YOCEAN (GROUP) LIMITED

TECHNICAL SERVICE DEPARTMENT

COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE: THEORY, RESOURCES, AND

APPLICATIONS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY

BY

NAME DESIGNATION SIGNATURE DATE

Alfred Muvea Paul Technical Support Assistant 14/01/2022
Table of Contents
COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE(CAES) ..................................................................... 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 3
Components of CAES ................................................................................................................. 3
Methods used in storage of compressed air ................................................................................ 4
I. Underground Compressed Air Storage ............................................................................ 4
II. Ground Surface Compressed Air Storage .................................................................... 4
Variant of Compressed Air Energy Storage and Working Principle .............................................. 5
A. Diabatic CAES Technology (D-CAES)............................................................................... 6
Main Drawbacks of D-CAES .................................................................................................. 6
B. Adiabatic CAES Technology (A-CAES)............................................................................. 6
i. A-CAES without thermal energy storage (NO-TES)....................................................... 6
ii. A-CAES with Thermal energy storage (TES).................................................................. 6
C. Isothermal CAES Technology (I-CAES)............................................................................. 6
D. Supercritical CAES Technology (SC-CAES)...................................................................... 6
Market Penetration of CAES Technology ...................................................................................... 7
A. Operational Projects ............................................................................................................. 7
i. Huntorf plant .................................................................................................................... 7
ii. McIntosh plant.................................................................................................................. 7
iii. Jiangsu Project .............................................................................................................. 8
B. Upcoming Projects ............................................................................................................... 8
i. Shangdong ........................................................................................................................ 8
Application of CAES Technology to Automotive Industry ......................................................... 10
i. Electric Cars ....................................................................................................................... 10
ii. Ships................................................................................................................................... 10
Options available in application of CAES Technology ................................................................ 11
i. High Pressure CAES .......................................................................................................... 11
ii. Low Pressure CAES .......................................................................................................... 11
Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES ..................................................................................... 12
Advantages of CAES systems ................................................................................................... 12
Disadvantages of CAES systems .............................................................................................. 12
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 13
References ..................................................................................................................................... 14

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 COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE(CAES)
Introduction
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is an energy storage technology that uses compressed air
to store large amounts of energy for later use. It is a type of energy storage that uses the force
created when compressed air is contained to produce energy when it is required. Typically, tanks,
aquifers, or subterranean caves are used to store compressed air. When necessary, the air is released
from storage and utilized to power a turbine.
When renewable energy sources like solar and wind are not providing electricity, CAES is a
promising technology that may be utilized to satisfy energy demand. Additionally, CAES may be
utilized alongside conventional power plants to assist control the electrical supply and reduce the
need for spinning reserves(Chen et al., 2016).

Components of CAES

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The main components of compressed air energy storage include:
1. Air compressors: These are devices that compress air and then store it in an above-ground
tank or cavern.
2. Storage vessel: The compressed air is kept in storage vessels, which may be an above-
ground tank or an underground cavern. The performance of the system as a whole is
significantly influenced by the pressure and volume of the storage vessel.
3. Expansion turbine: This device transforms compressed air that has been stored into
mechanical energy, which is subsequently utilized to produce electricity.
4. Generator: This produces electrical energy from the mechanical energy of the expansion
turbine.
5. Heat exchanger: To improve the effectiveness of the adiabatic CAES system, heat is
transferred from the compressed air during compression to the expanded air through the
use of a heat exchanger.
6. Control system: To maintain optimum performance, this system is utilized to manage and
regulate the different CAES system parts, including the compressors, storage tank, and
expansion turbine.
7. Power electronic interfaces, such as converters and inverters, to adjust the system's output
to grid specifications.
8. To make sure the system is operating properly, other parts may also be employed, such as
filters and cooling systems.

Methods used in storage of compressed air

Storage of compressed air in CAES systems can be done the above or below the earth’s surface.
The methods applicable for both cases are as follows;
I. Underground Compressed Air Storage

➢ Underground Caverns: Underground caverns are large underground spaces, usually

formed by dissolving salt deposits. These spaces are then used to store compressed air. The
caverns are usually located deep underground and are well insulated, making them ideal
for storing compressed air(Tharumalingam, 2019).
➢ Aquifers: Aquifers are underground layers of permeable rock filled with water.
Compressed air can be stored in aquifers by injecting it into the water-filled pores. This
method allows for large amounts of compressed air to be stored in a relatively small space.

II. Ground Surface Compressed Air Storage

➢ Tanks: Tanks are large, insulated vessels that are designed to store compressed air. The
tanks are typically made of steel and are highly insulated to reduce heat loss from the stored
compressed air.

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 Variant of Compressed Air Energy Storage and Working Principle
Different CAES designs have been developed over time in an effort to enhance the functionality
of first-generation CAES technology and reduce the use of fossil fuels, making CAES
environmentally friendly(Borri et al., 2022).
The general classification of CAES technologies is shown below and thereafter, a presentation of
the main key performance indicators of each CAES.

Parameters D-CAES A-CAES I-CAES SC-CAES Unit

Power Rating 10-320 0.5-300 1-2 110-290 Mw
Discharge Time 1-24+ 1-24+ 1 1-24+ H
Round-trip Efficiency 54-60 60-70 35-40 45-70 %
Energy Density 3-6 0.5-20 3-6 8-24 KWh/m3

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 A. Diabatic CAES Technology (D-CAES)
D-CAES is the first generation of CAES technology that was developed. In this configuration, heat
is lost as waste heat during compression rather than being recovered. This implies that when
compressed air is released and expanded via a turbine to produce energy, it is at a lower
temperature(Chen et al., 2016). As a result, the compressed air cannot expand as much and produce
as much power, resulting in a reduction in total efficiency.
Main Drawbacks of D-CAES
The main drawbacks related to D-CAES are linked to;
i. The significant amount of waste heat lost to the environment,
ii. The relatively low round-trip efficiency and energy density,
iii. High emissions related to fossil fuel consumption.
B. Adiabatic CAES Technology (A-CAES)
In order to overcome the disadvantages of D-CAES mainly linked with the thermal energy loss at
the intercooling phase, Adiabatic CAES system aims to principally store the waste heat of
compression and recycle it to increase the turbine inlet temperature of the compressed air, thus
reducing or even eliminating the dependance on fossil fuel(Borri et al., 2022). Depending on the
presence or the absence of a dedicated thermal energy storage to store the waste heat of
compression, A-CAES can be further differentiated in:
i. A-CAES without thermal energy storage (NO-TES)- The waste heat of compression is
directly stored in the reservoir, acting as a combined compressed air and thermal energy
storage system. Despite the technical ease of this configuration, the high temperatures
achieved during the compression phase require reservoir material capable to resist thermal
stress. Indeed, due to this limitation, A-CAES without TES can be only adopted at low-
pressure of less than 10bar, thus significantly affecting the energy density and the
roundtrip efficiency of the system(Borri et al., 2022).
ii. A-CAES with Thermal energy storage (TES)- In this setup, the waste heat from
compression is stored and reused by a specialized thermal energy storage system to raise
the turbine inlet temperature prior to expansion in the turbine. Significantly greater
pressure (above 60 bars) higher than A-CAES without TES and as a result, increased
energy density with up to 70% roundtrip efficiency(Borri et al., 2022).
C. Isothermal CAES Technology (I-CAES)
Isothermal CAES systems use heat exchangers to keep the compressed air at a constant
temperature as it is stored and released. This allows for more efficient energy storage and retrieval.
This technology overcomes the need to use specialized thermal energy storage systems with may
result to loss of temperature to a certain extend. Due to the system's ability to store and release
energy without significantly changing temperature, this arrangement is has a higher efficiency.
D. Supercritical CAES Technology (SC-CAES)
Supercritical CAES technology uses the principle of Liquefied Air Energy Storage (LAES). Prior
to being liquefied and stored in a separate cryogenic tank, air is first compressed at supercritical
thermodynamic condition, recovering the waste heat of compression in thermal energy
storage(Borri et al., 2022). The liquid air is re-gasified, heated by the stored thermal energy, and
expanded via a turbine train during the discharge phase to produce power that is sent back into the
grid.
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 Market Penetration of CAES Technology
A. Operational Projects
As of 2012, there were only two operational CAES plants in the world; however, there are several
plants in the planning stages.
i. Huntorf plant
The E.N Kraftwerke-owned Huntorf facility in Germany is a diabatic CAES plant that has been
in operation since 1978. It is the first CAES plant in the world and initially had a 290 MW for 4
hour producing capacity. In 2008, the expansion train had a refit that increased the generating
output from 290 MW to 321 MW. Two solution-mined salt caverns produced in a nearby diapir
are used by the facility. Volumes of the two salt caverns that make up the storage vessel are
140,000 and 170,000 m3, for a combined volume of 310,000 m3. The caverns have a maximum
diameter of about 200 feet and a height of 500 feet(Chen et al., 2016). The plant uses a process
called the "Kalina cycle" which improves the thermal efficiency of the power generation process.
The Kalina cycle uses a mixture of ammonia and water to transfer heat, rather than traditional
steam. This allows the plant to generate more electricity from the same amount of fuel. The round-
trip efficiency of the facility was 42%.

ii. McIntosh plant

The McIntosh diabatic CAES plant, operated by the Alabama Electric corporation, in Alabama
USA has been in service since 1991. The McIntosh plant makes use of a single salt cavern, with
a volume of 538,000m3. McIntosh has a generating capacity of 110 MW for 26 hours. The
McIntosh cavern experiences pressures between 45 and 76(Tharumalingam, 2019). The plant has
multi-stage compression with no thermal energy storage. The efficiency is much higher than
Huntorf, with a round trip efficiency of 54%.

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 iii. Jiangsu Project
The first large scale commercial AA-CAES plant (60 MW/300 MWh) was recently commissioned
in Xuebuzhen (Jiangsu, China) and became operational in 2022. Aiming at limiting the solar
curtailment in Jiangsu province, the system uses an existing salt cavern as compressed air storage.
As of now, the system was recently connected to the grid after a series of successful trials(Jiangsu
Salt Cavern Compressed Air Energy Storage Project Put into Operation--Seetao, n.d.).

B. Upcoming Projects
i. Shangdong
The project’s developers are China Energy Engineering Group Co., Ltd. and Taian Taishan
New Energy Development Co., Ltd., who together are investing 2.23 billion yuan (US$311
million) in the first of two phases of construction. This will be the largest CAES project in the
world with a capacity of 350MW/1.4GWh & with 325 degree Celsius low-melting point molten
salt high-temperature thermal insulation A-CAES technology(China: 1.4GWh Compressed Air Energy
Storage Unit Breaks Ground, n.d.).

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(Luo et al., 2015)

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Application of CAES Technology to Automotive Industry
i. Electric Cars
One potential application of CAES in electric vehicles (EVs) is to use the stored compressed air
as a source of energy to power the vehicle's electric motor. This could potentially increase the
range of EVs and make them more practical for long distance travel. Compressed air can be
released to drive a pneumatic motor, which in turn can be used to drive a DC generator.
A pneumatic motor (air motor), or compressed air engine, is a type of motor which
does mechanical work by expanding compressed air(Compressed-Air Energy Storage - Wikipedia,
n.d.). Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air energy to mechanical work through
either linear or rotary motion(Liu & Wang, 2015). Linear motion can come from either a diaphragm
or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by either a vane type air motor, piston air motor,
air turbine or gear type motor(Tiano et al., 2018). Several companies are investing in developing
CAES vehicles however, CAES technology for EVs is still in the research and development stage
and has not yet been widely adopted in the industry

ii. Ships
Large marine diesel engines are started using compressed air, typically stored in large bottles
between 20 and 30 bar, acting directly on the pistons via special starting valves to turn the
crankshaft prior to beginning fuel injection. This arrangement is more compact and cheaper than
an electric starter motor would be at such scales and able to supply the necessary burst of extremely
high power without placing a prohibitive load on the ship's electrical generators and distribution
system. Compressed air is commonly also used, at lower pressures, to control the engine and act
as the spring force acting on the cylinder exhaust valves, and to operate other auxiliary systems
and power tools on board, sometimes including pneumatic PID controllers(Compressed-Air Energy
Storage - Wikipedia, n.d.). One advantage of this approach is that in the event of an electrical
blackout, ship systems powered by stored compressed air can continue functioning uninterrupted,
and generators can be restarted without an electrical

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 Options available in application of CAES Technology
i. High Pressure CAES
High pressure CAES systems use high pressure air to store energy in order to maximize the energy
density of the system. High pressure systems easily solve the issue of storage size by reducing the
size of a compressed air storage vessel, but only at the expense of increased waste heat. High
pressure systems applicable in both large scale and small-scale applications. While large-scale
AA-CAES aims to recover the heat of compression with the aim of maximizing electricity
production, small-scale systems take advantage of the temperature differences to allow
trigeneration of electrical, heating and cooling power(Ditch the Batteries: Off-Grid Compressed
Air Energy Storage - LOW-TECH MAGAZINE, n.d.). The dissipated heat of compression is used
for residential heating and hot water production, while the cold expanding air is used for space
cooling, air-conditioning, water heating and refrigeration. The main drawbacks are that heat
exchangers need more room and that high pressure systems necessitate stronger, more costly
storage tanks.
ii. Low Pressure CAES
The main technology employed by low pressure CAES systems is A-CAES without thermal
energy storage (NO-TES). Instead of compressing air to a high pressure and taking advantage of
the heat and cold from compression and expansion, a second class of CAES systems is based on
low pressures and “near-isothermal” compression and expansion. Below air pressures of roughly
10 bar, the compression and expansion of air exhibit insignificant temperature changes (“near-
isothermal”)(Ditch the Batteries: Off-Grid Compressed Air Energy Storage - LOW-TECH
MAGAZINE, n.d.). This technology is not mature compared to high pressure CAES. Low pressure
systems suffer the following drawbacks;

i. Low pressure CAES systems have a limited capacity to store a lot of energy and have a
slow response time to variations in demand. Because of this, they might not be as ideal for
applications that need a lot of flexibility.

ii. Due to the bigger storage caverns or tanks needed to store the same amount of energy as
high pressure CAES, they are also more expensive to build and maintain than high pressure
CAES.

iii. Additionally, because of the system's low pressure, transferring energy from one form to
another is not as efficient as it is in systems with higher pressure.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of CAES
The primary benefits of implementing a CAES system are ancillary services provided to the grid.
Applications include: peak shaving; spinning reserve; VAR support; and arbitrage. By utilizing
CAES, the energy from a variety of sources (including wind, solar and the grid itself) can be
temporarily stored to be recovered at a later time, presumably when it is more needed and, perhaps,
more valuable. Although CAES systems which use underground storage are inherently site
specific, CAES utilizes proven technology that can be optimized for specific site conditions and
competitively delivered by various suppliers(Layton, n.d.).
Listed below are a few other advantages and disadvantages of CAES.
Advantages of CAES systems
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems provide the following benefits:
i. Flexibility: CAES systems are easily set up to respond to rapid changes in the demand for
power.
ii. Efficiency: When coupled with natural gas, CAES systems may achieve round-trip
efficiencies of up to 70%.
iii. Cost-effective: When compared to other types of energy storage, CAES systems may be
relatively affordable to develop and maintain.
iv. Environmental Impact: The power produced by CAES systems is produced without any
emissions.
v. Consistency: CAES systems are durable and have a long lifespan. They may be utilized
for several decades.
Disadvantages of CAES systems
Given all these advantages, one could ask, “Why there are so few CAES plants in operation?” A
few of the potential reasons are listed below.
i. The underground geology is likely perceived as a risk issue by utilities, even though oil
and gas companies have been storing hydrocarbon-based fuels in similar underground
reservoirs for over 80 years.
ii. Site selection is somewhat limited since one needs the presence of mines, caverns, and
certain geological formations.
iii. The requirement for additional heating in the expansion process is the most significant
disadvantage. By some estimates, 1KWh worth of natural gas will be needed for every
3KWh generated from a CAES system. This is particularly problematic if fossil fuels are
used for the heat addition. As natural gas prices increase, the economics of CAES, marginal
at present, could fail.
iv. CAES systems' intermittent nature, which makes them dependent on other energy sources
and limits their efficacy as an energy storage solution, means that they can only store
energy when it is available, such as surplus wind or solar energy.

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Summary
The industry has discovered the following based on its experience running the McIntosh and
Huntorf plants:
➢ CAES plants can be built within estimated costs and schedule,
➢ The plants confirmed the expected high efficiency, reliability, availability,
➢ The plants have competitive economics,
➢ The underground storage caverns can be developed using well-established techniques,
➢ Underground storage reservoirs can achieve negligible leak rates. In fact, no air leakage
has been measured at either the Huntorf or McIntosh plants since they were commissioned,
and
➢ CAES plants can be constructed using commercially available equipment; mainly
components developed for the combustion turbine and oil/gas industries over that last 50
years.
Compressed Air Energy Storage systems are well suited as a companion to intermit energy sources
such as wind and solar. They also complement large base-load nuclear plants and offer an effective
method to store vast amounts of power for later consumption.

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References
Borri, E., Tafone, A., Comodi, G., Romagnoli, A., & Cabeza, L. F. (2022). Compressed Air
Energy Storage—An Overview of Research Trends and Gaps through a Bibliometric
Analysis. In Energies (Vol. 15, Issue 20). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207692
Chen, L., Zheng, T., Mei, S., Xue, X., Liu, B., & Lu, Q. (2016). Review and prospect of
compressed air energy storage system. Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean
Energy, 4(4), 529–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/S40565-016-0240-5
China: 1.4GWh compressed air energy storage unit breaks ground. (n.d.). Retrieved January 14,
2023, from https://www.energy-storage.news/construction-starts-on-1-4gwh-compressed-
air-energy-storage-unit-in-china/
Compressed-air energy storage - Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved January 14, 2023, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed-air_energy_storage#Ships
Ditch the Batteries: Off-Grid Compressed Air Energy Storage - LOW-TECH MAGAZINE. (n.d.).
Retrieved January 13, 2023, from https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2018/05/ditch-the-
batteries-off-the-grid-compressed-air-energy-storage.html
Jiangsu salt cavern compressed air energy storage project put into operation--Seetao. (n.d.).
Retrieved January 14, 2023, from https://www.seetao.com/details/159902.html
Layton, L. (n.d.). Compressed Air Energy Storage.
www.PDHcenter.comPDHCourseE365www.PDHonline.org
Liu, J. L., & Wang, J. H. (2015). Thermodynamic analysis of a novel tri-generation system based
on compressed air energy storage and pneumatic motor. Energy, 91, 420–429.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.08.055
Luo, X., Wang, J., Dooner, M., & Clarke, J. (2015). Overview of current development in
electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system
operation. Applied Energy, 137, 511–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.081
Tharumalingam, A. (2019). A Design Approach for Compressed Air Energy Storage in Salt
Caverns.
Tiano, F. A., Rizzo, G., & Marra, D. (2018). Design and Optimization of a Charging Station for
Electric Vehicles based on Compressed Air Energy Storage. 51(9), 230–235.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.07.038

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