoring and evaluation processes so that changes can be tracked. The prorgramme acts as a map
to signal where it is the group going.

11. Reflection on the Process: Monitoring and Evaluation:

Monitoring and Evaluation is very important as it allows the group to track progress, identify
problems, and improve upon community development processes.

12. Protecting the Process:

Community development processes are dependent upon a rant of other processes: the good will of
those involved, the continuation of funds, a secure political environment, a lack of violence. Once
any of these dynamics is disrupted, then negative change and conflict may occur. It is important to
have risk management strategies built into your process Less well developed processes might have
fallen victim to the conflict and insecurity.

Difference between Community Development Programme and Extension Education:

SR. Community Development
Criteria Extension Education
No. Programme
1 Focus on Co-operation Individual
Education
2 Group development Individual development
aimed at
3 Main theme Group needs. Individual’s needs.
An educational arm of
Government Direct Government approach to
4 Government, usually through
approach straight line organization.
educational institutions
Representatives of different
5 TOT Other resources to people.
services.
Serving several departments of the
6 “Branch” of Department of Agriculture
Government.

29
 Lecture Number: 10

Rural Leadership

❖ Concept of Leader and Leadership

Definitions of leader:
Leader is a person who exerts an influence over a number of people
OR
Leader is one who leads by initiation of social behavior, by directing, organizing or controlling the
efforts of others, by prestige or power or position

Definitions of leadership:

Leadership is defined as an activity in which effort is made to influence people to cooperate in

achieving a goal
OR
Leadership is defined as the role and status of one or more individuals in the structure and
functioning of group organizations

Types of Leader:

SR.
Types of leaders Remark Example
NO.

1 Operational Those persons who actually initiate Volunteer Leader

leaders: action within the group,
regardless of whether or not they
hold an elected office.
2 Popularity leaders: Group of people will be elected Ornamental
person to a position of leadership Leaders/ Nominal
because the members like him. Leaders
Sometimes such an individual may
or may not be the actual leader of
the group.
3 Assumed a person selected to work with a Representor
representative: committee or (Group B) have
assumed that he represents
another group (Group A)
4 Prominent talent: An outstanding ability Artists And Musicians
and accomplishment in their
respective fields.
5 Professional The professional leader is one who Extension Officer,
leaders: has received specific specialized Gram Sevak,

30
 training in the field. He works full
time as an occupation and is paid for
his work.
6 Lay leaders: May or may not have received
(Volunteer leaders, special training, is not paid for his
or local leaders or work and usually works part time.
natural leaders) These local leaders may be either
formal leaders or informal leaders
7 Autocratic leader: Autocratic leader is also known as
authoritarian leader.
He operates as if he cannot trust
people. He thinks his subordinates
are never doing what they should
do.
To view employees as children and
encourage them to come to him with
all their problems, no matter what is
the nature or magnitude of the
problem.
Agricultural Officer etc.
Youth club president,
Gram Sahayak
a. Most employees
develop a sense of
frustration, and finally
feel insecure in their
job
b. Work slows down or
stops completely when
the supervisor is away
group
c.The employee’s needs
for a feeling of
importance and
satisfaction are not met

e.Employees frequently
either become
aggressive
8 Democratic leader: 1. He shares with the group a.Employees produce
members the decision making and larger quantity and
planning of activities. higher quality of work
2.The participation of all members
is encouraged. b. Individual and group
3. He works to develop a feeling of morale are high
responsibility on the part of every
member of the group. c.Employee’s basic
4. He attempts to understand the needs to participate and
position and feelings of the feel important are met
employee.
5. If he criticizes, he does so in d. Employees feel
terms of results expected, rather secure
than on the basis of personalities.
9 Laissez-faire leader: 1. He believes that if you leave a. Low morale and low
workers alone, the work will be productivity within the

31
 done. work group.
2.He seems to have no confidence b.Employees are
in himself. If at all possible he puts restless and lack
off decision-making. incentive of ‘team
3.He tends to withdraw from the work’.
work group. c.Another leader often
an informal leader
arises.
d.Problems of
administration
supervision

Roles of leader in a Group:

Groups are dependent on leaders. He plays an important role in group's activity.
1. Group initiator:
Binding all group member with one thought and aim.
2. Group spokesman:
Ready to put voice of group infront of society and higher authority.
3. Group harmonizer:
Maintain proper uniformality and equality in group.
4. Group planner:
Arrange all resources for avoiding problems as well as proper aim focusing.
5. Group executive:
Always be front side while practical utilization of planned things.
6. Group educator or teacher:
Ready to give right direction to all members.
7. Group symbol or symbol of group ideas:
Gather all members on same ideas and aware them about to achieve.
8. Risk Bearing ability:
Always keeping reality basis risk while adopting any new things for group. Learning from
success and failures.
9. Empathy:
Always maintain empathy towards group and members.
10. Unbiased:
Keeping equality in group.
11. Openness:
Never hide anything in mind and honest with profession.
12. Well-wisher and dreamer:
Have good thought for all members and encourage them for their prosperous path.

32
 Lecture Number: 11

Rural Administration

The word administer derived from Latin language “ad+ minister” means “care for” or “looks after
people to manage affairs.”

Definition:
“Administration is the organization & direction of human & material resources to achieve
desired ends.”
- Pfiffner & Presthus.

Importance of Administration:

Sr. ADMINISTRATION
No.
1. Make the policies of an organization
3. It is a top-level activity.
4. It consists of owners who invest capital in and receive profits
from an enterprise
5. Its decisions are influenced by public opinion, government policies,
social, and religious factors.
6. Planning and organizing functions are involved in it.
7 It needs administrative rather than technical abilities.

Nature of Administration:

It is universal.
It is holistic.
It is continuous & ongoing process.
It is goal oriented.
It is social & human nature.
It is dynamic.
It is creative or innovative.

Elements of Administration:
Luther Gullick denoted the functional elements by the letters POSDCOEB wherein:
“POSDCORB”
1. Planning.
2. Organizing.
3. Staffing.
4. Directing.
5. Co-ordinating.
6. Reporting.
33
 7. Budgeting.

Planning:
Working our in broad outline the things to be done and the methods to be adopted
for accomplishment.
It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most for
achievement of pre-determined goals.

According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do

& how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”.

A plan is a future course of actions. It is an

exercise in problem solving & decision making.

Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals.

Thus, planning is a systematic thinking ways & means for accomplishment of pre-
determined goals.

Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources.

It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding
confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Organizing:

It is the process of bringing together financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals.
According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful
or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”.

Staffing:
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned.
Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of
technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc.
The main purpose of staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in
square holes and round pegs in round holes.
According to Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning
the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal &
development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”.
■ Staffing involves:
Manpower planning: (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and
giving the right place).
Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
Training and development Remuneration Performance Appraisal.

34
Directing:
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational
methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes.
It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of
people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the
work.
Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with
influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub- ordinate for the achievement of
organizational goals.
Direction has following elements:
Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act
of watching & directing work & workers.
Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub ordinates with
zeal to work. monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.
Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of
subordinates in desired direction.
Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from
one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

Coordination:
Interrelated the various parts of the work and eliminating overlapping of the conflict.
Co-ordination is the integration, synchronization of the efforts of group members so as to
provide unity of action in the pursuit of common goals.
According to Mooney and Reelay, “Co-ordination is orderly arrangement of group efforts to
provide unity of action in the pursuit of common goals”.
According to Charles Worth, “Co-ordination is the integration of several parts into an
orderly hole to achieve the purpose of understanding”.
Reporting:
Keeping both the superiors and subordinates informed of what is going on and
arranging for collection of such information through inspection, research and records.
Budgeting :
Financial administration

35
 Lecture Number: 12

Monitoring and evaluation: concept and definition, monitoring and evaluation of extension
programmes

EVALUATION: Meaning

• Evaluation is an activity we engage in every day

• The steps involved in all evaluations
– We need to make a decision about value or potential value of something
– We define criteria
– We make observations or collect evidence relating to the criteria
– We form judgments.

EVALUATION: Definitions

• Evaluation’ is a derivative of Latin word ‘Valere’ means strength of

• From ‘Valere’ comes the word ‘Value’ meaning worth or quality of something
• Evaluation may be defined as the process or method of determining the worth or quality of
something.
• This something in extension may be an activity, a programme, a situation, a process, a
procedure, a method, an innovation, a practice and so on

EVALUATION: Types

• Informal and Formal evaluations

• Formative and Summative Evaluations
• On-going and Ex-post Evaluation

A) Informal and Formal Evaluations:

There are several degrees of evaluation

Casual everyday evaluations

Self checking evaluations
Do-it yourself evaluations
Extension studies
Scientific studies

• Casual every day evaluation

– First impressions
– Without much consideration of principles of evaluation
– Umbrella decision
• Self-checking evaluation
– Further checking our ordinary observations
– Talking with others
36
 – Writing to others
– Sending brief questionnaire
• Do-it ourself evaluation
– More systematically done
– Carefully planned
– Require technical help
– Surveys which produce usable results
• Extension studies
– More involved
– Complicated to plan and carryout
– Broader in scope
– Require greater attention of sound principles of evaluation
– Theses for Master’s degree
• Scientific research
– Involves very complex problems and techniques
– Long time and experimental studies - Cause and effect
– Atomic research, satellite research or cancer research

B) Formative and Summative Evaluations:

• Formative evaluation
– It attempts to identify and remedy shortcoming during the developmental state of a
programme.
– These are conducted before programme completion – During programme
implementation
– Provide early feedback
– Can be used to modify or adjust remaining stages of programme
• Summative evaluation
– It assess the worth of final version
– Conducted after the completion of programme
– We can assess the accomplishments and can know whether objectives are achieved.

C) On-going and Ex-post Evaluations;

• On-going evaluation
– An action oriented analysis
– To be carried out during implementation
• Ex-post evaluation
– Conducted several years after completion of investment
– To review the experience and impact
– Base for future policy formulation and project design.

Advantages of Evaluation:
• Helps to establish bench mark
• Shows how far our plans have progressed
• Shows whether we are proceeding in the right direction
• Indicates effectiveness of a programme
37
 • Helps to locate strong and weak points
• Improves our skills in working with the people
• Helps to determine priorities for activities in plan of work
• Brings confidence and satisfaction to our work

MONITORING: Definitions
• It is continuous / periodic review and surveillance by management, at every level of the
implementation of an activity to ensure that input, deliveries, work schedules, targeted
outputs and other required actions are proceeding according to plan
• It is a process of measuring, recording, collecting, processing and communicating
information to assist project management decision making

MONITORING: Concept
• In monitoring the purpose is to ascertain whether project objectives are achieved.
• This is carried out in terms of
– Whether the various tasks are carried out according to schedule
– Whether project impact is in accord with project objectives
– Whether project objectives / targets/ execution needs adjustments
• It is a management function
• Begins with start of the project and ends with completion of the project.

Differentiate between Monitoring and Evaluation:

SR.
Monitoring Evaluation
No.
Continuous : Starts and end with One shot operation, at a point
1
programme of time
Required for immediate use and mid Used for future planning
2
course correction
3 Done by implementing agency Usually by outside agency
4 Quick but covers all units In depth, covers a sample
5 Correcting / managing process Learning process
6 Symptomatic; early warning system Diagnostic

38
 Lecture Number: 13

Terminology and Basic concept

1. The word communication is derived from Latin

2. The word communication is derived from Latin word Communis.
3. The word communication is derived from Latin word ‘Communis’ which means establishing
commonness
4. Communication is a conscious effort to share information, ideas and skills
5. The success of extension worker depends largely on his ability in effective communication.
6. Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one person to
another
7. Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver.
8. Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver
9. According to Aristotle Model, communication process has three elements
10. According to Aristotle Model, communication process has three elements
11. Aristotle Model starts with Speaker and ends with audience.
12. Last element in Shannon and Weaver model was destination.
13. Aristotle Model of communication content Speaker, Speech and Audience
14. Berlo explains his model of communication on 1960.
15. Encode means to put the message into code or cipher.
16. Leagans Model of Communication content six elements.
17. channel is the bridge gap between source and receiver
18. S-M-C-R-E model of communication describe by Roger and Shoemaker
19. communication consists function like instruction, persuasion and integrative
20. communicator is the person who starts the process of communication.
21. communicator is the source or originator of messages
22. A message is the information a communicator wishes his audience to receive
23. A good message must be clear, understandable and significant
24. Ideal Message should be Specific, accurate and simple
25. Channels are the physical bridges between the sender and the receiver of messages
26. The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the
audience
27. Audience is the consumer of messages.
28. An Audience in communication process may be men, women and youth
29. Audience response content Understanding vs. Knowledge, Acceptance vs. rejection and
Mental vs. physical action.
30. A message must have characteristics like simple, understandable and significant.
31. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning “to lead out”.
32. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning to lead out.
33. The word “educate” comes from the Latin educere’, meaning “to lead out”.
34. There are three types of education
35. School education is Formal type of education.
36. Extension Education is non-formal education
37. Rules and regulations are the part of Formal.
39
38. Planning is a process which studying the past and present in order to forecast the future.
39. Planning is a process which studying the past and present in order to forecast the future.
40. Total Eight stages in Extension programme planning.
41. First step in extension programme planning is collection of facts or data.
42. Last step in extension programme planning is Reconsideration and revision.
43. Out of eight steps of extension programme planning first four steps know as Programme
determination.
44. Out of eight steps of extension programme planning last four steps know as Programme
implementation.
45. Solution is a course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory condition to satisfying.
46. Aim are generalized and broad statement of directions with respect to given activities.
47. Extension programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions.
48. As per the use Extension Teaching Methods classify in to, Individual contact methods, Group
contact methods and Mass contact methods.
49. Farm and Home Visit is the example of Individual contact methods.
50. Personal letter is the example of Individual contact methods
51. Farmers call is the example of Individual contact methods
52. Adaptive trial is the example of Individual contact methods.
53. Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place
54. There are six steps in extension teaching.
55. First step in extension teaching is awareness.
56. Last step in extension teaching is satisfaction.
57. conviction step in teaching audience convince their minds for learning new technologies.
58. Learning process by which an individual, through one’s own efforts.
59. 87 percentage of learning done with sight/eyes.
60. In learning process maximum things that learner learn with the help of sight.
61. There are 10 numbers of group technique methods
62. Lecture method of group technique is teacher oriented.
63. Lecture extensively used to present authoritative or technical information
64. Excellent method for presenting information to large number of audience within short period
is Lecture.
65. Characteristics of Lecture system of group technique is/are Teacher oriented, time bounded .
66. Appeals to “ear-minded” is to be done in Lecture technique.
67. In Debate two teams – One representing affirmative and other the negative side of the question
68. In debate two teams – One representing affirmative and other the negative side of the question
69. In debate two teams – One representing affirmative and other the negative side of the question
70. In debate two teams – One representing positive and other the negative side of the question
71. In four methods two speakers from each side deliver talk on topic
72. Each speaker is allowed a definite time to make main speech and rebuttal (disprove) after main
speech in debate
73. Short series of lectures is called symposium.
74. Symposium is the Short series of lectures.
75. Symposium is the short series of lecture.
76. Usually 2 to 5 speakers explore their thoughts in symposium
77. Each one speaks for definite time and presents different phase of a topic in symposium.
78. Pannel is an informal conversation by a small group of speakers – 2 to 8.
40
79. Panel is rehearsed before its presentation.
80. In Panel leader introduces members and announces topic
81. In Panel leader may ask questions, or may make comments and encourage less talkative
members.
82. Forum is a discussion period that may follow lecture or debate or symposium or panel
83. Brain storming is a small group interaction.
84. Brain storming is a small group interaction.
85. In Brain storming participants are encouraged to list all ideas that come to their mind.
86. In Buzz Session large groups are divided into smaller units for a shorter period
87. Buzz session is also called Hurdle system.
88. Buzz session is also called Phillip 66 system.
89. Phillip 66 and Hurdle system is the name of Buzz session.
90. Panel has type like question-answer, set up question and conversational type.
91. Extension teaching methods content major component like teaching and learning.
92. Extension teaching methods content major two component like teaching and learning.
93. Extension teaching methods content major two component like teaching and learning.
94. There are Five elements in learning situation
95. instructor is a person who starts teaching-learning process.
96. Teaching materials means Books, Duster and Projector.
97. learner is a key person for which learning situation is to be done
98. Addiction step not includes in teaching steps.
99. Ideal teaching steps includes Satisfaction, Action and Desire.
100. Second step in teaching process which is too much important i.e. interest.
101. Practical things i.e. implementing topic is to be done in Action step of teaching.
102. satisfaction is the last and important steps for teacher point of view.
103. Feedback in teaching-learning process occurs in form of Dis-satisfaction and Satisfaction.
104. Meeting between extension person and farmer is comes under individual contact method
category.
105. T.V. comes under mass contact method.
106. Radio comes under mass contact method.
107. Poster comes under written extension contact method.
108. As per the use Extension Teaching Methods classify in to Individual contact methods,
Group contact methods and Mass contact methods.
109. Farm and Home Visit is the example of Individual contact methods
110. Personal letter is the example of Individual contact methods
111. Farmers call is the example of Individual contact methods
112. Adaptive trial is the example of Individual contact methods
113. Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place
114. There are six steps in extension teaching.
115. First step in extension teaching is awareness.
116. Last step in extension teaching is satisfaction.
117. conviction step in teaching audience convince their minds for learning new technologies.
118. Learning process by which an individual, through one’s own efforts.
119. 87percentage of learning done with sight/eyes.
120. In learning process maximum things that learner learn with the help of sight.
121. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning “to lead out”.
41
122. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning to lead out.
123. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning “to lead out”.
124. There are three types of education
125. School education is Formal type of education.
126. Extension Education is non-formal education
127. Rules and regulations are the part of Formal
128. objectives are the expression of end towards which our efforts are directed.
129. Objectives are the expression of end towards which our efforts are directed.
130. Attendance is compulsory in formal education
131. Dress code is compulsory in formal education.
132. formal education start with theory and ends in practical.
133. formal education is teacher oriented.
134. degree is awarded in formal education.
135. extension education also called non-formal.
136. informal is the life-long education
137. Example for formal education is/are School and College.
138. School and college comes in Formal type of education
139. Extension education comes in Non-formal type of education.
140. Farmer / Learner oriented education is Non-formal.
141. Education which start with practical first and summarized on theory is Non-formal.
142. In Non-formal education subject select for teaching-learning is learner’s interest.
143. Out of school system education is Non-formal.
144. Different size of age group people are the part of Non-formal education.
145. Syllabus for teaching and learning is not fixed in Non-formal education.
146. No any degree, Diploma and Doctorate awarded to participant in Non-formal education.
147. Informal education is the lifelong experience education.
148. Education is the process in which individual changes their Knowledge, attitude and skill.
149. Education is the process in which individual changes there, Knowledge attitude and skill.
150. College education comes under Formal.
151. Sriniketan Programme done in West Bengal
152. Sriniketan Programme done under guideline of Mr. Rabindranath Tagore and Mr. Leonard.
153. In 1921 at Tamilnadu Marthandam Programme was done under Dr. Spencher Hatch.
154. Nelokheri Experiment one was Rehabilitation Programme on 1948.
155. Firka Development Programme Based on Gandhian Ideal Gram Swaraj.
156. F.L. Braney related with Gurgaon experiment.
157. Gurgaon Experiment development project done in India on Haryana.
158. Marthandam Programme based on development of individual on socio-economic, mental,
spiritual.
159. Marthandam Programme based on development of individual on mental, spiritual things.
160. Community Development Programme launch in year 1952.
161. Major remark of Community Development Programme was Socio-economic development of
group
162. IADP stands for Intensive Agriculture District Programme.
163. Intensive Agriculture District Programme start in year 1960-61.
164. Major remark of High Yielding Variety Programme was to Rice and Wheat growing.
165. HYVP full form is High Yielding Variety Programme.
42
166. High Yielding Variety Programme started in year 1964-65.d.
167. Agricultural Technology Management Agency launch in year 2005-2006.
168. ATMA stands for Agricultural Technology Management Agency.
169. NHM stands for National Horticulture Mission.
170. National Horticulture Mission launch in year 2004..
171. Major objectives of Integrated Tribal Development Project was Tribal development.
172. Poverty Alleviation was the major remarks for Integrated Rural Development Programme.
173. Integrated Rural Development Programme started in 1978.
174. Major objectives for Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas programme was
Improve Women Condition.
175. Primary aim for ICDS Improve Child Nutrition.
176. Mahila Samridhi Yojana started in year 1993.
177. Major object for Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal Self Help Group.
178. Self Employment is the major object for Prime Minister Employment Yojana and
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana.
179. Sewagram Programme started during 1920 in Gujarat.
180. Mr. F.L. Braney was the concern authority for Gurgaon Experiment
181. Extension Education is branch of Social Science.
182. Word Extension Derived from Latin language.
183. The word Extension Derived from Latin Root ex and tension.
184. Extension Education is out of school system.
185. Extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘Ex’ meaning out and ‘tensio’meaning stretching.
186. Extension education helps in changing people Knowledge, attitude and Skill.
187. Extension Education helps People to understand their Problems and resources
188. The objectives are the expression of the ends forwards which our efforts are directed.
189. objectives are the expression of the ends forwards which our efforts are directed.
190. The basic objectives of the extension education are the overall development of the rural
people.
191. Extension education plays major role in bringing desirable change in rural people.
192. One of the objectives of Extension education is to brings scientist closer to the farmer.
193. Agriculture extension works started officially first in U.K.
194. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845.
195. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845.
196. The crisis was the outbreak of potato blight in Europe in 1845.
197. The individual is supreme in democracy
198. The home is a fundamental unit in a civilization.
199. The home is a fundamental unit in a civilization.
200. The family is the first training group of the human race.
201. The family is the first training group of the human race.
202. The family is the first training group of the human race.
203. A principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action n a consistent manner.
204. Principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action n a consistent manner.
205. A principle is a statement of policy to guide decision and action n a consistent manner.
206. Principle of extension education Cultural Change, Cultural differentiation & Leadership.
207. Principle of extension education co-operation, evaluation and satisfaction.
208. Local leaders are the guardians of local thoughts and action
43
209. Extension work will have a better success if the extension workers have whole-family
approach.
210. The end product of the efforts of extension teaching is the satisfaction.
211. satisfaction is the key to success in extension work.
212. It is necessary to determine the teaching results in an unbiased way.
213. Extension is based upon the methods of science and it needs constant evaluation.
214. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning “to lead out”.
215. The word “educate” comes from the Latin ‘educere’, meaning to lead out.
216. The word “educate” comes from the Latin educere, meaning “to lead out”.
217. There are three types of education
218. School education is Formal type of education.
219. Extension Education is non-formal education
220. Rules and regulations are the part of Formal education.
221. Planning is a process which studying the past and present in order to forecast the future.
222. Planning is a process which studying the past and present in order to forecast the future.
223. Total Eight stages in Extension programme planning.
224. First step in extension programme planning is collection of facts or data.
225. Last step in extension programme planning is Reconsideration and revision.
226. Out of eight steps of extension programme planning first four steps know as Programme
determination.
227. Out of eight steps of extension programme planning last four steps know as Programme
implementation.
228. Solution is a course of proposed action to change an unsatisfactory condition to satisfying.
229. Aim are generalized and broad statement of directions with respect to given activities.
230. Extension programme is a statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions.
231. Evaluation’ is a derivative of Latin word
232. Evaluation’ is a derivative of Latin word ‘Valere’ means strength of.
233. Evaluation may be defined as the process or method of determining the worth or quality of something.
234. Evaluation process have three number of types
235. Evaluation process have types which are Informal and Formal evaluations, Formative and
Summative Evaluations and On-going and Ex-post Evaluation.
236. Informal and Formal evaluations content Five degrees of evaluation.
237. Evaluation process have types which are Informal and Formal evaluations, Formative and
Summative Evaluations and On-going and Ex-post Evaluation.
238. Umbrella Decision is carried out in Casual every day evaluation
239. Sending brief questionnaires is taken in evaluation like Self checking.
240. Scientific research Involves very complex problems and techniques for evaluation
241. Formative attempts to identify and remedy during developmental state of a programme.
242. Summative evaluation conducted after the completion of programme
243. On-going evaluation carried out during implementation
244. On-going evaluation carried out during implementation.
245. Ex-post evaluation Conducted several years after completion of investment
246. Ex-post evaluation for future policy formulation and project design
247. Monitoring is continuous / periodic review and surveillance by management
248. In monitoring the purpose is to ascertain whether project objectives are achieved.
249. monitoring Begins with start of the project and ends with completion of the project.
250. monitoring Done by implementing agency.
44
251. Symptomatic; early warning system is monitoring.
252. Complicated to plan and carryout Extension studies.
253. evaluation usually by outside agency
254. evaluation Used for future planning
255. Diagnostic and evaluation involved in evaluation.
256. Umbrella Decision is carried out in Casual every day evaluation
257. Sending brief questionnaires is taken in evaluation like Self checking.
258. Scientific research Involves very complex problems and techniques for evaluation
259. Evaluation’ is a derivative of Latin word ‘Valere’ means strength of
260. Evaluation process have three number of types
261. Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the
quality of life of rural people.
262. Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the
quality of life of rural people.
263. Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the
quality of life of rural people.
264. Rural development is a process that aims at improving the standard of living of the people
living in the rural areas.
265. Objectives of Rural Development is/are Development of agriculture and allied activities,
Development of socio- economic infrastructure and Development of Human resource
mobilization.
266. 60-70% of rural population in India lives in primitive conditions.
267. Illiteracy is the major problem in rural development programme.
268. The poor extension linkage causes slow growth of rural development..
269. Privatization concept is useful for rural development but, government not praying much
attention to this aspect.
270. Community Development Programme launch in year 1952.
271. Major remark of Community Development Programme was Socio-economic development of
group
272. IADP stands for Intensive Agriculture District Programme.
273. Intensive Agriculture District Programme start in year 1960-61
274. Major remark of High Yielding Variety Programme was to Rice and Wheat growing.
275. HYVP full form is High Yielding Variety Programme.
276. High Yielding Variety Programme started in year 1964-65.
277. Agricultural Technology Management Agency launch in year 2005-2006.
278. ATMA stands for Agricultural Technology Management Agency
279. NHM stands for National Horticulture Mission
280. National Horticulture Mission launch in year 2004.
281. Major objectives of Integrated Tribal Development Project was Tribal development.
282. Poverty Alleviation was the major remarks for Integrated Rural Development Programme.
283. Integrated Rural Development Programme started in 1978.
284. Major objectives for Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas programme was
Improve Women Condition.
285. Primary aim for ICDS Improve Child Nutrition.
286. Mahila Samridhi Yojana started in year 1993.
287. Major object for Mahila Arthik Vikas Mahamandal Self Help Group.
45
288. Self Employment is the major object for Prime Minister Employment Yojana and
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana.
289. Community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in each
other for the purpose of making a living
290. Community development is technically aided and locally organized self help.
291. Community development is technically aided and locally organized self help.
292. Community development is technically aided and locally organized self help.
293. Organizational Set-up for Community Development Extension Service content five levels.
294. State Developments Commissioner is the top-level executive responsible for directing,
coordinating and providing overall guidance for community development programmes at state
level.
295. Philosophy of Community Development Programme based on Felt needs.
296. There are three stages that community development processes go through
297. First stage in Community Development Programme is Relation building.
298. To change the outlook of all village people is the object of Community Development
Programme.
299. Community Development Programme stages includes Consolidation structure and
Mechanization, Process development. Relation building.
300. Community Development Programme focus on Co-operation.

46
 UNIT 4
Syllabus: Transfer of technology: concept and models, ICT applications in transfer of
technology, capacity building of extension personnel, training: classification
Monitoring and evaluation: concept and definition, monitoring and evaluation of
extension programmes

MONITORING AND EVALUATION

MONITORING: Definitions

It is a process of measuring, recording, collecting, processing and communicating information to

assist project management decision making. In monitoring the purpose is to ascertain whether
project objectives are achieved.

This is carried out in terms of whether the various tasks are carried out according to schedule,
whether project impact is in accord with project objectives, whether project objectives / targets/
execution needs adjustments. It is a management function which begins with start of the project
and ends with completion of the project.

Principles of MONITORING

1. Monitoring must be simple: A complex or complicated monitoring system is self-defeating.

The basic task of monitoring is to simplify the field-level complexity, sifting the more important
concerns from the less important.

2. Monitoring must be timely: Timeliness is of the essence in monitoring. Management requires

input from the monitoring system so that timely action may be taken. Also, timeliness is closely
related to the credibility of monitoring itself.

3. Monitoring must be relevant: It must concern itself only with parameters which are relevant
to programme objectives. This also ensures that monitoring does not generate information that is
not used or is not usable by management.

4. Information provided through monitoring should be dependable: Management will rely on

monitoring findings only if the information is believed to be reasonably accurate.

5. Monitoring efforts should be participatory: Effort should be made to ensure participation by

all concerned with extension, be they field-level personnel, subject-matter specialists, or
extension's clients (the farmers).

6. Monitoring must be flexible: It is iterative in nature. It also gets routinized with the passage of
time. These two features should not, however, lead to rigidity.
7. Monitoring should be action oriented: Monitoring often leads to action. Consequently, it
should follow pragmatic approaches, keeping the requirements of extension's clients uppermost
in view. Generating information for which there is no intended use should be assiduously
avoided.

8. Monitoring must be cost-effective: Monitoring efforts cost money and time. It is therefore
essential to make it cost-effective. While principles of simplicity, time-lines, relevance, and
accuracy will lead to cost-effectiveness, computerization also can help to make monitoring more
cost-effective by reducing staff hours in data processing.

9. Monitoring efforts should be top management oriented: Monitoring units should keep in
mind the requirements of top management when designing and operating a monitoring system.
Yet at the same time, monitoring must take into account the fact that those who provide
information to the system also must benefit or the quality of the information provided will
decline.

10. Monitoring units represent specialised undertakings: Monitoring is not merely concerned
with the collection and analysis of data, but with diagnosing problems and suggesting alternative
practical solutions.

EVALUATION: Definitions

Evaluation‟ is a derivative of Latin word „Valere‟ means strength. From „Valere‟ comes the
word „Value‟ meaning worth or quality of something. Evaluation may be defined as the process
or method of determining the worth or quality of something.

EVALUATION: Types

1. Informal and Formal evaluations

2. Formative and Summative Evaluations

3. On-going and Ex-post Evaluation

1. Informal and Formal Evaluations:

There are several degrees of evaluation:-

a) Casual everyday evaluations

b) Self checking evaluations

c) Do-it yourself evaluations

d) Extension studies
 e) Scientific studies

a) Casual every day evaluation-

• First impressions

• Without much consideration of principles of evaluation

• Umbrella decision

b) Self-checking evaluation-

• Further checking our ordinary observations

• Talking with others

• Writing to others

• Sending brief questionnaire

c) Do-it yourself evaluation-

• More systematically done

• Carefully planned

• Require technical help

• Surveys which produce usable results

d) Extension studies-

• Complicated to plan and carryout

• Broader in scope

• Require greater attention of sound principles of evaluation

• Theses for Master‟s degree

e) Scientific research-

• Involves very complex problems and techniques

• Long time and experimental studies - Cause and effect

• Atomic research, satellite research

ii) Formative and Summative Evaluations:

 Formative evaluation-

– It attempts to identify and remedy shortcoming during the developmental

state of a programme.

– These are conducted before programme completion – During programme

implementation

– Provide early feedback

– Can be used to modify or adjust remaining stages of programme

Summative evaluation-

– It assess the worth of final version

– Conducted after the completion of programme

– We can assess the accomplishments and can know whether objectives are
achieved

iii) On-going and Ex-post Evaluations:

On-going evaluation-

– An action oriented analysis

– To be carried out during implementation

Ex-post evaluation-

– Conducted several years after completion of investment

– To review the experience and impact

– Base for future policy formulation and project design

Advantages of EVALUATION:

• Helps to establish bench mark

• Shows how far our plans have progressed

• Shows whether we are proceeding in the right direction

• Indicates effectiveness of a programme

• Helps to locate strong and weak points

 • Improves our skills in working with the people

• Helps to determine priorities for activities in plan of work

• Brings confidence and satisfaction to our work

MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Sl. No. Monitoring Evaluation

1. Continuous: Starts and end with programme One shot operation, at a point of
time
2. Required for immediate use and mid course Used for future planning
correction
3. Done by implementing agency Usually by outside agency
4. Quick but covers all units In depth, covers a sample
5. Correction/ managing process Learning process
6. Symptomatic: early warning system Diagnostic

MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF EXTENSION PROGRAMMES

• Programme evaluation is the determination of the extent to which the desired objectives
have been attained or the amount of movement that has been made in the desired
direction (Boyle and Johns, 1970).

• Programme evaluation is the process of judging the worth or value of a programme. The
judgement is formed by comparing the programme should be (Steele, 1970).

Steps Involved in an Extension Programme Evaluative Process:-

i) Formulate evaluation objectives-

• Specific objectives to be achieved through the evaluative process must be clearly and
adequately identified and started.

• All further efforts should be knit around these objectives.

ii) Classify programme objectives-

• It is assumed that each extension programme, when formulated and implemented, will
have specific well defined objectives.

• Since evaluation is basically a process of determining the extent to which various

extension teaching activities were organized and managed and the extent to which they
contributed to achieving the goals, programme objectives must be clearly understood and
 • If necessary, further broke down into measurable terms. This is a crucial step as all
further efforts will be directed towards collecting evidence related to these objectives.

iii) Identify indicators-

• To identify indicators or the kind of evidence necessary to evaluate achievement in

relation to specified programme objectives

• It is necessary that specific beneficiaries of the programme be identified, the kind of

behavioural changes expected in them be clearly stated,

• And the kind of learning experiences expected to be provided to them spelled out

iv) Decide the kind of information needed-

• Once the indicators for evaluating the management and performance of a programme
have been indicated,

• Specific information to be collected may be worked out.

• Since there is usually more information than an

• Extension worker can collect; he has to be very discriminating about the kind and amount
of information that should be collected.

• Timing for collection of information may also need to be specified

v) Sampling-

• The purpose of sampling is to take a relatively small number of units from a population in
such a way that the evidence collected from them becomes representative evidence of the
entire population.

• Although there are several sampling methods, perhaps stratified sampling procedures
may be most suitable for extension evaluation studies a they allow inclusion of all
interested groups and ensure enough heterogeneity in the sample.

vi) Decide the design of evaluation-

• An ideal design of evaluation may be an experimental one. This would allow separating
the effect of the programme from other factors, by setting control and treatment groups.

• However, in actual practice, extension progammes are seldom run in a way that allows an
experimental design of evaluation.
 • In Pilot Projects, it might be possible to use an experimental design of evaluation. By and
large, a survey method is use.

• This method can be used for evaluating on-going progress or as an ex-post facto
evaluation of the programme after it has completed its tenure.

vii) Collection and analysis of evaluation evidence-

• There are many methods for collecting information for evaluative purposes, such as

1. Mail questionnaire,

2. Personal interview,

3. Distributed questionnaires,

4. Group interviews,

5. Case studies,

6. Systematic field observations,

7. Systematic study of secondary data etc.

Selection of the right kind of data collection method will depend on

1. the objectives of the evaluation,

2. kind of information needed,

3. time and resources available and

4. the type of respondents from whom information is to be collected.

However, whatever the method used a specific questionnaire or interview schedule or data
recording sheet must be developed with care. Once the data is collected, it must be tabulated,
summarized and analyzed with adequate care. This step should not be rushed. To avoid delay,
however, analysis may be done with the help of a computer.

viii) Interpretation of the results in a proper way-

• It is a very crucial as evaluation results can be missed also. Once tentative generalizations
are arrived at,

• It may be appropriate and they are informally discussed among the interpreters as well as
with programme planning and implementation officials, so that the results of evaluation
are put in a proper perspective.
 • The evaluation results must clearly state the achievements, failures and future
adjustments needed.

• A written report of the evaluation findings should be prepared and made available to all
concerned.

CAPACITY BUILDING OF EXTENSION PERSONNEL AND FARMERS

TRAINING: Definitions

Human resource development is crucial and continuous requirement. HRD refers to enhancing
capacity and efficiency of human beings for performing any specific work. Human resource
could be developed through training. Training means to educate a person so as to be fitted,
qualified, and proficient in doing job.

Training is the reciprocal process of teaching and learning a body of knowledge and related
methods of work (UN Handbook of Training in the Public Service, 1966).

Training is a planned communication process which results in changes of attitudes, skills and or
knowledge in accordance with specified objectives relating to desired patterns of behaviour
(Khemmani, 1983).

Training is a process by which the desire, knowledge, attitude, skill and ideas are inculcated,
fostered and reinforced in an organism (Lynton and Pareek, 1967).

Some commonalities of TRAINING-

 Training is planned and purposeful instruction

 Training aims to improve performance of participants

 Training is linked with here and now affairs

EDUCATION AND TRAINING-

Sl. Education Training

No.
1. Concerned with opening out the world to the Concerned with preparing participants
student for job
2. Helps to choose and decide activity Helps to improve performance
3. Deals with knowledge and understanding Deals with skill, attitude and
understanding
4. Personal development Job oriented
5. Fixed curriculum Need oriented
6. Teacher oriented L earner oriented
7. Long term process Short term process
8. No immediate application Immediate application
9. Homogeneity Heterogeneity

TRAINING PROCESS-

Training is the the process where participants get training by the trainers by stimulating the
trainees.During the training ,starting point becomes the focus at the end hoping with
difference.The difference lies in what people have learned that they have to apply practice .That
difference in terms of more effective behavior ,is the measurement of the efficacy of training.The
training process involves three phases :Pre- training, Training, Post- training

Pre-training-

 Preparatory phase

 Planning of training

 Assessing individual need for training

 Deciding course content as well as methods

 Arrangements to select participants

 Informing about course details

Training-

 Actual implementation according to plan

 Execution of different activities

 Reception of trainees
  Lodging and boarding

 Organization of instruction

 Field trip and monitoring

 Creating atmosphere for free interaction and practicing new skills

 Developing good rapport, personal attention and feedback is essential.

Post-training-

 Post-training test

 Measurement of impact

 Follow up of participants at work place

 Bringing improvements on the basis of evaluation

Training process – MODELS:

1. Simple model of training process

2. Elaborated model of training process

3.Spiral model of training process

Methods of TRAINING:

1. Lecture
2. Symposium
3. Panel discussion
4. Case study method
5. Role playing
6. Brain storming method
7. Buzz session
8. Conference

 Lecture- It is a method of verbal presentation of a topic by a speaker to a group of

audience. Lecture should be well organized and well prepared so that it can draw
attention of the audience and convey the message to them. The main limitation in lecture
method is the passive role of the audience.
  Symposium- It is a meeting in which a small number of resource persons present short
prepared papers on a given topic. Each one speaks for a definite amount of time and
presents a different phase or sub-division of a general topic.
 Panel discussion- A panel discussion, or simply a panel, involves a group of people
gathered to discuss a topic in front of an audience, typically at scientific, business, or
academic conferences, fan conventions, and on television shows.
 Case study method- In this method, a written case or a problem situation is presented to
the participants in a programme for careful study and examination from all facets, so as to
enable them to exercise their analytical, synthetical and decision making powers.
 Role playing- The participants can be made to act and re-live a particular situation to get
a real feel of the roles they are actually called upon to play. Successful role playing
requires good empathy.
 Brain storming method- A small group of knowledgeable persons/ is given a problem
and asked to produce as many solutions as possible within a given period. It should be
restricted to fewer than 20 people a group.
 Buzz session- This technique involves dividing a large group into much smaller ones, in
which a topic is discussed within a limited period of time. It may be used to solicit
solutions to problems or to gather opinion.
 Conference- Assembly of difference organizations and department for discussing issues
of common interest, end result is set of recommendation for policy making.

Essential features of Training Plan:

• Comprehensiveness

A training paln must be comprehensive document based on the assessed training needs of
the extension personnel within the framework of the extension training policy.It must
take into account all categories and levels of extension personnel.

• Consistency

The training must be consistent not inly with the guidelines provided in the training
policy bit with other National and state level agricultural policies and
programmes.Additionally it must be consistent with the available financial and training
resources.

• Result oriented

The training plan must specifically pinpoint the gains which will accrue as a result of its
implementation.

• Quantification
 It clearly denotes tpo what is proposed to be accomplished through the Training paln.A
training paln deals with number how many and of what categories of extension personnel
to be trained in how many discipline and in how many institutions.

• Integration

Integration represents a deliberate attempt to pool all the training requirements and
develop inter-disciplinary training requirement which cut across disciplines and
categories of extension personnel.

Typology of TRAINING:

According to stages of career-

• Pre-Service Training : Professional training prior to appointment to the extension service

• Orientation Training: Given to the newly appointed extension personnel, it provides an
introduction to public employment and attempts to provide answers to questions which a
newly recruited person is likely to ask.
• Induction Training: Given to the new extension personnel after they have been
employed and before they are assigned to work in particular area.
• In-service Training: Includes all forms of training during the period of employment by
the extension service.
• On-the-job training: Training received by extension personnel in more or less informal
manner from experienced personnel in job related activities.
• Refresher Training: Any new training for updating professional competence of
extension personnel, notably in the subject matter area.
• Re-Training: Instructional efforts designed to prepare an individual for a new assignment
or new duties.
• External Training: The extension personnel are deputed to other training institutes who
have specialized in different subject matter areas.
• Training for professional qualification: Training is given to enable extension personnel
to acquire higher graduate or post-graduate qualifications.
• Overseas Training: Training is used to acquire expertise in areas in which such expertise
is not available indigenously or is not available indigenously to the required degree.
• Training by overseas experts: Overseas experts are invited to train extension personnel.

According to Level of Extension Personnel-

• Field level extension personnel

• Middle level extension personnel
• Top level extension personnel
 This is easily understood typology.However its disadvantages is that it is over simplified
and does not tell anything about the stage of extension personnel career nor about the
area of training needs.

Components and sub-components of TRAINING-

Sl.No. Components Sub-components of training

1. Knowledge (K) Knowledge of Extension Methods
Subject Matter Knowledge
Knowledge of Clients' Problems and their Solutions
Knowledge of Farms, farm Families, and Farming Systems, and
Knowledge of Farm Economics, Inputs Supply and Marketing
2. Skills Communication Skills
Technological Skills
Demonstration Skills
Organisational Skills
Training Skills, and
Diagnostic Skills
3. Attitudes Attitude for Serving Clients
Attitude for Acquiring Latest Knowledge and Technical Know-How
Attitude for Problem - solving
Attitude for Field Work, and
Attitude for Self-Development
4. Attributes Personality Traits
Conduct
Empathy
Experience, and
Self-Development

Training Institutes for Extension Personal and Farmers.

_ Need for Training to Extension Personal:
• Need to update knowledge and skills continuously
• Regular training help developing the capacity
_ Orientation about organizations‟ goal, achievements, their responsibilities
_ Mastery of technical competencies
_ Strengthening of instructional competencies
Training Institutes for Extension Personal:
• ICAR institutes
• State Agricultural Universities (SAUs)
• Advance Centres of Training (ACT)
• National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
• Extension Education Institutes (EEIs)
• State level Training Centres
• Gramsevak Training Centres/ Extension Training Centres
Farmers Training:
• It is an intensive learning activity for a group of selected farmers assisted by competent
trainers to understand and practice the skills required in adoption of new agricultural
technologies at a place where appropriate facilities exist and at a time and duration
considered suitable by farmers.
Key Points for Farmers Training:
• Must be conducted when it is most needed
• Careful analysis of available resources, inputs, preferences and practices of farmers
• Developing link between training efforts and developmental programmes
• Practicing – “teaching by doing” and “learning by doing”
• Training should emulate life – In no case it should become dull and boring
• Must be followed by demonstration, discussion or advice
Farmers Training Centers:
• Important element in extension training
• Imparts requisite knowledge and training to the farmers
• In-charge of FTCs (District Training Officers) must assess training needs of farmers
Krishi Vidyan Kendra (KVK):
• Launched in 1974 by ICAR
• Imparts need based and skill oriented training
• Vocational training institute for farmers and field level functionaries

Functions of KVK:
• To organize long term vocational training for rural youths for self employment
• To organize training of farmers and extension functionaries
• To organize front line demonstrations
• To collaborate on farm testing, refining and documenting technologies
TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology- It is a Greek word, „Techno‟ – Art of doing or systematic way of working and
„Logus‟ – Knowledge or study. Technology means application of science to the practical aim of
human life. It refers to the transformation of scientific laws into machines, tools, mechanical
devices, instruments, innovations, procedure and techniques to attain tangible ends or manipulate
environment for practical purposes.

Agricultural technologies- Material technology, where knowledge is embodied into a

technological product; and Knowledge based technology, such as the technical knowledge,
management skills and other processes that farmers need for better farm management and
livelihood support.

Transfer of Technology (TOT)-

• No idea or product can be moved just by lifting it physically

• Mere physical shift will not ensure its use

• People are not passive

• People have their attitudes, opinions, values and established ways of doing the things

• Extent of acceptance is influenced by variety of factors – personal, social, environmental,

resource

• Acceptance demands new learning and adjustment

• TOT refers to the entire process of technology development, processing, dissemination

and integration through research, extension and farming systems keeping in view the
resources, organizational limitations and capabilities of the three systems to solve the
problems of society

Technology development constitutes 7 processes-

Technology Development (also called technology innovation) is a process consisting of all the
decisions and activities which a scientist does from recognition of a need/ problem with
planning,testing, conducting research, verification, testing and dissemination for adoption.
Understanding technology development process in agriculture and its components is vital for
success. Technology development basically constitutes seven processes. They are:

1. Technology generation
 2. Technology testing

3. Technology adaptation

4. Technology integration

5. Technology demonstration

6. Technology dissemination

7. Technology adoption

Technology generation, the starting point of technology development process is mainly a

function of research system. Testing, adaptation and integration processes constitute technology
assessment and refinement which KVK system executes through On Farm Testings (OFTs).The
feedback is passed over to research system. KVK system also involves in technology
demonstration through FLDs (Frontline demonstrations).Feed-forward from successful OFTs
and FLDs is communicated to the extension system for mass popularization in the district.
Technology adoption; the final act, occurs among the members of clientsystem i.e. farmers.

Technology Gap- Technology Gap is the gap between the level of recommendation and the
extent of adoption (against recommendations). Technology gaps are a major source of concern
for extension system. The success of traditional transfer of technology (TOT) models was mainly
evaluated on the basis of the extent of narrowing down in technology gaps achieved by them.

Transfer-of-technology models-

1. The top-down technology transfer model:

Weakness of this model is that it does not involve farmers in identifying the constraints and
adapting the research to local conditions. This model has failed in areas where the farming
system is complex.
2. The feedback technology transfer model:

Feedback is considered to be weak as the users remain passive recipients of technology and the
feedback function solely rests with the extension service.

3. The modified feedback technology transfer model:

Importance is given to identification of farmer target groups in the recommendation domain.

4. Farmer-back-to-farmer' technology generation and transfer system:

It has been designed to improve two-way communication. FSR/E research must begin and end
with the farmer. It involves diagnosis to define problems; interdisciplinary team research to
develop potential solutions; on-farm and experiment station testing and adaptation of proposed
solutions to farmer's conditions. Farmer evaluation and adaptation of the technology and
monitoring of its adoption has been improved. Degree of farmer participation and integration
between on-station and on-farm research is high in this model compared with the modified
feedback model.

Concept of ICTs:

The word „ICT‟ stands for "Information and Communication Technology". ICT refers to
technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. ICTs focus on
communication technologies. Global term includes technologies for communication of
information. ICTs include any medium for recording and broadcasting of information.

Definition of ICT-

ICTs can be defined as electronic and digital technologies for storing, processing, transferring of
information and communication. They are enabling technologies that allow quicker and more
efficient exchange of information.

ICT in Agriculture-

Information and communication technology in agriculture (ICT in agriculture), also known as e-

agriculture, is developing and applying innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural domain, with a
primary focus on agriculture. ICT in agriculture offers a wide range of solutions to some
agricultural challenges.

Use of ICT application in agricultural production-

 According to IFPRI, agricultural extension (also known as agricultural advisory services)

plays a crucial role in promoting agricultural productivity
 increasing food security
 improving rural livelihoods
 Promoting agriculture as an engine of pro-poor economic growth

Modern ICT Tools & Techniques-

Tools: Techniques: Techniques are procedures used to

Tools are something you use to do accomplish specific activity or task.
a job.
Computer, Laptops, Internet, E-mail, Internet Telephony,
Websites, Web Portals Wi-Fi

Mobile phone, Smart phones, Whats App, Face book, twitter

Tablets, Call Centers
 Interactive whiteboards GPRS, USSD Technology, SMS, Conference Calling

Touch Screen Systems, E-learning

Information Kiosks

Expert Systems, Teleconferencing, Video conferencing

Interactive Voice Response GIS, Remote Sensing Technology

Systems

Digital TV, Scanners, Streaming media

Personal Digital Entertainment Podcasts, Blogs
Devices

Need of ICT Application in Agriculture-

 No free access is available to any source of appropriate

agricultural technologies.
 Wide ratio of entrepreneurs/farmers to extension professional.
 Right information, at the right time, to the right person, at right
place with cost effectiveness is key for decision making.
 Information gap among the Researcher -Extension professionals – farmers/
entrepreneurs.
 ICTs provide cost effective information delivery system.
 Information delivery system has been changed from old ways to the modern ways.
 Wide gap between the information “haves and have not‟s”.
 Facilitate communicate in real-time across the world

ICTs for transfer of Agricultural technologies-

1. Expert Systems
2. Touch Screen Systems
3. Information Kiosks
4. Interactive Voice Response Systems
5. Mobile phone and mobile app
6. Websites, Web Portals

What is Expert System?

An “Expert System” is an intelligent computer programme that uses knowledge and inference
procedures to solve problems that are difficult enough and require human expertise for their
solution.

Why Expert Systems?

 Human expertise is scarce & perishable which can be saved and shared.
 It allows the organization to replicate its very best people.
 Expertise can easily be transferred to other members.
 Consistent.
 Cost effective.
 Efficient.

Architecture of an Expert System-

Architecture of an Expert
System
Knowledge
Base

Inference
Engine

Knowledge
Acquisition Explanation User
Module Module Interface

Domain Expert
User
2
9

Component of Expert System-

1. The Crop Doctor:

• It was developed using “if and then” rule based programme with help of dot net
server
• Purely image based

2. Decision Support System:

• A DSS is an interactive system that helps decision-makers utilize data and models to
solve unstructured or semi-structured problems.
• Appropriate decision of day to day crop practices

3. Information System:
 • Wed based static and dynamic information where all the contents and technologies
related to concern crop is loaded.

Expert Systems in Agriculture-

 Rice-Crop Doctor
 Rapeseed-Mustard Expert System
 Wheat expert system
 Maize Expert System
 Expert System on Mushroom
 Weed control systems
 Expert System for Sugarcane
 Banana Expert system
 Expert system for cattle and buffalo
 Expert system on Sheep and Goat
 Expert system on poultry

Touch Screen Kiosks-

 What is Touch Screen System?

 What is Touch screen kiosk?
 How the information get available on the Kiosk.
 Present application of Touch screen systems.
 How touch screen can be used for Agriculture sector

Information Kiosks-

What is information kiosk?

 In generalized term information kiosks are the public installations wherein computers are
installed to make services accessible to the farming community.
 Information kiosk is a hub of information as per the need of the area.

What kind of agriculture information gets available?

 Plant protection measures.

 Nutritional deficiencies and their management.
 Symptoms of various pests and diseases and control.
 Video clippings on various agriculture technologies.

Major Initiatives-

 ITC‟s e-Choupal
 ISRO‟s VRC
 NDDB‟s Dairy Information Services Kiosk
  MSSRF‟s Village Knowledge Centres
 Rural Internet Kiosks Gyandoot

Interactive Voice Response Service-

What is IVRS?

 IVRS is a technology that allows a computer system to interact with humans through the
use of voice and inputs via keypad.
 IVRS technology automates interactions with telephone callers.
 The system responds with pre recorded or dynamically generated audios to further direct
users on how to proceed.

ICT initiative-
Challenges:

 The lack of reliable connectivity in rural areas.

 The sheer lack of reliable connectivity in rural areas.
 Poor literacy level.
 The need to have usage of graphics and voice over‟s (less confidence with computers,
low literacy levels) in content.
 Farmers benefit more from simple technology which communicates information, which is
relevant and easy to understand.
 Door delivery of information is limited by the fact there are very large number of farm
households and many families may not have TVs or own telephone sets and may not
have daily access of newspapers
 UNIT-5

Syllaabus: Extension teaching methods: meaning and classification, media mix strategies
Communication: meaning and definitions, principles and functions of communication models
and barriers to communication.

Extension Teaching Methods.

Extension Teaching Method:
Definition of Teaching Method:
Teaching methods may be defined as the devices used to create situations in which communication
can take place between the instructor and the learner.
Functions of extension methods are:
1. To provide communication so that the learner may see, hear and do the things to be learnt;
2. to provide stimulation that causes the desired mental and / or physical action on the part of the
learner;
3. To take the learner through one or more steps of the teaching-learning process, viz., attention,
interest, desire, conviction, action and satisfaction.
TEACHING:
It is the process of arranging situations in which the important things to be learned are called to
attention of learners, their interest developed, desire aroused and action promoted
LEARNING:
It is the process by which an individual, through one‟s own efforts and abilities changes the
Behavior

Elements of Learning Situations:

1. Instructor:
Must know topic/technology/information deeply.
Always encourage farmers/students about their problems and achievements towards goal.
Cool nature and never show temper while communication.
Have time management aspects.
2. Teaching material:
It is the real source where instructor or teacher get information related with their
topic/technology
e.g.: books, research papers, internet, magazines, thesis etc.
3. Physical Facilities:
It is the environment which create positive atmosphere for learner and teachers in ideal
teaching-learning process.
E.g.: Chairs, fans, A.C., projectors, light, benches etc.

4.Subject matter:

It is the actual technology /message or innovation that instructor want to share with learners.
Subject matter should be timely and valid in nature. Have ability to satisfy demands of
learners. It has problem solving capacity. Unbiased.
4. Learner:

Must be attentive
Respect towards
message and technology
Trust on instructor and must be obey towards instructions.
Active towards technology understanding and adoption to it.

STEPS IN TEACHING- LEARNING PROCESS:

Teaching learning is a continuous process consisting of various steps.According to Wilson & Gallup,
these steps are as follows

1) Attention:
Proper introduction of technology or topic to audiences or farmers. Central theme of topic is
to be expected in attention stage that‟s why audiences should aware regarding learning
situation.

2) Interest:
After successful implementation of topic to audience they have interestingly learn more about
current technology. Interest create mindly acceptance of topic to know more.

3) Desire:
If people interest to know more about any message which extension person or teacher have
they start mentally thinking on concept to adopt more on topic. Desire with right attitude
always helps positive learning situation.

4) Conviction:
In this stage of conviction Individual convince their mind to adopt new things if people have
desire right on topic/ technology etc.

5) Action:
Actual implementation or adoption of topic / technology in physical way in their life. Proper
utilization of all aspect regarding technology.

5. Satisfaction:

In teaching-learning process satisfaction is the last stage which concern with the proper result
from utilize topic of techniques. Its expected positive.
Learning: Involvement of senses:-

1.5%
3.5%
1%
7%

87 %

Sight He aring Sme lling Touching Tasting

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS:-

Definition:-

Extension teaching methods are the devices used to create situations in which
communication can take place between an instructor and that learner.

Classification:-

1) Classification according to use

2) Classification according to form
1) Classification according to use:

Individual contact Group contact Mass contact

Farm and home visit Result Farm publications
demonstration
Farmers‟ call Method Mass meeting
demonstration
Personal letter Group meeting Campaign
Telephone call Training Exhibition
Adaptive trial Field day Newspaper
Study tour Radio
Television

2) Classification according to form

Written Spoken Visual Spoken and visual

Bulletins Meetings Result demonstration Method
demonstration
Leaflets Farm and home visit Exhibits Result
demonstration
Personal letters Office calls Posters Television
Circular letters Radio and recordings Charts Movies
Farm journals Telephone Slides Puppets
Flash cards Campaigns
Flannel graphs
Film strips

Individual Contact Method

Advantages
a. It helps the extension agent in building rapport.
b. It facilitates gaining firsthand knowledge of farm and home.
c. It helps in selecting administrators and local leaders.
d. It helps in changing an attitude of the people.
e. It helps in teaching complex practices, and
f. It facilitates transfer of technology effectively.
Limitations
a. This method is time consuming and relatively expensive.
b. It has low coverage of audience, and
c. Extension agent may develop favoritism or bias towards some persons.

Group contact methods

Advantages
Face to face contact with a no. of people at a time
Can reach target group
Facilitates sharing of knowledge and experiences & thereby strengthen learning
Motivate people to accept change due to group influence
Less expensive than individual method
Limitations
Wide variety in the interest of group members may create difficult learning situation.
Vested interest, caste groups and village factions may hinder free interaction & decision making

Mass contact methods

Advantages
Suitable for creating general awareness
More coverage
Facilitate quick communication in time of emergency
Less expensive due to more coverage
Limitations
Little scope for personal contact & interaction with audience
Generalized recommendations hinder application by individuals
Less control over responses of audience
Difficulty in feedback
Farm and Home visit and Group technique Methods.
Farm and Home visit (Individual contact method)
Content:

• Definition
• Objectives
• Technique
Planning and preparation Implementation
Follow-up
• Advantages
• Limitations

• Definition

It is a direct, face –to-face contact by the extension agent with the farmer or homemaker at their
farm or home for extension work

 Objectives

• To get acquainted with and gain confidence of farmers and homemakers

• To obtain and /or give firsthand information
• To advice and assist in solving problems and teach skills
• To sustain interest

 Technique

Planning and preparation

• Decide on the audience and the objectives
• Get adequate information about the topic
• Collect relevant publications and materials to be handed over
• Make a schedule of visit to save energy and time
• If possible, send advance information

Implementation
• Visit on scheduled date and time
• Create interest of the farmer
• Allow the individual to talk first
• Present the message
• Explain upto satisfaction
• Answer to questions raised
• Hand over publications
• Try to get some assurance for action
•
Follow-up
• Keep appropriate record of visit
• Send committed information or material
• Make subsequent visits as and when necessary

Advantages

• Provides extension worker with firsthand knowledge

• Builds confidence
• The ratio of „takes‟ to „exposure‟ is high
• Contributes to selection of better local leaders
• Develops good public relations
• Useful in contacting those -
Who do not participate in extension activities Who are
not reached by mass media

• Limitations

• Only limited number of contacts may be made

• Time consuming and costly method
• Attention may be concentrated on a few big and progressive persons

Group technique Methods (Group contact methods):

• Lecture
• Debate
• Symposium
• Panel
• Forum
• Buzz Sessions
• Brain Storming
• Workshop
• Seminar
• Conference

• Lecture

• Extensively used to present authoritative or technical information

• Range of subjects can be covered
• Excellent method for presenting information to large number of audience
within short period
Chief characteristics:
• It is an organized presentation
• Can be used to cover thoroughly the subject
• Appeals to the “ear-minded”
• Conserves time
• Results are easy to check

• Debate:

• Two teams – One representing affirmative and other the negative side of the
question
• Two speakers for each side
• Each speaker is allowed a definite time to make main speech and rebuttal
(disprove) after main speech
• Two way communication between debaters
• But one way communication for the audience
• Range of subjects is limited to controversial topics
• More than one side of question is presented

• Symposium:

• Short series of lectures

• Usually by 2 to 5 speakers
• Each one speaks for definite time and presents different phase of a topic
• Topic should be large enough to permit two or more sub-divisions

• Panel:

• Informal conversation by a small group of speakers – 2 to 8

• Members are seated – They can see one another and also face audience
• Panel is rehearsed before its presentation
• Leader introduces members and announces topic
• Leader may ask questions, or may make comments and encourage less
talkative members.

• Forum:

• It is a discussion period that may follow lecture or debate or symposium or

panel

52
• Audience may ask questions or make brief descriptions
• Provides opportunity to clear up obscure points

• Buzz Sessions:

• Large groups are divided into smaller units for a shorter period
• Groups of 6 to 8 persons get together after receiving instructions to discuss
about a specific issue
• Secretary of each small group will report the finding to the entire audience
after reassembling
• Also called – “Huddle System” or “Philips 66”

• Brain Storming:

• Small group interaction

• Participants are encouraged to list all ideas that come to their mind
• Specific period is given to the participants
• Participants are asked not to judge the outcome
• All the contributions are sorted out, evaluated and adopted

• Workshop:

• A long meeting from one day to several weeks

• All delegates are involved and problems are discussed
Planning session - where all are involved in the beginning Work
sessions - Considerable time is given
Summarizing and evaluation sessions - at the close
• At end produces a publication, visual or any other material

• Seminar:

• Leader introduces a topic

• Members discusses the subject to which ready answers are not available
• May have two or more plenary sessions
• Useful in pooling together opinions of large number of persons

• Conference:

• Pooling experiences and opinions who have special qualifications in an area.

Method Demonstration and Result Demonstration
Method Demonstration:

• Definition
• Objectives
• Technique
Planning and preparation Implementation
Follow-up
• Advantages
• Limitations

• Definition

It is given before a group of people to show how to carry out an entirely new practice or an old
practice in a better way

• Meaning and concept:

• It is skill training

• Emphasis on effectively carrying out a job

• Involves seeing, hearing, participating and practicing

• It stimulates interest and action

• May be used as complementary to result demonstration

• Objectives

• To teach skills and stimulate people to action

• To get rid of inefficient or ineffective movements

• To improve upon the result by doing a job in a better way

• To build up learners‟ confidence and satisfaction on the practice

54
 • Technique

Planning and preparation

• Decide on the topic, target audience and venue

• Select a topic – important and needed

• Contact SMS and ensure their participation

• Collect relevant information, material and equipments

• Identify the steps and practice demonstration

• Decide on the date and time

• Give timely intimation

• Display diagrams, charts, graphs etc. at the site

Implementation

• Start demonstration on scheduled date and time

• Show each operation step by step

• Explain clearly why and how it is being done

• Ensure that all have seen the demonstration and understood it

• Repeat difficult steps, if required

• Invite one by one to practice the skills

• Clarify doubts and answer to their questions

• Emphasize on key points again

• Hand over the relevant publications

Follow-up

• Keep a record of participants

• Maintain contact with them

• Assist the participants in getting the required materials and equipments

55
 • Advantages

• Suited to teach skills

• Seeing, hearing, doing and discussion stimulate interest and action

• Costly „trial and error‟ procedure is eliminated

• Builds confidence

• Introduce changes at low cost

• Provides publicity

• Limitations

• Suitable mainly for practices involving skills

• Needs good deal of preparation, equipment and skill of the extension agent

Result Demonstration:
• Definition:

Extension teaching methods which create successful comparison between two technologies with
practical approach and best will shown with result.

• Techniques

Planning and preparation

• Select any two or more practices suitable for the area

• Consult with research workers and farmers

• Select innovative farmer or research station farm for conducting the trial

Implementation

• Supply the critical inputs in time

• Supervise all important steps personally

• Assist the farmers to maintain accurate records

Follow-up

• Get the reactions of the farmers

• Discuss the results with research workers and farmers
• Explore the suitability of the practice for the area
• If required, repeat the trial for one or two years more

• On the basis of performance, take a decision to to recommend the practice for general
adoption
• Advantages

• Create confidence about new recommendations

• Useful in introducing new practice
• Contribute in locating local leaders
• Provide teaching material

• Limitations

• Need more time, energy and funds for extension work

• Unsuccessful demonstrations may cause some setback to extension work

Result Demonstration vs Method Demonstration

Particulars Result Demonstration Method Demonstration

• Purpose • To show value of a •To teach how to do a
recommended practice job involving skill
• Conducted • Farmer (Demonstrator) • Extension Worker
by
• Benefit to • Demonstrator as well as •Persons present at the
other farmer demonstration
• Comparison • Essential • Not essential
• Records • Necessary • Not necessary
• Time • Substantial period • Relatively very little
• Cost • Costly • Relatively cheap
• Inter •May involve one or more • Often paves way for
relationship method demonstration result demonstration

57
Communication: Meaning, Definition, Models, and their Characteristics

Communication: Meaning
The word communication is derived from Latin word „Communis‟ which means establishing
‘commonness’. Communication therefore, is a conscious effort to share information, ideas,
attitudes, skills etc., with others.
The success of extension worker depends largely on his ability in effective communication. He
should, therefore, be familiar with the key elements of the communication process to be fulfilled by
each of the elements if the communication is to be successful.

Communication - Definitions

• Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one person
to another (Brooker, 1949).
•
OR

• Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or
impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning, intent and use of
message (Leagans, 1961).

OR

• Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver
(Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971).

Models of Communication:

I. ARISTOTLE MODEL:
According to Aristotle Model, communication process has three elements
1. Speaker – Person who speaks
2. Speech – The speech that the individual produces
3. Audience – The person who listens
II. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL (1949):

Model is consistent with Aristotle‟s proposition. According to them, the ingredients of

communication are-

Compared with the Aristotelian model, the source is the speaker, the signal is the speech and the
destination is the audience, plus two added ingredients, a transmitter which sends out the source‟s
message and a receiver which catches the message for the destination.

III. BERLO’S MODEL (1960) OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS CONSISTS OF:

Code is a system of signals for communication. Encode means to put the message into code or
cipher. Channel means the medium through which the signals move, the decoder means which
converts the message in the code into ordinary language which may be easily understood.
He further elaborated that all human communication has some source, some person or group of
persons with a purpose. The purpose of the source has to be expressed in the form of message. The
communication encoder is responsible for taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code,
expressing the source‟s purpose in the form of a message. A channel is a medium, a carrier of
message. For communication to occur there must be somebody at the other end, who can be called
the communication receiver, the target of the communication.

IV. SCHRAMM (1961), MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS involves

This model of communication is particularly relevant for the mass media. In human
communication it is most important whether the people can properly encode or decode the
signal i.e., message and how they interpret it in their own situations.
V. LEAGANS (1963) OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS has the following elements

The task of communication, according to him, is to provide powerful incentives for change. Success
at this task requires through understanding of the six elements of communication, a skilful
communicator sending useful message through proper channel, effectively treated, to an appropriate
audience that responds as desired.

VI. ROGERS AND SHOEMAKER (1971) THOUGHT OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

IN TERMS OF S-M-C -R-E MODEL, THE COMPONENTS OF WHICH ARE

According to them a source (S) sends a message (M) via certain channels (C) to the receiving
individual (R), which cause some effects (E) i.e. changing the existing behavior pattern of the
receiver.
Communication in extension may also be thought of as two-way stimulus-response situation in
which the necessary stimulus is provided by the communicator, the extension agent, in the form of a
message, which produces certain response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa. A
favourable response by the audience reinforces learning.

Functions / Characteristics of Communication:

Communication has four basic functions-
1. Information function:
The basic requirement of adapting and adjusting oneself to the environment is information. There
must be some information about what is going on in the environment which concerns the people.
The getting or giving of information underlies all communication functions, either directly or
indirectly.

2. Command or instructive function:

Those who are hierarchically superior, in the family, society or organization, often initiate
communication either for the purpose of informing their subordinates or for the purpose of telling
them, what to do, how to do, when to do etc. The command and instructive functions of
communication are more observable in formal organizations than in informal organizations.
3. Influence or persuasive function:
According to Berlo (1960), the sole purpose of communication is to influence people. Persuasive
function of communication i.e. to induce people is extremely important for extension in
changing their behaviour in the desirable direction.

4. Integrative function:
A major function of communication is integration or of continuously
offsetting any disintegration at the interpersonal or at the organizational level. This
helps to maintain individual, societal or organizational stability and identity.

Elements of communication

Characteristics of Elements of extension communication system

The characteristics of each of the elements which may contribute to the success or failure of
communication are furnished as per Leagans.
1. THE COMMUNICATOR
This is the person who starts the process of communication in operation. He is the source
or originator of messages. He is the sender of messages. He is the first to give expression to
messages intended to reach an audience in a manner that results in correct interpretation and
desirable response. The communicator may be a Agricultural Extension Officer, Village
Development Officer, a Principal or an Instructor in a Training Centre, a Mandal Agricultural
Officer, a villager, an administrator or any other person.
The following are the characteristics of a good
communicator He knows:
a) his objectives - has them specifically defined;
b) his audience - its needs, interests, abilities, predispositions;
c) his message- its content, validity, usefulness, importance;
d) channels that will reach the audience and their usefulness;
e) how to organise and treat his message;
f) his professional abilities and limitations.
He is interested in:
a) his audience and its welfare;
b) his message and how it can help people;
c) the results of communication and their evaluation;
d) the communication process;
e) the communication channels - their proper use and limitation;
f) how to improve his communication skill.
He prepares:
a) a plan for communication - a teaching plan;
b) Communication materials and equipment;
 c) a plan for evaluation of results.
He has skill in:
a) selecting messages;
b) treating messages;
c) expressing messages - verbal and written;
d) the selection and use of channels;
e) understanding his audience;
f) collecting evidence of results.

2. MESSAGE OR CONTENT:
A message is the information a communicator wishes his audience to receive, understand, accept
and act upon. Messages, for example, may consist of statements of scientific facts about
agriculture, sanitation or nutrition, description of action being taken by individuals, groups or
committees, reasons why certain kinds of action should be taken; or steps necessary in taking
given kinds of action. Potential messages range as wide as the content of the programmes is.
Messages related to programmes of change are, therefore, the relevant „cargo‟ to be carried to
people by the channels of communication. They are the important content, sometimes referred to
as „arguments‟ „appeals‟ and „stimuli‟. Whether messages operate effectively as incentives to
changed behaviour in any given situation depends on a wide range of influences. A successful
communication is one in which the major factors influencing the message are controlled as far as
possible. This is the responsibility of the communicator.
A good message must be:
1. In line with the objective to be attained;
2. Clear – understandable by the audience
3. In line with the mental, social, economic and physical capabilities of the audience.
4. Significant – economically, socially, aesthetically to the needs and values of the
audience
5. Specific – no irrelevant material;
6. Simply stated covering only one point at a time.
7. Accurate – Scientifically sound, factual and current;
8. Timely – especially when seasonal factors are important and issues current
9. Supported by factual material covering both sides of the argument;
10. Appropriate to the channel selected
11. Appealing and attractive to the audience – having utility, immediate use.
12. Applicable – audience can apply recommendation;
13. Adequate – Combining principle and practice in effective proportion;
14. Manageable – can be handled by the communicator with high professional skill
and within the limits imposed by time.
3. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
The sender and the receiver of messages must be connected or „tuned‟ with each other. For this
purpose, channels of communication are necessary. Channels are the physical bridges between
the sender and the receiver of messages and the avenues between a communicator and an
audience on which messages travel to and fro. They are the transmission lines used for carrying
messages to their destination. Thus, the channels serve as essential tools of the communicator.
A channel may be anything used by a sender of message to connect him with intended receivers.
The crucial point is that he must get in contact with his audience. But channels are no good
without careful direction or use in the right way, at the right time, to do the right job for the right
purpose with the right audience, all in relation to the message.

4. TREATMENT OF MESSAGES
Treatment has to do with the way a message is handled to get the information across to an
audience. It relates to the technique, or details of procedure, or manner of performance, essential
to expertness in presenting messages. Designing the methods for treating messages does not
relate to formulation of the message or to the selection of channels, but to the technique
employed for presentation within the situation provided by a message and a channel.
The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the
audience. Designing treatment usually requires original thinking; deep insight into the principle
of human behaviour and skill in creating and using refined techniques of message presentation.
At this point, the effective teacher is separated from the less effective one, and the art of teaching
comes into play. Great teachers are adequate in all ways, but are superb in their ability to “treat”
messages.
5. The Audience
Obviously, an audience is the intended receiver of messages. It is the consumer of messages. It is
the intended respondent in message -sending and the assumed to be in a position to gain
economically, socially or in other ways by responding to the message in particular ways. In good
communication, the audience aimed at is already identified by the communicator. The „pay of‟ in
communication is dependent on what the audience does in response to messages. An audience
may consist of one person or many. It may comprise men, women, or both; youth groups,
villagers or their leaders. An audience may be formed according to occupation groups as farmers
or artisans; professional groups, as engineers, educators, administrators etc.
The importance of clearly identifying an audience cannot be overstressed. The more
homogeneous an audience, the greater the chances of successful communication. Likewise, the
more a communicator knows about his audience and can pinpoint its characteristics the more
likely he is to make an impact. An audience is found by identifying categories such as those
previously mentioned.
In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some of its general characteristics, there
are other somewhat more specified aspects that help to clarify the exact nature of an audience
and how to reach it. The following are some of these:
1) Communication channels established by the social organization.
2) The system of values held by the audience - what they think is important.
3) Forces influencing group conformity-custom, tradition etc.
4) Individual personality factors susceptibility to change etc.
5) Native and acquired abilities.
6) Educational, economic and social levels.
7) Pressure of occupational responsibility-how busy or concerned they are.
8) People‟s needs as they see them, and as the professional communicator sees them.
9) Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing.
10) How the audience views the situation.

It is useful to a communicator to understand these and other traits of an audience in making his
plan for communication. Like the marksman, unless a communicator sees his target clearly, he
can shoot a thousand rounds, and yet accomplish nothing.

6. AUDIENCE RESPONSE
This is the terminating element in communication applied to rural development programmes.
Response by an audience to messages received is in the form of some kind of action to some
degree, mentally or physically. Action, therefore, should be viewed as a product, not as a
process; it should be dealt with as an end, not as a means. Action taken by an intended audience
that can be attributed to a given communicative act by an extension worker may properly be
assumed to be a result of the degree to which these elements have been effective.
The number of possible kinds and degrees of response to messages received are almost infinite.
The following gives an idea of possible variety in response that may result when a useful
messages is received by a typical village audience of Indian cultivators.

1. Understanding vs. Knowledge:

Knowledge of facts alone does not constitute understanding. It is only the first step.
Understanding is attained only when one is able to attach meaning to facts, see the relationship
of facts to each other and to the whole of a proposition and the relationship of the total body of
facts to the problem under consideration. People usually do not act on facts alone but only when
an understanding of facts is gained. Communication must promote understanding.

2. Acceptance vs. rejection:

A free, alert and thinking human mind requires that understanding precede acceptance of facts
and propositions. In turn, it insists on mental acceptance before resorting to action. For, it is what
human beings come to believe, not what they merely know or even understand, that determines
what they do when they are free to act as they choose.
3. Remembering vs. forgetting:
When opportunity for action is not immediately available or action is delayed, the factor of
forgetting what was learned influences the kind and extent of action taken at any point of time in
the future. This basic principle has extensive implications for timing in communication
programmes. Transmitting the right message to the right people at the right time is often a crucial
factor in successful communication.

4. Mental vs. physical action:

Changes in the mind of man must always bring changes in the actions of his hands. In short,
man‟s mind controls his overt behavior. Consequently, a message suggesting physical action
could receive all the mental action required, except the final decision to act. This is sometimes
referred to as „lip service‟.

5. Right vs. wrong:

The intent of a communication is to promote desirable action by an audience as determined by
the communicator and expressed in his objectives. Consequently, resulting action in line with the
intended objectives is assumed to be „right‟ action. But the problem is more complex.
Unfortunately, „noise‟ often plays mischief at this point. For a variety of reasons, people often
fail to behave precisely according to instructions, even when they understand and accept them.
Assume, for example, that a message giving five steps in seed treatment has been transmitted to a
group of cultivators. Individually and in groups, human beings have their own ideas about how
to act.

BARRIER IN COMMUNICATION
Barrier:
Barriers mean all those hurdles which stop or interrupt the process of communication.
Barrier sometimes become so strong that they can even make the whole process just a
failure.
Types of Barriers
• Physical Barriers
• Psychological Barriers
• Failure by Elements of communication
Physical Barriers:

Physical barrier is a problem in the way of transmitting a message from its source to destination
Psychological Barrier
These are the barriers which are directly related to some internal problem of the destination or
the receiver. The receiver receives the message clearly but due to some reasons fails to

understand & react properly .

Different Psychological Barriers

Semantic Noise

Field of Experience

Cognitive Dissonance

Frame of Reference

Poor Understanding/Expression

Semantic Noise

This kind of hurdle is the result of using very difficult, tongue twisting words by the
communicator/sender, which are out side the frame of reference of the receiver.

Field of Experience:

This barrier occurs when the field of experience is not common to both sender & receiver.

For example, if the scientist wants to communicate the Newton law to the uneducated people,
definitely, there won‟t be any communication. But if the message is delivered to the science
students, the message will be an effective one.

Cognitive Dissonance:

Cognition means process of thinking & dissonance means conflict.

So Cognitive Dissonance means conflict in thinking. It occurs usually when the receiver accepts
the message but due to some reason fails to react according to the desired response of the
receiver

Frame of reference:

Every sender & receiver have their own sense of perceiving the things according to their
own level of understanding. If sender & receiver do not share the same frame of reference then
communication process might become a failure.
Expressions:

If the facial expressions, body language & attitude of the sender do not match with the
tone of the message then it would also become a psychological hurdle for the receiver.

3.Failure by Elements of communication

a. Relating to communicator

1. In-effective environment

2. Unorganized efforts to communicate

3. Standard of correctness

Relating to the transmission of message

1. Incorrect handling of the channels

2. Wrong selection of channels

3. Physical distraction

4. Use of inadequate channels in Parallel

Relating to receiver

1. Attention of the listeners

2. Problems of cooperation, participation and involvement

3. Problem of homogeneity

4. Attitude of the audience towards the communicator

MESSAGE DISTORTION

Systematic distortion

Distortion due to displacement/ mis-arrangement of the message but no message is lost

Fog Distortion

Message is fogged (due to unwanted information the credibility and validity of the message is
lost)

Mirage distortion

Maximum loss of message occurs

Factors affecting communication

1.cultural difference

2.length of communication

3.use of language

4.Individual perception/attitudes/personalities

5.closed dogmatism

„Closed mind‟ ,Ignoring the leaders,Prejudices Beliefs,Disorganized communication

Media mix

A media mix is the combination of communication channels you can use to meet its objectives.
Typically, these include newspapers, radio, television, etc. There are many occasions wherein we
have to use a single aid which will serve our purpose. But more often, we have to combine
different aids so that we can effectively communicate and transfer information.Thus a proper
communication strategy for any rural developmental activity involves an approptiate mix of
various

Purposes of Communication Effective media-mix

Increase in knowledge Radio + posters + publication

and awareness (booklet, folders)

Improvement of skill Method demonstration + flash

cards + models

Change in attitute Slides + information folders +

photographs

Change of behaviour to Result demonstration + Field trips +

accept improved practices slides + booklet

Media-mix most effective for communication under various

Printed material + group discussion

Slides + audio tapes

Flash chards + lecture

Television + discussion

Field trip + slide show.

 Unit-6
Syllabus:
Diffusion and adoption: diffusion and adoption of innovation, concepts and meanings,
process and stages of adoption, adopter categories
Agriculture journalism: concept and meaning, importance and role in agriculture

Diffusion
The process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of the social system. It is the special type of communication concerned
with ‘newness’.

COMMUNICATION AND DIFFUSION

DIFFUSION

Four main elements in diffusion

 The Innovation
 Communication channels
 Time
 The social system
1.The Innovation

Idea,practice,object that is percieved as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. An

innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption. The perceived newness of the idea for the individual determines his or her reaction to
it.The "newness" aspect of an innovation may be expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or
a decision to adopt. In this context, to know about the perceived attributes of innovation would
be appropriate which are described in the succeeding paragraph:
Perceived attributes of an innovation

Attributes :They the are qualities, characteristics or traits possessed by an object .An innovation
has some qualities or characteristics.It is not the intrinsic quality. The perceived attributes of
innovation that are basic to extension are as follows:

1.Relative advantage

2.Compatability

3.Complexity

4.Trialability

5.Observability

a. Relative advantage:

It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. The

degree of relative advantage may be measured in economic terms, but social-prestige factors,

convenience and satisfaction are also often the important components.

b. Compatibility:

It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values,

past experiences and needs of potential adopters.

c. Complexity:

It is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. In general,

new ideas that are simpler to understand will be adopted more rapidly than innovations that
require the adopter to develop new skills and understandings.

d. Trialability:

It is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. An

innovation that is trialable represents less uncertainty to the individual who is considering it for

adoption, as it is possible to learn by doing.

e. Observability:

It is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The easier it is for

individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt.

2) Communication channels:

A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another.

The following classification of channels would help the communicator to use them appropriately:

i) Interpersonal channels - It refers to those which are used for face to face communication
betweentwo or more individuals.

ii) Mass media channels - These enable the messages to reach a larger, diverse audience

simultaneously in a relatively shorter time. e.g.: Radio and T.V.

iii) Localite channels - They originate within the social system of the receiver. eg: neighbours,
relatives opinion leaders etc.

iv)Cosmopolite channels - They originate outside a particular social system. eg: Extension
worker, sales personnel etc.

3. Time:

It is an important element in the diffusion process. Time is an obvious aspect of any

communication process. Time does not exist independently of events, but it is an aspect of every

activity. The time dimension is involved in diffusion (i) in the innovation - decision process, (ii)
in the innovativeness of an individual or other unit of adoption, and (iii) innovation's rate of
adoption in a system.
4. Social System:

It is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish

a common goal. The members or units of a social system may be individuals, informal groups,

organisations and / or subsystems. The social system constitutes a boundary within which an
innovation diffuses.

ADOPTION
Adoption is not an instant decision. An individual passes through several mental stages in
adopting certain idea. Adoption is a process through which an individual passes from first
hearing of an innovation to its final adoption. It is a decision to make use of an innovation as the
best course of action available.

North Central Rural Sociological Society (NCRSS) 1955.suggested 5 stages of adoption process
.They are

Fig :Stages in Adoption process

1.Awareness : At this stage and individual become aware of some new idea but lacks details
about it. For instance the person may know only the name and may not know what the idea or
product is ,what it I will do or ,how it will works

2. Interest : At this stage a person wants more information about the idea or product.The
person wants to know what it is, how it works, and what its potentialities are.
3.Evaluation : At this stage the individual makes a mental trial of new idea or practice .The
person makes an assessment whwther the idea is applicable to his own situation and if applied
what would be the result.

4.Trial :The individual actually applies the new idea on a small scale in order to determine its
utility in own situation.

5.Adoption: This is the final stage in the process is characterized by large scale,continued used
of the idea and most of all by satisfaction with the idea

ADOPTER CATEGORIES

In asocial system if an innovation is introduced then it will not be adopted at exactly same time.It
may be for the background of he members of social system.We can classify members ofa social
syatem into various categaories by examining when they first come to know about innovation.It
is the classification of the members of social system on the basis of innovativeness

All individuals do not adopt an innovation at the same time.They adopt in an ordered time
sequence.They may be classified into adopter categories on the basis of innovativeness

INNOVATIVENESS is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new

ideas than other members of a social system

The adoption of an innovation usually follows a normal, bell-shaped curve when plotted
overtime on a frequency basis.If the cumulative number of adopters is plotted, the result is an S-
shaped curve.
Fig. S-shaped cumulative curve for adopter distribution

Fig. Adopter categories on the basis of innovativeness

1.INNOVATORS (2.5%)

They are eager to try new ideas always. They are also known as Advance Scouts ,Experimenters.
They are alert and actively seeking new ideas. They have the ability to understand and apply
complex technical knowledge.Thay are first to launch the new idea in the social system.

Characteristics of Innovators

 Venturesome
 First to adopt new idea
 Very few in number
 May deviate from social norms
 Cosmopolite
 Mentally alert
 Oriented to take risk
 Large size enterprise
 Large financial resources
 Literate
 More prestige in the community

EARLY ADOPTERS (13.5%)

They are more integrated in the local system than the innovators.Thay are respected by his/her
neighbours.

Characteristics

 Respectable
 Localite
 More opinion leadership
 Literate
 Large size enterprise
 High income
  More participative
 Maintain good contact with cosmopolite sources
 Quickest to use tried ideas
EARLY MAJORITY (34%)

These group adopt new ideas just before the average member of social system. They interact
frequently with there peers. They provide interconnectedness in the system network.

Characteristics are

 Deliberate
 Adopt ideas just before the average members
 Take longer time to take decision
 Do not hold leadership position
 Actively participates in extension programmes
 Slightly above average in education, social and economic status and experience
 Limited resources
 Less contact with cosmopolite sources
 Active localites
LATE MAJORITY (34%):

Thay are called as skeptical ,Doubtful ,Suspicious).Thay adopt new ideas just after the average
member of social system adopt.Social system experts pressure on them to adopt the innovation

Characteristics are

 Sceptical
 Adopt new ideas just after the average members
 Low level of education
 Low level of participation
 Depends on localite sources of information
LAGGARDS (16%)

A person who lags is called laggard.Thay are the last to adopt in a social system.Thay are near
isolates in social network.Thay preserve old traditional culture.

Characteristics are

 Traditional
 Last to adopt an innovation
 Most localite
 Suspicious of innovations
 Do not have opinion leadership
 Little or no education
 Least participant
 Little land holding
 Resource poor people
 Live in economically and socially disadvantaged area

Rate of adoption

Relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of social system.It is generally
measured as number od individuals who adopt a new idea in a specified time period.Interaction
among the members of social system creates interaction effect.These interaction effect creats
social pressure which in turn accelerates its rate of adoption . So,interaction is the pre-requisite
for the social pressure whicj is pre-requisite to rate of adoption.

Over adoption

Adoption of innovation by an individual whwnexperts feel that he /she should rejects called as
over adoption.
FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION PROCESS

SOCIAL FACTORS

 •Social values
 •Local leadership
 •Social contacts : Nature and extent, social distance
PERSONAL FACTORS

 Age
Older farmers seem to be somewhat less inclined to adopt new farm practices than
younger ones. Highest adoption of practices was found at middle age
 Education:
Framers with high educational level adopt more improved farm and home practices than
illiterate farmers,
 Psychological characteristics:
Includes rationality ,mental flexibility, innovation proneness.The farmers who have such
characteristics adopt more improved farm practices.
 Values and attitudes:
Values may be regareded as goal or objects to which people orient their thinking ,action
and feelings.Attitude may be thought of as pre disposition to act ,perceive think ,feel in
relation to something .Family values found to be positively related to farm practices.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS

 Nature of practice : Complexity, Cost, Net returns, Compatibility, Divisibility and

Communicability
 Farm income: Framers having more farm income will adopt more farm practices than
the farmers with low farm.
 Size of farm
 Many technological advances require large size farm.Farmers with large size farm adopt
more advance farm practices than small size holders
 Sources of information used
  Farmers will adopt more improved agriculture practices than the farmers who have not
used the sources of information
 Level of living
Farmers having higher level of living will adopt more improved farm practices than
others whose level of living is low.

INNOVATION -DECISION PROCESS

Due to the advancements in diffusion research, currently" Innovation - Decision process" is

proposed which enlightens the sequential stages in the adoption - decisions made by individuals
or other units of adoption.The "Innovation - Decision Process" is the process through which an
individual (or other decision - making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation, to
forming an attitude towards the innovation to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of
the new idea, and to confirmation of this decision.This process consists of a series of actions and
choices over time through which an individual or an organisation evaluates a new idea and
decides whether or not to incorporate the new idea into ongoing practice.

It is the process through which an individual or other decision making unit, passes first
knowledge of an innovation, to forming an attitude toward the innovation, to a decision to
adopt or reject, to implementation and use of idea, and to confirmation of this decision.The
perceived newness of an innovation and the uncertainty associated with this newness, is a
distinctive aspect of innovation decision making

Innovation decision is a process that occurs over time and it has five stages

1.Knowledge stage

2.Persuasion stage

3.Decision stage

4.Implementation stage

5.Confirmation stage
1.Knowledge Stage

Knowledge occurs when an individual is exposed to an innovation’s existence and gains some
understanding of how it functions

Three types of knowledge

i). Awareness - knowledge motivates an individual to seek "how-to" knowledge and principles
knowledge. This type of information - seeking is concentrated as the knowledge stage of the
innovation - decision process, but it may also occur at the persuasion and decision stages.

ii). How-to knowledge -consists of information necessary to use an innovation properly. When
an adequate level of how-to knowledge is not obtained prior to the trial and adoption of an
innovation, rejection or discontinuance is likely to result. Change agents could perhaps play their
distinctive role to concentrate on "how-to knowledge" at the trial and decision stage in the
process.

iii). Principles knowledge-consists of information dealing with the functioning principles

underlying how the innovation works. It is usually possible to adopt an innovation without
principles knowledge, but the danger of misusing the new idea is greater, and discontinuance
may result. The long-range competence of individuals to judge future innovations is facilitated
by principles knowledge.

2. Persuasion stage

Persuasion occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) forms a favourable
or unfavourable attitude toward the innovation. While the mental activity as the knowledge stage
was mainly cognitive (or knowing), the main type of thinking at the persuasion function is
affective (or feeling). At this stage, a general perception of the innovation is developed. The
individual becomes more psychologically involved with the innovation and hence he or she
seeks information about the new idea.Individual becomes more psychologically involved.Two
levels of attitude:Specific attitude towards the innovation and General attitude towards change

3. Decision stage
 Decision occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) engages in activities
that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation.Adoption is a decision to make full use of
an innovation as the best course of action available. Rejection is a decision not to adopt an
innovation.

The small - scale trial is often part of the decision to adopt, and is important as a means to
decrease the perceived uncertainty of the innovation for the adopter.Considering the relative
advantage, risks involved and other related factors the individual takes a decision to adopt or
reject the innovation

Rejection is a decision not to adopt an innovation

Active rejection, which consists of considering adoption of the innovation but then deciding not
to adopt it and Passive rejection (non-adoption) which consists of never really considering the
use of the innovation.

4. Implementation Stage

Implementation occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) puts an innovation
into use. Until the implementation stage, the innovation-decision process has been a strictly
mental exercise. But implementation involves overt behaviour change as the new idea is actually
part into practice.Problems of implementation are likely to be more serious when the adopter is
an organisation rather than an individual. Reason is that in an organisational setting, a number of
individuals are usually involved in the innovation - decision process, and the implementers are
often a different set of people from the decision makers.Implementation occurs when an
individual puts an innovation into use.Individual is generally concerned with Where to get
innovation ,How to use it ,What operational problems will be faced ,How to solve these
problems ?

Re-invention often occurs at this stage.Re-invention is the degree to which an innovation is

changed or modified by the user in the process of its adoption or implementation

5. Confirmation stage
 Confirmation occurs when an individual (or other decision - making unit) seeks
reinforcement of an innovation - decision already made, but he or she may reverse this previous
decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation. The confirmation stage
continues after the decision to adopt or reject for an indefinite period in time. At this stage, the
change agents have the additional responsibility of supporting messages to individuals who have
previously adopted.

As a sequential effect, there is a possibility for "discontinuance". Discontinuance is a decision

to reject an innovation after having previously adopted it. There are two types of
discontinuances:

i). Replacement discontinuance - is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea
that supersedes it.

ii). Disenchantment discontinuance - is a decision to reject an idea as a result of dissatisfaction

with its performance.

iii)Force discontinuance : is a decision to reject an idea as someone advice and force to stop it.

Satisfactory results – Continue to adopt

Unsatisfactory results – Reject the innovation

Throughout this stage, the individual seeks to avoid a state of internal disequillibrium or
DISSONANCE (Individual seeks to accomplish it by changing knowledge, attitude or actions)

Innovation decision period

Length of time required by an individual to pass through the innovation decision process.Early
adopters take very less time than the late adopters.It is measured from the first knowledge of
innovation until the decision to adopt or reject it.In reality we consider upto decision stage.

Types of innovation decision

Innovation may be rejected or accepted.

1.Optional innovation decisions

Where adopting individual has the complete role or responsibility of the decision. These are the
choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by the individual independent of others
members of the system.

2. Collective innovation decisions

These are the choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by the consensus among of
the members of the system. It will be implemented by all the members of social system.

3. Authority innovation decision

These are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by relatively few individual in a
system , who possess power, status or technical expertise. Here individual member of system has
little or no influence in the decision .They have to adopt.

Consequences of Innovation

Consequences are the changes that occurs to an individual or to a social system as a result of
adoption or rejection of an innovation.

Three categories of consequences

1.Diserable verses undesirable

Diserable consequences are the functional effects of an innovation for an individual or for a
social system and the dysfunctional effects of an innovation for an individual or for a social
system is undesirable. Many innovations cause both positive and negative consequences, and it is
thus erroneous to assume that the desirable impacts can be achieved without also experiencing
undesirable effects. We conclude that the effects of an innovation usually cannot be managed so
as to separate the desirable from the undesirable consequences.

2. Direct verses indirect

Direct consequences are the changes to an individual or a system that occur in immediate
response to an innovation.and the changes to an individual or a system that occur as a result of
the direct consequences of an innovation is indirect consequences
3. Anticipated verses unanticipated

Anticipated are the changes due to an innovation that are recognized and intended by the
members of a system and Changes due to an innovation that are neither intended nor recognized
by the members of a system is unanticipated consequences.

Journalism: Definition and meaning

Journalism is the aspect of the social interaction that is about disseminating news and opinions
about society. New news feeds 5 mass media agencies. (1) Newsletters and magazines, (2) radio,
(3) television, (4) films and (5) advertising.

Journalism is defined as a communication process, involving collection, editing and

dissemination of information through different media. The purpose of journalism is to inform,
educate, entertain, and create awareness of the people about various issues.

Journalism is the organized and trustworthy distribution of public information, public opinion,
and popular entertainment by modern mass media. Journalism has become the medium of mass
education in modern societies offering supplementary education to students at all levels and to
the general public-educated and uneducated. All activities related to mass media communication
are not journalism, but journalism is the part of the task involving writing, planning, and
delivering the contact messages. Thus, journalists are basically writers, readers, reporters,
correspondents, editors, sub-editors, interviewers, storywriters, scriptwriters, editors of scenarios,
and associate specialists. Agricultural Journalism

Agricultural journalism is a specialized branch of journalism that deals with the techniques of
obtaining, publishing, editing and reporting information through the internet, such as magazines,
magazines, radio, television, advertisement etc. And the processes relating to the management of
such output. It is the accurate reporting and editing of agricultural news and information for
newspapers, magazines, radio and television using words and photographs.
Agricultural journalism may be define as the timely reporting and editing with words, pictures
and sound, farm and rural news and information, for the media such as newspapers, magazines,
radio and television etc.

Principles of agricultural journalism

The important principles of agricultural journalism are discussed below by Ray (2003)

1.Use simple language

Explain the technical term in short and simple sentence, using common words which have
concrete meaning.

2.Structure and arrange arguments clearly

Present ideas in a logical order, clearly distinguishing between the main and the side issues,
presentation must be clear, with the central theme remaining visible so that the whole message
can be reviewed easily.

3.Make main point brief.

Restrict argument to the main issues, clearly directed towards achieving stated goals without
unnecessary use of words.

4.Keep important information at the top

Organise the write-up like an inverted pyramid, keeping the most important information at the
top. So that if some portion from the bottom is deleted during editing, it won’t affect the write-up
much.

5.Use lively picture and photograph

The picture and photograph should be simple, bold, with good composition and good contrast of
light and shade, so that the message intended to be conveyed is clearly brought out. Mention
short but meaningful caption.
6.Prepare a stimulating write-up

The presentation should be interesting, inspiring, personal and sufficiently diversified to

sustained audience interest.

What is News?

According to Wolseley (1964), news is an account of current event, idea or problem that interests
people.

According to Webster’s, NEWS is a report of recent events.

News is anything you did not know yesterday .News is any event, idea or opinion which is
timely, which affects large number of people in a community and is capable of being understood
by them.Any new idea, event, situation or development of interest to a large number of people is
commonly considered news.News is something that has actually happened, is happening or is
expected to happen.No news interest everybody.Readers are selective.People read only the part
which interests them.They read what they consider to be news

KINDS OF NEWS STORY

Advance event articles:

Distributed anticipate about a future occasion; These are otherwise called curtain raisers

Follow-up event articles

A follow-up is a journalist's term for a story which is written so that you can report more of a
story which has already been published or broadcast. Those extra details can be new facts, later
developments, reactions or new issues which have been raised by the original event

Information articles

A type of non-fiction writing that conveys information about something, which means it is
factual. Many examples of informational writing can be found in newspapers, and reference
books.. Informational text is often organized so the reader can easily and quickly find
information
Feature articles

Feature articles provide readers with a written analysis of a certain topic. These articles are
intended to serve readers with the writer's interpretation of a story, , which simply provide the
facts.

Experience and success stories

an account of the achievement of success by a person or an organisation. The Success Story is a

great successful performance, often unexpectedly or in spite of unfavourable conditions

New developments

Development (also known as elaboration) is the process of adding informative and illustrative
details to support the main idea in a paragraph or essay

Predictions

a strategy in which readers use information from a text (including titles, headings, pictures, and
diagrams) and their own personal experiences to anticipate what they are about to read (or what
comes next).

Subject matter

Add authenticity and depth to your content. They create something that's truly useful to users.

FORM OF NEWS WRITING

Inverted pyramid pattern

The inverted pyramid is a metaphor used by journalists and other writers to illustrate how
information should be prioritised and structured in prose (e.g., a news report). It is sometimes
called a summary news The inverted pyramid made it easier for an editor to cut information that
was less important in order to help fit the story .Most critical information Who when what where
why are addressed in order to make communication successful.
Chronological form

It's a style of writing used to present current news information or to depict a series of events that
took place. Narratives and process analysis essays commonly rely on chronological order

Suspended interest form

This type serves as a stimulator by interest. It gives the reader enough information to wet his
appetite. After the lead the story usually runs along in chronological form so that the reader must
read to the very end to get at the climax.

Basic guidelines for news story writing

Always use standard size paper (8.5 x 11inch)

Use white paper

Type your copy. Use double space

Get a clean copy

Use 3 or 4 inch margin at the top on first page

Type your name and address at the upper left-hand corner

Leave one inch margin at the sides and bottom

Type headline at the top on first page

If story requires more than one page, write “more” or “continued” at the bottom

At the very top of second page write name, page number and title in 3 or 4 words

Indicate close of copy by using symbol

Always produce a clean copy

Never erase

Use standard proof reading symbols

Deliver copy flat (without folding)

News Agencies

Press Trust of India (PTI)

Largest news agency

Offers services in English and Hindi

Also provides online photo service

United news of India (UNI)

Largest news agency in Asia

Full fledged Indian language service

Hindustan Samachar

India’s first multilingual news agency

Samachar Bharati

Supported by Bihar, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka Governments

Disseminates news in Indian languages

NEWS

Advantages

Low cost

Large coverage in short time

Efficient source of timely information

Carries the prestige and confidence of printed words

Reinforcing effect on other extension methods

Limitations

Of no value if people are illiterate or do not read

Difficult to check the results

Requires special training to write

Functions of Journalism

1.News function

The primary function of press is to inform. Examining the glut of public occurrences, ideas and
situation, newspapermen must determine which will interest the public. Apart from factual
presentation of news, for the complex situation the interpretation and explanation are also
required.

2. The opinion function

Modern man frequently finds himself in the midst of confusion which product to purchase? What
decision to take? Whom to vote? He requires a medium of communication, which will guide him
to understand the positive and negative points of the situations because of logical arguments.
Thus, the modern press has to be both a daily teacher and a daily tribute. Therefore, the editorial
is the only means of building public opinion.
3. The Entertainment function

Entertaining the public is the function and a business too. Since it is too big a job for the local
staff, newspaper relies upon syndicated materials. Entertainment is where you find it. It pops up
in human-interest stories and news features. Public interest in various features, comics in
particular sometimes determine the choice of a newspaper.

Importance

The mass media are capable of reaching vast widespread audiences, thanks to fast moving
newspapers/radio broadcasts, TV telecast and the celluloid films. A single broadcasting network
today can reach millions of people at the same time. The world stands of the threshold of new
communication systems which enable large number of citizens to regularly and effectively
interact with each other. To make full use of the interactive information systems made possible
by the computer technology, citizens can remain so well informed that they will be able to
perform their duty adequately and efficiently and accelerate the process of development in
different social fields.Modern communication systems reflect the philosophy and achievements
of society in all spheres by fast flow and pave the way for the homogeneity of culture-not only
with in its geographical unit but also beyond.

Journalism is the publication of news and views on various aspects of human activities in
newspapers and periodicals. Ina broader sense, the functions of journalism are to convey national
policies to the public and to keep the governments at local state and central levels, informed of
public needs. It also brings to the notice of the government public reaction to government
policies and decisions. In addition, it keeps the public and the government informed of events
and happenings at home and abroad.

On one hand, it performs the utilitarian purpose of information and on the other, it provides
entertainment to its readers by publishing short stories, poems, sports, cinema, features, etc. A
clever journalism by his penmanship creates interest in day-to-day political happenings. He
presents the drop events and incidents in an artistic way, which provides the reader information

In modern times, the horizon of journalism has widened and it has transcended the limits of
mere reporting of political as well as entertainment.and economic news. As it is a vehicle of
mass-communications, it is performing the function of social intercourse between the people
having identical interests. Hence, we find literary, political, economic and scientific magazines
as also household or industrial magazines, which cater to the interests of their respective readers.

Scope

The farmers are information hungry and present public extension system is not able to meet the
demand of the farmers for information. The farmer and extension worker ratio is widening. On
the other side, communication tools development is enormous. Private extension is also coming
into picture. Today, journalism in India has got lot of scope with media barons opening new
channels or newspapers or publishing houses on a regular basis. The competition is so rife that
each channel or newspaper tires to produce something exclusive, which in turn has given the
audience a great deal of variety.