INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION 221

Course outline
Semester 2

Module name Introduction to Agricultural

Extension

Module code AGX 221

Credits 8

Prepared by MR L. MDIYA

Periods per week 2 hours/week

Duration 4 weeks

Course content

Assessment procedure

Assessment: Summative
1. Face to face tests x 2 (70% of DP)
2. Assignments/ online x 3 (30% of DP)
3. 3-hour exam
Formative
1. Online quiz x 4

Students will pass AGX221 if the total mark for the module is
greater than or equal to 50%. A student will obtain a distinction if
the final mark is 75% or greater.

AEGROTAT: The will only be one aegrotat test for students

who missed their 1st or 2nd test but with the supply of the valid
medical certificate.
 COURSE OUTLINE

Chapter 1: Introduction to Agricultural Extension Concepts

 History and definitions of Agricultural Extension

 Functions of agricultural extension
 Principles of Agricultural Extension
 Four paradigms of agricultural extension
 Components of agricultural extension
 The extension environment and conditions under which farming takes place
 The role of extension to agricultural development
 Rural development and the three major guiding objectives for rural development
 Extension systems and approaches
Chapter 2: Communication

 The meaning of communication in agricultural extension

 Definitions
 Why is communication important in extension
 Communication process in agricultural extension
 Factors/barriers affecting communication process
 Types of communication
 Levels of communication


Chapter 3: Adoption and diffusion of agricultural knowledge

 Definition of diffusion
 Definition of innovation
 Definition adoption
 Stages of adoption
 Stages of diffusion of innovation
 Rate of adoption (What affects the rate of adoption?)
 Adoption & Acceptance (What affects the rate of adoption and acceptance?)
 Summary
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

1. DEFINITION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSTION

 Agricultural extension is a general term meaning the application of scientific research

and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education.
 Agricultural extension is a system of non-formal education for adults in rural areas,
which is based on relevant content from agricultural, social and communication
research synthesized into a body of concepts, principles and operational procedures.
 Extension is an informal education process directed toward the rural population. This
process offers advice and information to help farmers solve their problems as to
increase the sufficiency of the family farm, increase production and generally increase
the standard of living of the farm family (Is a process of working with rural farmers in
order to improve their standard of living).
 Provision of information to farmers on agricultural production technologies designed
to increase production, protect natural resources and the environment or achieve some
other objectives.
 The process whereby the extension tries to motivate and encourage farmers about new
farming ideas in their own context and life situation and how to identify and assess
their own farming needs and problems.

1.2 History of agricultural extension

It is not known where or when the first extension activities took place. It is known, however,
that Chinese officials were creating agricultural policies, documenting practical knowledge,
and disseminating advice to farmers at least 2000 years ago. The birth of modern extension
service has been attributed to events that took place in Ireland in the middle of the 19 th
century. Between 1845-51. The British Government arranged for “practical instructors” to
travel to rural areas and teach small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops. This scheme
attracted the attention of government official in Germany, who organized their own system of
traveling instructors. By the end of the 19 th century, the idea had spread to Denmark,
Netherlands, Italy, and France.

In South Africa, agricultural extension was first recognized in 1924 with the formulation of a
division of agricultural education and extension. However, extension officers has no formal
training. The early missionaries started with agricultural education in rural areas. In 1929,
courses in agricultural extension were offered in agricultural colleges the universities. The
extension services in South Africa was to some extent modelled on the USA system whereby
extension officers were based at the agricultural colleges where they received guidance and
training.

1.3 FUNCTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

 Developing knowledge, skills and favourable attitudes in farmers and their families.
 Dissemination of information to farmers through effective lines of communication.
 Provision of training to farmers- help farmers gain managerial skills to operate in a
commercial economy.
 Provision of training and guidance in problem solving and decision making skills
 Promote best use of natural resources (soil, vegetation and water).

1.4 Basic Principles of Agricultural Extension

Certain basic principles underlie the conduct of agricultural extension work. These principles
differ with respect to the kind of community in which extension education is carried on.
Extension principles may be defined as guidelines for the conduct of extension work and
these principles are the bedrock upon which extension service rests. The principles are:

1.4.1 Extension should start where the people/farmers are. Williams et al., 1984 believed
that extension should work at the level where the people are, that is, at their level of
knowledge, understanding, interest and degree of readiness. In order to be able to assist the
people to move to higher levels of aspiration, it is important that extension worker should
know what the conditions are. It means personal contact with the local condition, and its
environment, an understanding of the social structure, the habits, traditions, attitude and
economic status of the people and society.

The first principle therefore implies that to succeed with farmers, new ideas must be related
to what the farmer already knows and that with which he is familiar.

1.4.2. Extension should be based on the needs and interests of the people, which are
closely related to improving their livelihood through increasing farm production and their
physical environment (Williams et at., 1984). It is imperative therefore to conceptualize the
basic needs of the people in the rural set up since the needs and interests of people vary from
one set of people to the other due to difference in culture. Extension can only function if these
two variables are put into consideration.

It is also imperative to note that extension workers must gain the confidence of their
audience. This is so because farmers are said to be fatalistic as well as conservative in their
attitudes. They are wary to thread on unsure grounds and are unlikely to take action without
conviction. This is why it is necessary that the extension worker should gain their confidence
(Obibuaku, 1983). Unless they are sure of the ability and skill of an extension worker, they
will not be persuaded to accept his recommendations. This is more so if the extension worker
is young and has had little

or no farm experience. In that case, he must start with one or two programmes that are likely
to succeed and must work on them until eventual success.

1.4.3. Extension should assist farmers to determine their own problems, help them to find
desirable solutions and to encourage them to take action. This assistance does not imply that
the extension worker’s problems are replica of the farmer’s problems and does not indicate
that the farmers cannot think on their own.

Embarking on this will enable the farmers to have the perception that the extension worker
cares about their problems by assisting them in identifying their problems. In proffering
solutions to these problems, the extension worker should not in any way solve their problems
on their behalf as this will amount to imposing his own value judgment on them.

1.4.4. It is an established fact that human beings have unsatisfied wants, this assertion is also
applicable to the farmers. An extension worker cannot go far with people unless they want to
help themselves, therefore programmes must start with the felt needs of the people and
proceed to others that are also needed by them.

The wants of the people must be kept in reasonable relationship with the effort they are
capable and willing to make. All the people within a community do not want the same thing
at same time, and in the same fashion (Obibuaku, 1983). To this end, their values differ and
so do their goals and the ability to achieve them.

1.4.5. The principle of co-operative work must be pursued to logical conclusion. This is
so because the best programmes are those determined by the local people and extension staff
working together. Planning of programmes with the people is an important part of extension
teaching. People understand a programme better and are more likely to support it if they
participate in its creation.

Planning is also a learning process. By participating in programme planning, people learn to

work together. Decisions that are collectively made are stronger and are more acceptable than
the decisions that are passed and imposed on them from the outside. Rural people tend to
resist

change until they see the benefit of such a change and there is no better way of helping them
than by involving them in planning for change.

1.4.6. Extension workers should work with all members of the family.

The family should be regarded as a working unit in the home and in the field (Williiams et
al., 1984). Religion, race or political interests should be put aside in working with rural
people, extension worker should treat them as rational adults who are capable of making their
own decisions.

1.4.7. The principle of the use of variety of teaching methods is another basic principle.
In this case, a teaching method can be conceived in teaching a segregated learning unit. This
is equally based on the principle of variety is the spice of life and that no one method will
help to bring out desirable changes in people. No method therefore is an island. The
implication of this principle is that, the more the variety of ways a topic is presented and
practised, the quicker the people tend to grasp the subject matter.

1.4.8 In African rural communities, participation in extension programme is voluntary

and therefore programmes must meet the varying needs of individuals. Participation in
extension programmes differ significantly in age, sex, education, attitudes, interests, needs
and economic and social values. Programmes must therefore be attractive and tailored to
meet the needs and interests of the varying groups.

1.4.9. Extension workers should provide maximum opportunity for the people to work
on programmes that have been determined by them and the extension agent working
together. The joint determination of the programmes is one thing and full participation is
another dimension which is crucial to the eventual success of such programmes. The farmers
feel fully satisfied when they are given maximum opportunity to practice what they
participated in building. The principle of involvement has a sound psychological basis in that
people are never interested in programmes which they have not helped to develop.
1.4.10. Extension workers should take advantage of any existing local groups to involve
the people in extension programmes. The people in rural areas tend to listen more to the local
leaders than even the extension workers since they are power brokers and the inability of the
extension agent to work with them makes it impossible for him to succeed in his
programmes. This principle must be strictly adhered to if innovation is to be well adopted by
the local people. The existence of these local leaders makes it possible for extension agents to
spread his service over a wide area. There are numerous organizations and groups that are in
existence in Ethiopia such as farmers’ co-operative societies or unions, farmer’s kebele
administrative councils. All these groups should be used more intensively in involving the
people in extension programmes.

1.4.11. Subject matter covered in extension must have definite purpose and must be
specific so that programme would be able to achieve the purpose for which it was
established. The subject matter here refers to the content of the extension programme, which
must be relevant to the lives of the rural people and must therefore be useful to them. The
content of the programme must be presented when it is most needed by the people. This is so
because retention falls off rapidly if opportunity for application of what is learnt is not
present. The subject matter covered must therefore be attainable within the time available,
and within physical and economic resources of clientele, and within the social condition and
learning ability of the participants.

1.4.12. The principle of constant evaluation must be followed. It should appraise

periodically its work in the light of existing and changing conditions so that it can be seen
whether the objective are being achieved. Extension workers have to make endless decisions
and then act according to what they understand to be the mandates of their decisions. In a
similar vein, the longer a practice has been followed, the harder it is to be objective about its
limitations and the harder it is to get at making needed changes. Therefore frequent appraisal
will assist a long way in arriving at these benefits.

1.4.13. The principle of professionalism should be followed. Extension workers should

therefore work with extension professionals who can sell their programmes to their clientele.
Credibility is therefore essential here. It should provide continuous opportunity, additional
training and professional improvement for its staff.

1.4.14. Learning is a gradual process and therefore results must not be expected too
soon. Research evidence has shown that learners must be exposed to new ideas over a period
of time and in variety of ways before they begin to respond to them. The rural people must
not be rushed as they do not learn at the same rate. This principle must be put in mind when
basic things are expected from the rural people. The adoption rate is therefore to be
considered as a gradual process.

1.4.15. Adult learning remains high throughout life. Adults have had years of varied
experience, set beliefs and habits. Their beliefs and habits tend to change very slowly.
However many of these have to be changed if progress is to be made. The Extension workers
must therefore use all available strategies in taking care of these beliefs and habits.

1.4.16. A closer principle to the one just highlighted is the principle that extension is
educational in function through assisting people to make their own decisions among
various alternatives put before them. Extension workers should not be involved with supply
activities. The farmers may be expecting the extension agents to supply them with needed
planting materials, fertilizers and fungicides. This is basically contrary to its educational
function.

1.4.17. Extension workers should promote the use and development of volunteer
leaders. It is through this forum that extension agents can reach many people and educate
them of the need for change. This principle therefore sees the volunteer leaders as loud
speaker for extension. Without the use of the volunteer leader, most of the planned
programmes will not be achieved.

1.4.18. Extension should be based on facts and knowledge. This principle can be achieved
through the process of working closely with the researchers and the farmer. Therefore,
extension in this regard will be seen as an intermediary or a link between researcher and the
farmer.

1.5. Guiding principles of extension

Extension activities are widespread throughout the developing world and most governments
have set up formally structured extension services to implement extension programmes and
projects. The practice of extension is supported by budget, offices, personnel and other
resources. Before examining extension in detail in later chapters, however, it will be useful to
consider the principles which should guide it.

 Extension works with people, not for them

Extension works with rural people. Only the people themselves can make decisions about the
way they will farm or live and an extension agent does not try to take these decisions for
them. Rural people can and do make wise decisions about their problems if they are given
full information including possible alternative solutions. By making decisions, people gain
self-confidence. Extension, therefore, presents facts, helps people to solve problems and
encourages farmers to make decisions. People have more confidence in programmes and
decisions which they have made themselves than in those which are imposed upon them.

 Extension is accountable to its clients

Extension services and agents have two sets of masters. On the one hand, they are
accountable to their senior officers and to the government departments that determine rural
development policies. Agents are expected to follow official policies and guidelines in their
work.

On the other hand, extension is the servant of the rural people and it has the responsibility to
fulfill the needs of the people in its area. This means that the rural poor should have a say in
deciding how effective extension actually is. One measure of effectiveness is to see how well
policies and plans have been carried out. An equally important measure is the extent to which
incomes and living standards of the rural people have increased as a result of extension work.

Extension programmes, therefore, are based on people's needs, as well as on technical and
national economic needs. The extension agent's task is to bring these needs together. For
example, an important part of government policy may be to increase the amount of food
grown and sold in the country. By choosing to encourage the mass of small farmers to
increase their output by improving their farming methods, national needs and farmers' needs
can be satisfied together.

 Extension is a two-way link

Extension is not a one-way process in which the extension agent transfers knowledge and
ideas to farmers and their families. Such advice, which is often based upon the findings of
agricultural and other research stations, is certainly important but the flow of information
from farmers to extension and research workers is equally important. Extension should be
ready to receive farmers' ideas, suggestions or advice, as well as to give them. This two-way
flow of ideas can occur at different stages.
When the problem is being defined. Being in regular contact with the farmers, the extension
agent can help research workers to understand the farming problems of the area and the
limitations under which farmers have to work. It is even better if the agent can bring
researchers into direct contact with farmers in order to ensure that research recommendations
are relevant to farmers' needs.

When recommendations are being tested in the field. A new farm practice or crop variety
might produce good results at a research station but not do so well on a farmer's field. Trials
on farmers' fields are an opportunity to test research recommendations and provide feedback
for research staff.

When farmers put recommendations into practice. Sometimes farmers discover problems
with a recommendation which the research station failed to note. With the feedback, the
recommendations can be adjusted accordingly.

The two-way link between research, extension and the farmer is fundamental to sound
extension practice and should be a basic principle of extension activity.

 Extension cooperates with other rural development organizations

Within rural areas, extension services and agents should work closely with the other
organizations that provide essential services to farmers and their families. Extension is only
one aspect of the many economic, social and political activities that seek to produce change
for the better in rural society. Extension, therefore, must be prepared to collaborate with all
other such organizations, both government and non-government, and to take them into
account when preparing to implement extension policies.

 Extension works with different target groups

Extension recognizes that not all farmers in any one area will have the same problems. Some
will have more land than others and will be keen to try out new ideas. Others, with fewer
resources, will probably be more cautious. Extension cannot offer a single "package" of
advice, suitable to all farmers. Different groups need to be identified and the agent will have
to develop programmes appropriate to each group.

In the past, much extension effort was concentrated on the progressive farmer who was
expected to spread new ideas to others. It has been seen, however, that this does not always
work, because progressive farmers often have different problems. They have more land, more
education and are usually more involved in the marketing of their produce.

Extension must, therefore, be aware of the existence of different farming groups and plan its
programmes accordingly. The smallest and poorest farmers will need particular attention, as
they may lack the basic resources needed to become involved in extension activities. The
point to stress, therefore, is the existence of farmer groups with different resources and skills
in any one community, and the need for extension to respond to these groups accordingly.
1.6 FOUR PARADIGMS OF EXTENSION

Any particular extension system can be described in terms of both how communication takes
place and why it take place. It is not the case that paternalistic system are always persuasive,
nor is it case that participatory project are necessarily educational, Instead there are four
possible combination, each of which represent a different extension paradigm, as follows:

 Technology Transfer (persuasive + paternalistic(Paternalism is action that limits a

person's or group's liberty or autonomy and is intended to promote their own good )) - involves
a top down approach that delivers specific recommendations to farmers about the
practices they should adopt.
 Advisory work (persuasive + participatory). This paradigm can be seen where
government organisations or private consulting companies respond to farmers
inquiries with technical prescriptions. It also takes the form of projects managed by
donor agencies and NGOs that use participatory approaches to promote predetermined
packages of technology.
 Human resources development (education+ paternalistic). This paradigm involves
outreach activities of colleges around the world, providing education and training to
rural people who are too poor to attend full time courses. Top down teaching methods
are employed, but students are expected to make their own decisions about how to use
the knowledge they acquire.
 Facilitation for empowerment (educational + participatory). This paradigm
involves methods such as experiential learning and farmer-to-farmer exchanges e.g.
FFSs. Knowledge is gained through interactive processes and the participants are
encouraged to make their own decisions. Educators engage with learners in direct
experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills and
clarify value and farmers to farmers exchange. Knowledge is gained through
interactive processes and the participants are encouraged to make their own decision.

1.7 The components of extension in rural agricultural development

An agricultural system consists of four components set in a large context. The components
are technology generation, technology transfer, technology utilization and agricultural policy.
The organisations that constitute the components as well as others in the system environment
influence each other in complex ways. Such publicity-funded systems are established by
governments to improve the conditions of life and well-being of rural and urban populations
and to increase agricultural productivity. In the public sector, agricultural research
organisations (technology generation) and extension (technology transfer), are major actors.

 Technology generation: (Agricultural research organisations)

Consist of planning, administration, and implementation of research activities to help adapt,

and test improved agricultural technology for farmers and other users. In the public sector,
these tasks, as well as some dissemination work, are carried out by agricultural research
organisations.

 Technology transfer: (Extension services)

Further evaluates and adapts research outputs for users and then widely disseminates the
knowledge and inputs to different target adopters- farmers of different categories, private
companies, and so on. Diagram 1 shows two parts of the transfer component, namely,
knowledge and inputs. In many counties, government extension does both type of transfer,
although the emphasis is on knowledge. Private organizations are also involved in both types
of transfer, although farmer coverage is more limited and input transfer may play bigger role.

 Technology utilization: (Farmers)

Component encompasses the users of the agricultural technology, mainly farmers. User
awareness, adaptation, and adoption of improved technology from various sources affect
farm level productivity and profitability and ultimately, economic growth at the national
level. Interaction and feedback between users and research and transfer organisations
improve cooperation and the relevance of technology.

 The agricultural policy component: (Government policies)

Relates to government development goals and strategies, market and price policies, and the
levels of resource investments in the system. Various government bodies play a role in setting
development policy. Technology development and transfer organisations are affected by the
policy in fundamental ways.

Diagram 1 below: illustrating the 4 components of extension

Diagram 1: illustrating the 4 components of extension

1.8 The Extension environment and conditions under which the farming takes place in
rural areas

An extension worker need to understand the context under which extension operates because
it operates in a certain environment that is influenced by a number of factors.

These factors include the following;

 Agro- ecological factors:

Such as Different in temperatures, rainfall, soil types, evaporation, and so forth. Therefore,
extension should respond to the technological needs of farmers in different agro- ecological
zones. In addition, the should be proper planning because natural environment strongly
influences extension operations.

 Economic factors;
 One of the most significant factors in farming is financial backup. The resource poor
smallholder farmers always suffer because not every smallholder famer will be
subsidised by government.

 Political factors

Politics has an impact on public extension organisations. Political shift at the national
level often to changes in extension personnel, management, and programmes. High
turnover of top managers undermines management experience and continuity in
leadership. Thus political unrest and war often make extension efforts impossible.

 Socio-culture

In many countries, socio cultural factors are leading constraints to the effectiveness of
extension. Language differences and illiteracy can impend the communication of
improved technology unless they are taken into account. The division of labour
between the sexes can differ along cultural lines and influences the nature of learning
system in different regions. In many countries, the men are employed off-farm,
leaving the farm operations to women. In extension organisations, under
representation of women on the extension force means that the production
responsibilities and needs of women at the farm level may not be adequately
addressed.
 Policy

The policy component of an agricultural technology system can enable or limit

extension in ways beyond the reach of extension managers. The principal areas of
influence are price signals to farmers and decisions by government that affect public
agricultural development organisations.

The policy making bodies or government set development goals and objectives such
as achieving food security or surplus agricultural production to stimulate economic
growth or providing health care and education for rural development. It is the task of
government extension organisation to help meet these goals by formulating
subordinate objectives and strategies to achieve them.
  Institutional factors

These institutional factors include limited access to markets, communication network,

roads, and transportation challenges), Poor leadership poor local structures,
Inadequate infrastructural development, Limited access to financial, human and
natural capitals and Low levels of productivity.
Public agricultural extension organisations in most countries have the task of
providing a two-way flow of improved technology and information between research
and users, primarily farmers. They operate in an institutional environment that
includes other public and private organisations active in agriculture. In particular,
those other factors involved in generating and transferring agricultural technology
must be examined and understood to improve extensions effectiveness and efficiency.

1.9 Role of extension to agricultural development

 Help farmers to access agricultural land

Access to agricultural land appears to be a limiting factor in rural area. Land tenure is a major
problem. The strengthening of tenure security and the development of institutional
arrangement governing and protecting land exchanges could open a land rental market,
enabling interested landless people to engage in farming and therefor improve their
livelihoods.

 Help farmers to access markets

Access to markets is one of the main constraints of agricultural development in rural area.
This is due to poor infrastructural development (roads, storage and processing facilities). In
addition, value adding is none existence in rural areas. However, profitable opportunities for
value added agricultural activities do exist. Example include processing of maize and drying
of vegetables. The current agribusiness activities simply do not generate sufficient ecomic
activity to greatly stimulate rural economy. Agricultural activities are too small to produce an
economic boom for rural areas. In an attempt to develop agriculture in rural areas, the
extension should therefore search new markets and value added opportunities for rural
people.

 Improve capacity of farmers

Extension officers should apply the teaching and learning opportunities that builds
knowledge and capacity of learning to enable them to diagnose their problem. Ideally
solutions and development plans and implement them with or without support from outside
participatory approach are good example as they encourage participation and learning.

1.10 Extension and rural development

Rural community development

Encompasses a range of approaches and activities that aim to improve the welfare and
livelihoods of people living in rural areas. As a branch of community development these
approaches pay attention to social issues particularly community organizing. Rural
development includes agricultural development; it is more than agricultural development.
Rural community development is important in areas where a large part of the population is
engaged in farming. The three major economic objectives guiding rural development are

1. Growth in local economy

2. Employment creation
3. Income improvement

Rural development requires active involvement and action by stakeholder involved

(Government, NGOs, private sectors, researchers and farmers). Extension as an institution is
known and respected among traditional local government groups and has the experience to
develop a close collaboration relationship between government and communities.
1.11. Extension systems and approaches

1.11.1 Training and visit (T&V) system

The T&V was adopted by the World Bank in the late 1070s, and is widely used in developing
countries. It is designed for mainly for the small scale farming sector. The approach focuses
on helping farmers improve both crop and livestock production systems with little or no
increase in farm inputs. It was designed to improve extension by eliminating the deficiencies
of the general extension system. The main goal of T&V is the transformation of the extension
administration.

T&V differs from the general extension approach by its emphasis on:

 Frequent in-service training for extension personnel

 Regular visitation to farmers farm
 Promotion of extension research linkages
 Improved extension management

Features of the A&V

 There is a single line of command

 Regular visit by extension officers to contact farmers
 T&V is supported by mass communication media
 Regular training session for field extension officers
 There is strict supervision and control
 A two way flow of information
 Feedback is obtained from extension officers

Advantages of T&V

 It puts pressure on government to recognize extension services

 It allows extension workers to have contact with a large number of farmers
 The interaction between the farmer and extension worker is improved
 It brings discipline and control into an extension service
 Extension officers are more up to date with extension information

Disadvantages
  High cost of expanding and reinforcing extension services
 Lack of low cost technology relevant to famer target groups
 Lack of flexibility regarding changing programmes
 Lack of well-trained subject matter specialist
 Lack of farmer participation

1.11.2 Farming System Research and extension (FSR/E)

FSR/E is a multidisciplinary model for technology development combines research and

extension efforts. It is sometimes called a marking approach in the sense that researcher first
find out what the demand is and then develop the technology, rather than developing the
technology to create demand by convincing people that they have a problem that this product
just happens to solve. FSR/e is an approach to agricultural research that attempts to include
human and systematic factors. The farming system concept started with the realization that
certain technology was not accepted by farmers because it was not acceptable it did not fit in
with their culture. FSR/E is aimed at improving the farmer’s lives as well as their agricultural
productivity. The approach is based on first hand understanding of farmer’s situation and
combining efforts of scientist from different backgrounds (disciplines) who analyse the farm
as a system it brings together interdisciplinary teams to:

Advantages/features

 Diagnose the constrains to production

 Design research to overcome those constrains
 Carry out on farm trials of the proposed technology
 Extend the technology once it has been proven effective in increasing production

Steps in the FSR/E model to develop new agricultural technology

 Identify and characterised target areas. The areas with similar agro-ecological
characteristics must be identified. One way to do that is to do a situation analysis
(diagnose) of each area. When undertaking the situation analysis, one attempts to
investigate the socio economic characteristics of a particular community. The practice
of diagnosis in FSR/E involves interdisciplinary teams that visit the farms or
communities and identify the constrains. These challenges and constrains are then
bought to the attention of researchers.
 Using the information obtained in step one, technology planning and design is done.
The diagnosis phase may reveal lack of use of fertilizer by farmers and thus low
yields in maize. But instead of simply recommending to the farmer to make use of
fertilizers, the farming systems team would work with the farmer to come up with
alternative of improving maize yields. The solution doesn’t have to be a fertilizer. It
could be a crop rotation with a legume crop or use of kraal manure.
 Experiments can then be set up to explore the benefits of these options with farmers
and establish which of these option results to increases yield either on experiment
stations or farmer’s fields (on farm trials). The latter is even more preferable as it
increases farmer participation. The preliminary results obtained from experiments are
used to test technology on selected farms to establish whether the technology van be
used by farmers.
 The final step is to demonstrate that the technology has social and economic benefits,
and therefore it can be used and managed by the farmers. Thus adoption of the
technology becomes the focus of extension programmes
 CHAPTER 2: AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

2.1 The meaning of communication in agricultural extension

Communication in agricultural extension is the process by which information is transferred

from the source to the receivers who are mainly the farmers for changing their behaviours
towards the desired results. Communication in agric extension work is essential to create
awareness for rural people. Without proper communication, it may be difficult for the farmers
to find solutions to their agricultural problems.

2.1 Some definitions of agricultural communication

 Berelson and ateiner-

Communication is the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills with symbols,

words, pictures, figures and graphs.

 Rogers-

Communication is the process of transmitting ideas, information and attitudes from a source
to a receiver for influencing with intent.

 Little (1980)

Defines communication as the process by which information is passed between individuals or

organisations by means of previously agreed symbols.

2.2 Why communication is important in extension?

Effective communication between extension workers and the farmers is necessary in the
adoption of agricultural innovations. The communication process is also important to change
the values and attitude of the farmers towards the modern technique of farming. Through
communication process, extension workers are able to pass information to farmers and
farmers on the other hand are able to channel their problems to the extension workers. In this
way communication provides a two process of passing information. Oral communication
have long been our main method of communication with another. It is estimated that 75% of
one’s day is spent communicating in some way. A majority of your communication time may
be spent speaking or listening, while a majority of that time is spent reading and writing.
These communication actions reflects skills which forster personal, academic and
professional success. The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others
clearly and unambiguously. Extension officers spent most their time doing just that. Their
main task involves getting a specific message across to specific intended audience. Doing this
involves effort from both the sender of the message and the receiver. And it’s a process that
can be fraught with error, with messages often misinterpreted by the recipient. When this
isn’t detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort and missed opportunity. In
fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and receiver understand the
same information as a result of the communication.

In order to successfully get the message across, one needs to convey one’s thoughts and ideas
effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that one sends often cause
communication breakdown and creating roadblocks that stand in the way of one’s goals both
personally and professionally.

In spite of the increasing importance placed on communication skills, many individuals

continue to struggle, unable to communicate their thoughts and ideas effectively- whether in
verbal or written format. This inability makes it nearly impossible for them to compete
effectively in the workplace, and stands in the way of career progression.

Getting your message across is paramount to progress. To do this, you must understand what
your message is, what audience you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must
also weigh-in the circumstances surrounding your communications such as situational and
cultural context.
2.3 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Problems with communication can pop-up at every stage of the communication process
(which consist of sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback and context- ref figure 1

FIGURE 1: Communication process

To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and
confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of these problems at each stage of this
process with clear, concise, accurate, well-planned communications.

SENDER

The source/sender- This is the origin of the communication process. It is an individual or a

group working together or an institution responsible for initiating communication and
ensuring that the objectives of the exercise are clearly defined and achieved. In addition, the
source must strive to update his knowledge through training, subject matter wise, as well as
in the methodologies of communication ( source/sender) must possess the following
characteristics:

a. He must have a thorough knowledge of the message, his message must also be
reliable.
b. His message must be geared towards solving the problem of the farmers who are the
receivers.
c. He must be able to present his message in a simple clear term that can be easily
understood by farmers and extension workers.
d. He should be able to make use of the various teaching methods in agricultural
extension.
e. The communicator must also be friendly with the farmers who are the audience.

MESSAGE

The message is the stimuli or an idea or information sent or transmitted from the
communicator to the farmers who are the receivers. In agricultural extension work, any
message sent to the farmers must possess the following characteristics:

a. The message must be valid and accurate

b. It must also be according to the need of the people, to whom the message is sent
c. It must also be applicable to the local conditions
d. The message must not be in conflicts with the culture and belief of the people
e. The message must be organized and presented to the farmers in a simple and clear
terms
f. The message must also be presented at the time it will be used to the farmers

CHANNEL

Channel/Medium. A channel or medium of communication is the means by which the

message is transmitted to the receiver. Some methods of communication channels include:
farm and home visits, meetings, demonstrations, lectures, exhibitions, local leader, field days,
radio, publication, office calls, television, telephone and video conferencing, and written
including letters, emails memos and reports.

It has been stressed that there is no single best channel of communication. The effectiveness
and applicability of these channels differ from people to people and from area to area. The
effectiveness of any channel used will depend on the following factors:
 a. Structural composition of the society or the community at large
b. The religious sentiments of the people
c. The purpose of the meeting
d. Availability of facilities
e. Traditions and customs of the people
f. The level of development of the people in the area
g. The educational background of the people
h. Experience of the extension workers

RECEIVER

Receiver- The receiver is the target or audience of communication. The audience are those
whom the source/ sender wish to receive, understand and use the idea. In extension
communication, it is significant that the receiver of each message be clearly defined and
separated into homogenous groups for effective communication. If the audience is to make
progress, the extension teacher should assist them to change their knowledge, attitude or
behaviour. If no change takes place, it means there is no communication. Good extension
teaching requires a thorough study of audience. This more we know about the audience, the
better we can do teaching job.

FEEDBACK

Feedback- This is the response from the receiver to the source of the message. It could also
be referred to as receiver’s reaction to the message as it affects him. Feedback is a control
device and an important parameter or indicator of the success of communication as well as
areas requiring modification and additional enquiry.

CONTEXT

The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may include the
surrounding environment or broader culture.

Class exercise:

Practical example; “Mr Nyathi ( ) as an extension officer of Ntselamanzi location, met with
farmers to make farmers aware of the consequences of climate change on their livestock ( ).
After the presentation, farmers ( ) asked questions like what causes drought ( ). The
question was posed to the extension officer. The meeting took place at community hall ( )”.
From the example above, describe the elements of the communication process.

FACTORS/BARRIES AFFECTING COMMUNICATION PROCESS

 External disturbance- During communication process, the audience should be able to

see and hear clearly without any disturbances coming from the environment.
 Lighting and ventilation- The provision of light and ventilation is essential for
effective communication. Without lights, some communication channel will not
function or work.
 Location of the meeting point- The place of meeting should not be too far for the
audience to attend, and must be acceptable to all community members.
 Suitable Audio-Visual Aids- the use of audio visual assists the extension officers to
reach a larger audience and as supplements to spoken words. The gadget also make
for better understanding of the message.
 Provision of seats- provision of seats affects the level of understanding message.
Where audience has to stand could lead to fatigued and getting tired.
 Religion, Tradition and Customs- These three factors have great influence on the
communication process. Failure to observe these factors may lead to total rejection of
the message.
 Age Distribution of society- the method of communication to be used will depend on
the age composition of the community. The ways to communicate with young people
will differ from those of adults.
 Education level of people- the degree and standard of literacy in the community can
affect communication process. Normally most of the farmers are illiterates and
therefore require mort e be convinced.
 Experience of the Extension Worker- Extension workers experience can influence
communication process. Experience is the best teacher, thus young and inexperienced
extension workers may find it more difficult to deliver his message to the farmers that
the adult and experienced one.
2.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS
There is a hierarchy in any organisation. Some employee are managers or supervisors while
others are Subordinates. Communication could be between supervisors and supervisors or
supervisors and subordinates. Communication could be between Manager and Extension
Officers or General Manager and Extension Officer. To attain the goals of an extension
organisation requires effective communication between sub-units of the organisation and
between groups. Communication between two persons in an organisation (dyadic
communication) is very frequent in any extension organisation. Three types of dyadic
communication can be identified, namely:

a. Downward communication
b. Upward communication
c. Horizontal communication

Downward communication: This refers to the flow of messages from senior colleagues (e.g.
Supervisors) to subordinates (e. g extension agents).

Upward communication: This refers to the message flow from subordinates (extension
agents) to the manager (supervisor) for the purpose of asking questions, providing feedback
and making suggestions.

ADVANTAGES

Upward communication can enhance employees’ morale and attitude. Upward

communication is a very useful tool for planning and motivation. It is also, a source of
decision making information.

DISADVANTAGES

a. Subordinates tend to tell their supervisors what they (supervisor) like to know or think
they want to hear,
b. Subordinate may give their superiors information that tends to reflect favourably on
themselves, and
c. Subordinates may distort information in a manner that would please their superiors.

Upward and downward types of communication are collectively, called vertical

communication which is built on the hierachical authority. It provides that basic chain of
command along which orders and other messages flow.
Horizontal communication: This is the exchange of messages among employees at the same
level of authority. This lateral flow of messages may be among Extension Agents.

2.6 LEVEL OF COMMUNICATION

The following are levels of communication:

Intra personal communication – This is the communication within one’s self. It is a

transaction that takes place within the individual.

Interpersonal communication- This is a face-to-face interaction between two or more

people. Interpersonal communication makes communication much easier and feedback is
often rapid, especially in a face-to-face situation. The farmer (listener) can ask questions,
make remarks and/even display non-verbal communication moves by shaking or nodding the
head which the sender can pick up and with immediately.
2.7 MASS COMMUNICATION

This is the principle and practice of communication with mass appeal. It involves strategies
that reach out to a diverse audience spontaneously in extension. Mass communication
messages are directed at a group of people through a mass medium. Mass media institutions
are newspapers, magazine, books, motion pictures, radio, TV, internet, sound records etc.

2.7.1 Functions of mass communication:

a. Interpretation Function- the mass media tend to make sense of information and
thereby enable the target audience benefit.
b. Culture Transmission Function- This gives further information and clues about the
society. It is also used to teach culture and as a means of transmitting social
education.
c. Entertainment Functions- it is a means of creating joy and serves as an outlet for
excitement for the audience.
d. Propaganda Function- it is used for brainwashing and popularization of a specific
issue of interest in the extension, radio. TV, cinema van can be used to propagate of
diffuse information on agricultural shows.
e. Commercial Function – it is used for advertisement and income generation in
agricultural and non-agricultural activities for the different media outfits

2.8 PRINCIPLES USED TO CREATE AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Achieving effective communication is based on an understanding of the following principles:

1. Message Production Skills: These skills include all the processes of catching the
attention and interest of the receiver. The use of code and symbols in a meaningful,
 designing and attractive from could help in the process of understanding the
information.
2. Credibility: This is the degree to which a source id perceived as trustworthy and
competent by the receiver. Extension workers must be knowledgeable about the
innovations he has introduced more than the clientele or they will not see him/her as
an expert.
3. Empathy: This is the ability of an individual to project himself into the role of another
person. If you can perceive how your receiver feels and share these feelings, it is
possible for you to design your message which would meet his needs and situations.
4. Feedback: By attending to feedback from his receivers, the source is able to
emphasize more fully with the farmers, understand their needs, and creating more
rapport with them. This situation creates more conducive atmosphere for effective
communication.

3 STRATEGIES TO CREATE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

The following are strategies for creating effective communication

1. The concept of Homophily and Hetrophily

The transfer of ideas most frequently occurs between a source and a receiver who are alike,
similar, homophilous. The more nearly equal in social status persons are, the more frequently
they will interact among themselves. Managers in organisation are, there expected to relate ad
much as possible with their subordinates in order to ensure the attainment of organisational
goals through effective act of communication. Hetrophily is where there are sharp differences
in social status and other variables that create limited interactions between officers. The
category may be general manager to an extension worker.

2. Understanding the audience

The source should adapt his message to the receiver’s interest and capacity for understanding
to make him willing to pay attention. To be effective, communication should be audience
centred (Myers and Myers 1995).

3. Improved Human Relations

The goal of an extension organisation can readily be achieved by ensuring high moral of the
receiver through:

a. Providing farmers with “supportive Leadership” and

b. Creating effective channels of communication between the sources and receivers
c. Encouraging cohesive social relationship within receiving unit,

4. Ensuring Regular Information Flow

PRACTICING QUESTIONS

4.
1. What is communication in agricultural extension? The importance in agricultural
extension.
2. Identify four key element of communication and explain two of them
3. Identify the six elements of the communication process in extension and discuss two
of them.
4. What are the types of communication? Explain the dyadic communication type and
illustrate with examples.
5. Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication.
6. Explain the relevance of mass communication in agricultural extension services.
7. What are the principles of effective communication? Explain three of them.
8. What are the strategies of creating of creating an effective communication? Explain
three of them.
CHAPTER 3: ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESSES
1. Definition of Diffusion

Diffusion is a process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over

time among the members of a social system.

The definition indicates that:

a. The adopters can be an individual, groups, or organisation at different levels of the

social system.
b. The target is innovation
c. The process is communication
d. The means are communication channels
e. The context of innovation is a social system
f. It is a change over time

In today’s world. Information technologies such as the internet and cell phones- which
combine aspects of mass media and interpersonal channels, represent formidable tools of
diffusion.

2. Definition of Innovation

An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other

unit of adoption. The technologies, practices developed through research are innovations.
These may be new varieties of crops, new breeds of livestock or fish species, new chemicals,
new technique of planting, processing, storage etc. Farmer themselves may develop some
new practices, which are also innovations.

3. Definition Adoption

Adoption according to Rodgers (2003) is a decision of full use of an innovation as the best
course of action available and rejection is a decision “not to adopt an innovation”. Adoption
is a mental process through which an individual passes from hearing about an innovation of
final adoption. The adoption of a practice is not a unit act and instantaneous. The farmer’s
decision to accept or reject adoption of science based production technology consist of
several stages and involves sequences of through and decisions.

4. Factors Affecting the Rate of Adoption of an Innovation

According to Rogers (1995), there are five major factors affecting the rate of adoption:

A: perceived Attributes of Innovation

An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other

unit of adoption. How the adopter perceived characteristics of the innovation have impacts on
the process of adoption.

i. Relative advantage: the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than

idea it supersedes. The underlying principle is that the greater the perceived relative
advantage of an innovation, the more raids it rate of adoption.

ii. Compatibility: the degree, which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with
the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.

iii. Complexity: the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand

and use.

iv. Trialability: the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a

limited basis. If an innovation is trialable, it results in less uncertainty for adoption.

v. Observability: the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
The easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are
to adopt.

B. Type of Innovation Decision

i. Optional: an individual flexibility

ii. Collective: a balance between maximum efficiency and freedom

iii. Authority: it yields the high rate of adoption, but produces high resistance

C. Communication channels

i. Mass Media

ii. Interpersonal

D. Nature of the social System

A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem
solving to accomplish a common goal. The member or units of a social system may be
individuals, informal groups, organisations, and or subsystems. All members cooperate at
least to the extent of seeking to solve a common problem in order to reach a mutual goal:
Sharing of a common objective usually binds the system together: The social structure affects
the innovation diffusion in several ways:

1. Social structure and communication structure: patterned arrangement of the units in a

system.
2. System norms; norms are established behaviour patterns for the members of a social
system.
3. Roles of opinion leaders and change agents: opinions leadership is the degree to
which an individual is able to influence other individual’s attitudes or overt behaviour
informally in a desired way with relative frequency.
4. Types of innovation decisions: optional innovation-decision, collective innovayion
decision, authority innovation-decision, contingent innovation-decision.
5. The consequences of innovation; desirable ds. Undesirable, direct vs. Indirect,
anticipated vs. Unanticipated.

E. Extent of Change Agent’s Promotion

F. Pro- innovation Bias: three assumptions about innovation:

1. It should be diffused and adopted by all members of a social system

2. It should be diffused more rapidly
3. It should be neither reinvented nor rejected

G. Reinvention: people use innovation in ways not originally intended

H. Individual characteristics of adopters

What is innovation-decision process for an individual or other decision making unit?

1. Knowledge: it occurs when an individual is expected to the innovation’s existence and

gains some understanding of how it functions.
2. Persuasion: it occurs when an individual forms a favourable or unfavourable attitude
toward the innovation
3. Decision: it occurs when an individual engages in activities that lead to a choice to
adopt or reject the innovation.
 4. Implementation; it occurs when an individual puts an innovation into use.
5. Confirmation: It occurs when an individual seeks reinforcement of an innovation
decision or reverse the previous due to the conflict.

5. Elements of Diffusion

The four main elements involved in diffusion are as follows:

i. Innovation
ii. Communicating Channels
iii. Time
iv. Social System

6. Role of elements involved in diffusion

i. Innovation

An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new or an improvement over

the existing one by the individual or members of a social system. If the idea seems new, it is
an innovation. The innovation may represent a slight modification of a significant departure
from, the existing idea or practice. The “idea’ constitutes the central element of an innovation
which often manifests itself in a material or behavioural form.

Most agricultural innovations manifest a material form, which includes improved

implements, high-yield and disease resistant seeds, hardy and fast growing fish, bio-
fertilizers, botanical pesticides and herbicides. Some innovation manifest themselves in
behavioural forms such as improved cultural practices.

ii. Communication Channels

A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to
another. Mass media channels are all those means of transmitting messages that involve a
mass medium such as radio, television, newspapers and others, which enable a source of one
or a few individuals to reach ana audience of many. On the other hand, interpersonal channels
are more effective in persuading an individual to accept a new idea, especially if the
interpersonal channel links two or more individual who are similar in socioeconomic status,
education, or other important ways. Interpersonal channels involve a face-to-face exchange
between two or more individuals.

iii. Time

Time is involved in diffusion in

a. The innovation- decision process

b. Innovativeness
c. Innovation’s rate of adoption

iv. The innovation- decision process

Is the mental process through which an individual or other decision making unit passes from
first knowledge of an innovation in forming an attitude towards the innovation, to a decision
to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to confirmation of this decision.
Five steps are conceptualized in the process

I. Knowledge
II. Persuasion
III. Decision
IV. Implementation
V. Confirmation

One of the most important theories discussed by Rogers is the Innovation-Decision Process
Model. As shown in Figure 2, this model suggests that the adoption of an innovation is not a
single act, but a process that occurs over time. Potential adopters go through five stages when
interacting with an innovation. The first stage is "Knowledge” in which potential adopters
find out about an innovation and gain a basic understanding of what it is and how it works.
The second stage “persuasive” in which potential adopters from a positive or negative
impression of the innovation. It is only in the third stage, “Decision”, that the innovation is
actually adopted or rejected. The fourth stage “implementation”, occurs when the innovation
is actually used. In the fifth stage, “confirmation”, the adopter seeks information about the
innovation and either continues or discontinues of the innovation.
 7. Process of Adoption

A diffusion of innovation with a social system takes place through its adoption by individual
or group. Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action
available. The decision to adopt an innovation, involves a process composed of learning
deciding, and acting over a period of time. The adoption process, as a decision-making
process goes through a number of mental stages before making a final decision to adopt an
innovation.

Decision-making is a process comprising a sequence of stages with a distinct type of activity

occurring during each stage. The way in which an individual adopts an innovation involves
the following five steps namely, Awareness stage, Interest stage, Evaluation stage, Trial
stage, and Adoption state (AIETA).

a. Awareness Stage

This is the starting stage wherein the farmer comes to know the existence of the new idea but
he doesn’t have full information about the idea. At this stage farmers is aware of the idea, but
lacks detailed information about it.

b. Interest Stage

The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information about it
either from the extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any source, which he feels
credible. That means the farmer acquires more information about an innovation or idea by
wanting to know what the innovation/ idea is, how it works and what its potentialities are.

c. Evaluation Stage

At the evaluation stage, the farmer makes mental application of the new ida in the present and
anticipated future situation and decides whether or not to try it. He hudges the utility of the
innovation, makes an assessment whether the idea is applicable to own situation and if
applied what would be the result.
 d. Trial Stage

The farmers may not take up any new idea and an innovation right away on a large scale
because he/she doesn’t want to take risks even though the potential of the idea has been
approved. The new idea is applied on a small scale in order to determine its utility or
feasibility and applicability in own situation.

e. Adoption Stage

Being satisfied with the performance of the new idea tested on a small scale in his own
situation, the farmer uses the new idea continuously on a full scale. Trial may be considered
as the practical evaluation of an innovation. The innovation becomes a part of his normal
farming activity. It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes final
decision and applies the innovation on a scale appropriate to own situation on a continued
basis.

8. Stages of Diffusion of Innovation

The diffusion process of an innovation involves five major stages.

a. Innovators

At the first stage only a few innovation farmers try out and adopt the innovation after its
introduction in a village. This group of farmers is often referred to as “innovation” who have
been described to be prosperous and venturesome enough to be able to take the risk of trying
out an innovative idea or practice.

b. Early Adopters

In the second stage, large group of farmers, but still a small majority in the village is
influenced by the innovator to adopt the recommended practice. The early adopter are usually
respected farmers, opinion leader who try out new ideas, but in a careful way. Because of
their respectability in the village, the early adopters serve as the role model for other farmers
who seek opinion and advices on farming matters from them.
Figure 3: Roger’s Innovation Adoption curve

c. Early Majority

These are thoughtful farmers, who are very careful but accepting changes more quickly that
the average farmers. They also constitute a large number of farmers that influence some
farmers to some degree.

d. Late Adopters

These farmers are also called majority. They are skeptic farmers or people who will use new
idea or products only when the majority is using. This when the diffusion curve takes a rather
steep upward climb. In the final stage, the diffusion process slow down and the diffusion
curve gently levels off as the proportionately few remaining farmers of the village gradually
adopt the innovation.

e. Laggards

The small group of farmers who take the longest time to adopt an innovation is called the
‘laggards’. They are the traditional people, like the old ways critical towards new ideas and
only accept new idea has become mainstream.
Rogers innovation adoption curve
RATE OF ADOPTION OF INNOVATION

What affects the rate of adoption?

 The stage of life of a farmer can affect his farming decisions: A young well
educated farmers with family to educate is generally keen to increase his farm income, While
an older man with little education and with adult children may have little interest in
improving his farming and increasing his income
 Social System: People do not live in isolation, and their decisions affect and are affected by
others. Social structures and cultures are never static, they change. The speed at which new
farming practices are adopted depends to a large extent on the contact that people have with
other cultures and new ideas and on the ability of individual within a society to initiate and
accept change
 Farmers Views on Nature of Innovation: The speed of adoption of a new idea depends
partly upon the farmer’s view of the idea, technology or practice. Some characteristics may
speed up the rate of adoption, while some practices may have retarding factors.

Adoption & Acceptance

What influences the rate of adoption and acceptance?

Factors that Influence adoption process and acceptance of new farming practices;

• Cost - new practices that are high in cost generally tend to be adopted more slowly.
The subjective risk that the famer associates the higher the cost the more slowly the
practice is adopted

• Complexity - Practices that are relatively simple to understand and use are generally
accepted more quickly than complex ones

• Visibility- Practices vary in the extent to which their operation and results are visible
or can be shown. A new practice will generally be adopted quickly if it can be seen,
hence the importance of demonstrations, trials and visual aids

• Divisibility- some practices such as the use of fertilizers, herbicides, or seed varieties
may be divided or done on smaller scale for comparisons with previous practices.
However, other practices may not be easily tried out on a small scale. A practice that
is divisible for trial will generally be adopted more rapidly than a practice that is not
• Compatibility- a farmer’s attitude toward a new idea are often affected by his past
experience with similar ideas. For example a farmer growing hybrid maize seeds can
easily adopt other hybrid related enterprises, varieties etc.

• Utility- If a new practice is viewed as a major improvement over existing methods, it

is likely to be adopted rapidly

• Group action- Some new ideas require group consensus and acceptance before they
are adopted, others may be adopted on entirely individual basis as long as they do not
conflict with community norms

CHAPTER 3
SUMMARY
• In most traditional communities there are fewer innovators, early adopters, and early
majority categories, with most farmers falling into late majority and laggard
categories.

• This is because people are reluctant to adopt new practices and be seen as different
from others

• An innovation is said to be diffused through a population properly when at least 50

per cent of the farmers have adopted

• Extension workers should therefore reinforce success of a recommended

practice/technology through awareness programmes until 30 to 40 percent of the
farmers have adopted a new idea.