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A review of thermal energy storage in compressed air energy storage system

Qian Zhou, Dongmei Du, Chang Lu, Qing He, Wenyi Liu

PII: S0360-5442(19)31687-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.115993
Article Number: 115993
Reference: EGY 115993

To appear in: Energy

Received Date: 18 June 2019

Accepted Date: 21 August 2019

Please cite this article as: Qian Zhou, Dongmei Du, Chang Lu, Qing He, Wenyi Liu, A review of
thermal energy storage in compressed air energy storage system, Energy (2019), https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2019.115993

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A review of thermal energy storage in compressed air energy

storage system
Qian Zhou*, Dongmei Du, Chang Lu, Qing He**, Wenyi Liu
School of Energy Power and Mechanical Engineering, North China Electric Power University,
Beijing, 102206, China
Abstract: Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a large-scale physical energy storage method,
which can solve the difficulties of grid connection of unstable renewable energy power, such as wind
and photovoltaic power, and improve its utilization rate. How to improve the efficiency of CAES and
obtain better economy is one of the key issues that need to be studied urgently. Thermal energy storage
(TES) is an effective method to solve this issue. Firstly, this paper briefly introduces the development
history of CAES. Taking advanced adiabatic CAES (AA-CAES) as an example, the basic principle,
model and key parameters of TES in CAES are summarized. Then, the TES research and its
application in CAES are discussed in detail. Finally, the future research and development of TES in
CAES is prospected.
Key Words: compressed air energy storage; thermal energy storage; energy system; review.

1. Introduction

In recent years, in addition to the concern for social and economic development itself, the negative
products of rapid development, energy resource shortages and environmental pollution have received
more and more attention [1]. Now, power industry has two important development trends. First, the
capacity of generator is getting larger and larger. Second, the capacity of renewable energy accounts
for a larger proportion of total capacity. Based on these development trends, there are two important
issues in how to effectively use energy. First, the increasing peak-to-valley difference has increased the
difficulty of peak shaving and frequency regulation of existing power grids and generator sets, and the
requirements for unit operation have been continuously improved, the unit life and energy utilization
have also been affected. Second, wind power generation and photovoltaic/photothermal power
generation and other mature renewable energy power generation technologies have some inherent
defects, such as intermittent and volatility, as well as the complexity of system operation and the
complexity of grid delivery, leading to abandonment of wind and light which have greatly limited the
further development of renewable energy power generation technology and large-scale production and
utilization[2-4].
The development and application of energy storage technology can skillfully solve the above two
problems. It not only overcomes the defects of poor continuity of operation and unstable power output
of renewable energy power stations, realizes stable output, and provides an effective solution for
large-scale utilization of renewable energy, but also achieves a good " Peak shaving ", improves the
efficiency, safety and economy of the energy system [5-6]. In the continuous development and
production operation of the past 50years, compressed air energy storage (CAES) has become a

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ndzhou1995@163.com (Q. Zhou), hqng@163.com (Q. He).
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large-scale physical energy storage technology in addition to pumped storage, with the largest capacity,
mature technology and commercialization. Compared with other forms of energy storage technologies,
such as battery energy storage and flywheel energy storage, it has the advantages of high energy
storage efficiency, long life cycle, large storage/release capacity and relatively low investment cost
[7-9].
The traditional CAES has low efficiency, and the theoretical efficiency can only reach about 50%.
In the process of releasing energy, the external heat source is needed to heat the high-pressure gas, so
that the high-pressure gas becomes a high-temperature and high-pressure gas, and then enters the
expander to work. In this way, the system output power requirements can be met. However, fuel
combustion and exhaust emissions are contrary to the environmental and sustainability principles of
CAES technology [10]. Therefore, many scholars and institutions have carried out in-depth research on
these defects of traditional CAES, and constantly explored improved measures, including the proposal
of advanced adiabatic CAES (AA-CAES), introduced by applying thermal energy storage (TES) [11]
in the traditional system, which has received extensive attention and is an important direction of the
future CAES technology development.
The work in this paper is as follows: The development history of CAES and TES is briefly
described. The basic principle and important parameters of TES are explained by mathematical model.
The application status of TES in CAES is studied, and the future development direction of AA-CAES
is prospected, and the opinions on development and improvement are put forward.

Nomenclature

T Temperature, K
P Pressure, Pa
G Mass Flow, kg/s
cp Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/(kg·K)
cw Specific heat of heat storage medium, kJ/(kg·K)
A Area, m2
U Over-all heat transfer coefficient
Q Energy, kJ

Greek symbols
κ Adiabatic index
η Adiabatic efficiency, %
β Pressure ratio
ε Effectiveness of heat exchanger

Subscripts
c Compression process
e Expansion process
i The ith stage
ch Heat exchanger for compression
eh Heat exchanger for expansion
ac Air from compressor
TES Thermal energy storage
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cw TES medium in energy storage stage

ew TES medium in energy release stage
env Environment

Superscripts
in Inlet
out Outlet

Abbreviations
CAES Compressed air energy storage
D-CAES Diabatic CAES
TES Thermal energy storage
A-CAES Adiabatic CAES
AA-CAES Advanced adiabatic CAES
I-CAES Isothermal CAES
CCHP Combining cooling, heating and power
LAES Liquefied air energy storage

2. Brief of CAES

2.1 Concept period

In 1940s, the concept of using compressed air to store electricity was first proposed. Gay [12]
submitted a patent application ‘Means for Storing Fluids for Power Generation’ to the US Patent
Office. In the late 1960s, due to the increase in grid size and load, the requirements for functions
such as peak shaving, standby, and renewable energy consumption [13], and the demand for
energy storage increased, CAES has only begun to develop further from theory to practice. Fig.1
shows the development process of CAES concepts. Among them, the Diabatic CAES (D-CAES)
is the traditional CAES, and the Isothermal CAES (I-CAES) achieves near-isothermal process
through heat exchanger or liquid spray in the process of energy storage and energy release,
thereby improving system efficiency [14].
I-CAES

Improvement of the
compression process

CAES D-CAES

Utilization of
exhaust heat

A-CAES AA-CAES
Introduction
of TES

Fig.1 CAES development process

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2.2 Traditional CAES

The traditional CAES consists mainly of important components such as compressors, a
compressed air storage, combustion chambers, expanders and motor/generators. During energy
storage process, the air enters the compressor from atmospheric environment and is compressed
into high pressure air and stored in the compressed air storage. During energy release process, the
high pressure air stored in the compressed air storage first passes through the combustion chamber,
burned mixed with fuel and become high-temperature and high-pressure air, and then enter the
expander to work, and output electric energy. The system structure is shown in Fig.2.

Comp M/G Exp

Combustion
Cooler chamber

Air Exhaust

Compressed air storage

(CAS) Natural gas

Fig.2 Traditional CAES

At present, there are two traditional CAES power stations in commercial operation. The first
is the Huntorf power station operation in 1978 as shown in Fig.3 with the total efficiency 41.73%
using natural gas to assist combustion in energy release process [15-16]. The reason for this
phenomenon is that in addition to the problems of the technical maturity, low efficiency of the
system equipment and the inevitable loss in the energy conversion process, there is a large number
of heat losses in the air collapse process and the exhaust process.

HP LP
M/G HP Exp LP Exp
Comp Comp

Air Exhaust
Cooler
Combustion
chamber 2
Combustion
chamber 1
Compressed air storage Natural gas
(CAS)

Fig.3 Huntorf power station system

After the expansion process, the temperature and pressure of exhaust are higher than the
atmospheric environment. If the exhaust is directly released into the atmosphere, it will cause
some heat loss. Therefore, the other is the McIntosh power station in Alabama, USA, as shown in
Fig.4 with the total efficiency 54% by means of waste heat recovery and utilization equipment for
recycling the exhaust heat [17-18]. Compared with the Huntorf power station, the efficiency of the
McIntosh power station has been improved to some extent. However, based on commercial
operation and profitability, such system efficiency is not enough to meet the market requirements
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for energy storage systems. Compared to pumped storage and battery storage, the inefficiency
makes CAES uncompetitive in the market, and the process of commercialization of large-scale
CAES is stopped.

HP LP
IP Comp M/G HP Exp LP Exp
Comp Comp

Combustion
Air
Cooler chamber 1 combustion
chamber 2

Exhaust

Rec

Natural gas

Compressed air storage

(CAS)

Fig.4 McIntosh power station system

According to the working principle of compressor, the compressed air will increase in
temperature as its pressure increases [19], that is, the temperature of air during compression is
proportional to the pressure as following
 1
 
 c   1 
T  T 1 out in
(1)

c
c 
c

 
where, Tc is the air temperature of compressor inlet; Tcout is the air temperature of compressor
in

outlet;  is the constant entropy index in compression process; and c is the isentropic efficiency
of compressor.
The pressure ratio  c is:
Pcout
c  (2)
Pcin
where, Pcin is the air pressure of compressor inlet, Pa; and Pcout is the air pressure of compressor
outlet, Pa.
The working process of traditional CAES system is: before entering the next-stage
compressor or storing in the compressed air storage, the compressed air passing through the
compressor needs to be cooled to lower temperature to reduce power consumption of compressor.
The cooling of compressed air causes a large amount of heat loss, making CAES system less
efficient. In addition to the problem of low efficiency, in order to improve efficiency in energy
release process, it is necessary to use fuel to assist combustion, and the greenhouse gases
generated by combustion are released into the atmosphere which caused a certain degree of
pollution to the environment. These shortcomings violated the original design concept of CAES,
so the improvement of traditional CAES is the focus of research.

2.3 A-CAES
In 1976, Kreid [20] worked in the Pacific Northwest Laboratory, USA, first conducted the
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study of the second generation of CAES, namely adiabatic compressed air energy storage
(A-CAES). The innovation of A-CAES is to store the heat generated during compression process,
which is then used to preheat the air during expansion process. Kreid made a simple design of
A-CAES system and discussed feasibility, efficiency and cost.
After then, many people in the Northwest Pacific Laboratory discussed the feasibility of
A-CAES and the economics compared with traditional CAES, and studied its development
prospects and the obstacles to its development [21-22]. However, limited by the immature
technology and high cost, and there is still the need for fuels to assist combustion and the
production of greenhouse gas emissions, the concept of A-CAES has not been applied to the
construction of CAES power stations. Therefore, although the heat exchanger was used in the
construction of the McIntosh power station, it still relied on fuels to supply heat in energy release
process [23].

2.4 AA-CAES
Until the beginning of the 21st century, with the increasing demand for mitigating
environmental pressures and the development of TES technology becoming more mature,
A-CAES technology has once again received attention, and set off a research boom in the third
generation CAES, this is, AA-CAES [24-25]. The AA-CAES introduces TES into the traditional
CAES, and uses the TES medium to recover the heat of compression generated during
compression stage and stores it by some means. During energy release stage, the TES medium
preheats the high-pressure air through heat exchanger. The TES replaces the combustion chamber
to heat the air, thereby reducing system energy loss, increasing efficiency, and achieving zero
emissions of pollutants. AA-CAES is also known as regenerative CAES [26-27] as shown in Fig.5.
The AA-CAES solves the problem of assist combustion in traditional CAES, and further improves
efficiency. It has great development potential and has received a lot of attention. In 2008, Grazzini
[28] conducted a thermodynamic analysis of AA-CAES, designed an AA-CAES system without
fuel-assisted combustion, with TES, and carried out a specific study and concludes that the system
efficiency can be increased upto 72%.
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LP HP
M Comp Comp

Cooler 1 Cooler 2

Air

Recovery of heat Recovery of heat

of compression of compression

TES CAS

Exhaust
heat Heating Heating

Heater 2 Heater 1

G LP Exp HP Exp

Fig.5 AA-CAES system

At the beginning of 2009, the Institute of Engineering Thermo-physics (IET) of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences (CAS) proposed a supercritical liquid air energy storage system. A
demonstration system of 1.5MW AA-CAES in Langfang, Hebei was built in 2013 [29-31]. In
2010, TÜV Rheinland and GE, the German Aerospace Center and Schupling of Germany jointly
launched the construction of an AA-CAES demonstration station, the ADELE power station [32].
However, the high exhaust temperature of compressor, the difficulty of high temperature
compressor, and the high temperature TES device lead to slow in progress.
In 2014, the Institute of Physics and Chemistry (IPC) of CAS, Tsinghua University and
China Electric Power Research Institute (CEPRI) jointly built a 500kW non-combustion CAES
dynamic simulation system named TICC-500, which uses a double-tank heat exchange fluid to
store heat, and uses pressurized water as a TES and transfer medium. The TES system uses
gradient TES technology to store water of different temperatures in normal temperature water
tanks, medium temperature water tanks and high temperature water tanks. The efficiency of the
system at electrical switching experiment reaches 40%. In addition, considering the use of
compression heat for external heating (80°C) and the low temperature exhaust of the turbine for
external cooling (3°C), the combined utilization efficiency of cold and hot electricity is about 72%
[33-35].
In 2016, the Energy Storage R&D Center of the IET carried out the joint debugging of the
overall system of the first 10MW AA-CAES integrated experiment and verification platform in
Bijie, Guizhou, China. The experimental platform has the functions of component research and
development, process optimization and screening, system performance testing and inspection of
different energy storage systems. It provides a necessary platform environment for the research
and development of large-scale CAES system, and provides necessary technical support for the
industrialization of large-scale CAES systems [36]. In 2018, based on this integrated experiment
and verification platform, the IET completed the commissioning of the world's first 10MW
high-temperature thermal storage platform, and relied on the experimental platform to carry out
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experimental research and performance testing of thermal storage and heat exchange devices with
the highest power up to 10MW [37]. In 2017, Tsinghua University and Zhongyan Jintan Company
carried out research on 50MW AA-CAES based on salt cavern gas storage. The project adopts
non-combustion CAES, with a storage capacity of 50MW×4h, which is similar to the TICC-500
[38].
Unfortunately, since the completion of the Huntorf and McIntosh power stations, no other
large commercial CAES system has been built worldwide. In particular, the AA-CAES, due to
complex in structure and many in equipment, is still in immature development. The lack of
demonstration projects and power stations has made the further development of theoretical
research lack of support so as to the progress is slow.

2.5 TES
The concept of TES is mainly to solve the problems of time, space gap and loss between the
thermal energy supply and demand of thermal power plants and thermal users. It can help solve
the collection, storage and utilization of thermal energy in the process, and is mainly applied in
some large-scale heat source systems, such as solar thermal power stations, geothermal power
generation, thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, and industrial waste heat utilization [39].
Alva [40] introduced the various solar TES materials and TES systems currently used, discussed
and analyzed the performance of solar energy storage materials, and studied the dynamic
performance of solar TES systems. Sharma [41] summarized the investigation and analysis of the
available TES systems incorporating PCMs for use in different applications.
As mentioned above, there is a large amount of thermal energy loss in compression stage of
the conventional CAES, and there is a large amount of thermal energy demand in expansion stage.
According to the background of TES concept, TES technology can solve the space and time gap
between thermal energy supply and demand, so it is just suitable for solving the defect of
traditional CAES. Based on the successful application of TES in the above system, the TES was
introduced into the CAES, and a regenerative CAES was proposed. As a key link in the
regenerative CAES, the TES has an important impact on the efficiency of system. The recycling of
the heat of compression and exhaust not only eliminates the use of fossil fuels, but also improves
the efficiency of comprehensive energy utilization in system [28, 42], making the single energy
application scenario of traditional CAES more diversified, and at the same time possessing
multi-energy supply scenario of cold /thermal energy supply which greatly improves the operating
efficiency of CAES power station [43-44]. Therefore, further research and optimization of
AA-CAES and its TES system is one of the important directions for CAES to develop large-scale
and commercial applications in the future [24].
The research of TES is mainly based on the research projects of key technologies in
AA-CAES. In current research, the discussion on TES is mainly the effectiveness of heat
exchanger. Jubeh [45] conducted theoretical design and characterization of the performance of the
AA-CAES, and combined with the simulation method to discuss the design and characteristics of
the four components of the compressor, expander, heat exchanger and compressed air storage. The
consideration of heat exchanger is ideal, and the effectiveness of heat exchanger is set to be
constant without pressure loss. Kim [46] and Zhang [47] discussed the ideal heat exchanger model,
which does not consider the influencing factors of the effectiveness of heat exchanger, and simply
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considers it constant. Grazzini [48] pointed out that the pressure loss of heat exchanger has an
effect on the effectiveness of heat exchanger and the overall efficiency of system, and cannot be
regarded as a constant. However, Grazzini is not considered from the perspective of the overall
theoretical design of system, but only the actual heat exchanger model is studied, which lacks
practicality. In addition, Naser [5] and Rashidi [49] also pointed out that study and analyze the key
parameters of heat exchanger, and consider the influence of pressure loss on the efficiency of heat
exchanger can further optimize and perfect system design. Li [50] from the perspective of
thermodynamics, considered the effects of the efficiency of heat exchanger and pressure loss on
the overall system characteristics for AA-CAES design and theoretical analysis stage, fully
revealed the relationship between the efficiency of heat exchanger and pressure loss and system
energy conversion law and energy storage efficiency, which provides an important reference for
more detailed research and improvement of heat exchangers in the future.
However, so far, the research on TES system in AA-CAES is still relatively shallow, and the
related calculations are still few. It is necessary to fully consider the degree of influence of TES
system in AA-CAES, and propose optimization and improvement measures to improve the
efficiency of whole system. It is necessary to consider more parameters and influencing factors,
and only considering the single parameter method of the effectiveness of heat exchanger cannot
enough to achieve the goal of improving the competitiveness of large-scale application of
AA-CAES.

3. TES

3.1 Modeling
The main function of TES in AA-CAES is to cool the high-temperature compressed air and
recover the heat of compression during energy storage phase and then store the collected heat; in
energy release phase, the stored heat and the exhaust heat is used together to heat the
high-pressure air to be pumped into expander. The heat transfer of the compressed air in heat
exchanger is achieved by means of a gas-liquid, gas-solid heat transfer through TES medium. The
TES system includes a cooling heat exchanger for compression process and a heating heat
exchanger for expansion process, TES medium, and heat accumulator for storing TES medium
[34].
Therefore, the modeling of TES system is mainly divided into two parts: heat exchanger and
heat accumulator, wherein the heat exchanger is divided into energy storage process model and
energy release process model. According to the AA-CAES system shown in Fig.5, assuming that
the number of stages of compressor and expander in the system are m and n, respectively, a heat
exchanger is placed behind each compressor and expander, and the number is also m and n
respectively, based on which can establish its thermodynamic model.
3.1.1 Heat exchanger
According to the way of heat exchange, heat exchangers can be divided into three categories:
direct contact heat exchanger, regenerative heat exchangers and recupe rator. The direct contact
heat exchanger direct mix two heat exchange fluids, and the heat transfer effect is best after
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mixing. But in most cases, the two fluids are not allowed to mix. In the regenerative heat
exchanger, the hot and cold fluid flows through the same pipe and wall in turn, and the heat
exchanger itself acts as a TES device, and the heat exchange effect is relatively poor. The recupe
rator separates the hot and cold fluid through the partition plate, transfers heat through the wall
surface, has a simple structure, good heat exchange effect, and is most widely used. In the design
and construction of CAES system, the recupe rator is generally used. Therefore, the modeling of
heat exchanger is exemplified by the recupe rator.
3.1.1.1 Energy storage process
In energy storage process, the outlet air temperature of compressor i can be regarded as the
inlet air temperature of heat exchanger i, ignoring the pipeline loss and the heat loss. The inlet air
temperature of compressor i+1 is the outlet air temperature of heat exchanger i. Assume that the

outlet temperature of compressor i is Tc,iout , that is, the inlet air temperature of heat exchanger i, then

the inlet air temperature of compressor i+1 is [51]:

Tc,ini 1   cTch, i  1   c  Tc, i

in out
(3)

where, Tc,ini 1 is the inlet air temperature of compressor i+1, K;  c is the effectiveness of heat

exchanger of the compression process, the definition of which is described in Section 3.2; and
in
Tch,i is the temperature of inlet TES of heat exchanger i, K.

Assuming that the heat capacity of TES medium is equal to the heat capacity of air, the
out
temperature of TES medium at the outlet of heat exchanger i Tch,i is:

i   cTc, i  (1   c )Tch, i
out out in
Tch, (4)

Set the air mass flow rate Gc of compressor per unit time, kg/s, then the mass flow rate of
TES medium in the heat exchanger is:
m m Gc cp  Tc,out
i  Tc, i 1 
in

Gch   Gch,i   (5)

i 1 i 1 cw  Tch,
out
i  Tch, i 
in

where, Gch is the mass flow rate of TES medium, kg/s; m is the number of stages of compressor;
cp is the constant pressure heat capacity ratio of air, kJ/(kg·K); and cw is the heat capacity ratio of
TES medium, kJ/(kg·K).
3.1.1.2 Energy release process
In energy release process, due to low temperature and high-pressure air released from air
storage device is preheated by heat exchanger before entering the expander to work. Therefore, the
inlet air temperature of the first heat exchanger is equal to the temperature of air coming out of air
storage device, i.e.:

Te,1in   eTeh,1
in
 (1   e )Tac (6)

where, Te,1in is the inlet air temperature of the first expander, K;  e is the effectiveness of heat

in
exchanger of expansion process; Teh,1 is the temperature of the inlet TES medium of the first heat
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exchanger, K; and Tac is the air temperature in gas storage device, K.

The inlet air temperature of expander i, that is, the outlet air temperature of heat exchanger i
is:

Te,ini   eTeh,ini  (1   e )Ti out

1 (7)

The temperature of the outlet TES medium of heat exchanger i is:

Teh,outi   eTeout
, i 1  (1   e )Teh,i
in
(8)

Set the mass flow rate of energy release process Ge per unit time, kg/s, and then the mass
flow rate of TES medium in heat exchanger is:
n n Ge cp (Te,ini  Te,out
i 1 )
Geh   Geh,i   (9)
i 1 i 1 cw (Teh,in i  Teh,outi 1 )

where, Geh is the mass flow rate of heat exchange medium, kg/s; and n is the number of
expanders.
3.1.2 Heat accumulator
The heat accumulator and TES medium will be different for different TES method. Therefore,
according to the working process of heat accumulator, TES medium is stored during energy
storage process, and provided during energy release process, the conceptual level of heat exchange
process can be inferred as shown in Fig.6.

Energy storage process Energy release process

Heat storage Tcwout Tewin Heat storage

medium inlet medium inlet
Heat
Heat storage accumulator Heat storage
medium outlet TTES TTES medium outlet

Environment
Tenv

Fig.6 Heat exchange process in heat accumulator

According to heat exchange process, the energy conservation equation in heat accumulator
can be obtained:
dTTES
TESVTES c p ,TES Gcw cw  Tcwout  TTES   Gew cw (TTES  Tewin )  U TES ATES (TTES  Tenv ) (10)
dt
where, TES is the density of TES medium, kg/ m3; VTES is the volume of TES medium, m3; c p ,TES
is the specific heat of TES medium; TTES is the outlet temperature of TES medium, K; Tcwout is the
inlet temperature of TES medium in energy storage phase; Tewin is the inlet temperature of TES
medium in energy release phase, K; Gcw is the mass flow rate of TES medium in energy storage
phase, Gew is the mass flow rate of TES medium in energy release phase, kg/s; U TES is the heat
transfer coefficient between heat accumulator and environment; ATES is the surface area out of
regenerator, m2; and Tenv is the ambient temperature, K.
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3.2 Parameters
When modeling or studying TES characteristics of, it is necessary to conduct detailed
research on some of the main parameters, analyze the influencing factors of these parameters, and
explore the influence of these parameters on TES and whole AA-CAES, so that it can be better to
study TES characteristics.
3.2.1 Effectiveness of heat exchanger
The effectiveness of heat exchanger is an important parameter for calculating the actual heat
exchange of heat exchangers, and is also a key indicator for determining the performance of heat
exchangers. According to heat transfer, the definition of effectiveness of heat exchanger  is
[52]:

cPi mi (Ti in  Ti out ) max

 (11)
(cp m) min (T1in  T2in )

where, the lower corner 1 represents the hot fluid and the lower corner 2 represents the cold fluid.
The upper corner in represents the fluid entering heat exchanger and the upper corner out
represents the fluid leaving heat exchanger. cp is the specific heat of fluid; m is the mass of fluid,
kg; and T is the temperature of fluid, K; (Ti in  Ti out ) max represents the maximum temperature
difference between the hot or cold fluid in heat exchanger, if the temperature of hot fluid changes
greatly, it is (Ti in  Ti out ) max  (T1in  T1out ) , otherwise it is (Ti in  Ti out ) max  (T2out  T2in ) ; (T1in  T2in ) is
the maximum temperature difference that can be achieved by heat transfer under ideal conditions.
The pressure loss of air flowing through heat exchanger can be obtained by[53]:
0.0083 in
p 
p (12)
1 
where, p in is the inlet pressure when air enters heat exchanger; and p is the pressure loss of air
in heat exchanger.
Eq.(12) is applicable to compression process and expansion process. The impact of pressure
loss on the system is: increasing the power consumption of compressor in compression phase and
reducing the work ability of air in expansion phase.
As mentioned in Section 2.5, the effectiveness of heat exchanger is usually regarded as an
ideal value in previous studies, that is, it is set to be equal in energy storage and energy release
phases and is not affected by other parameters. However, according to Eq.(11), the effectiveness
of heat exchanger is closely related to the thermal properties of hot and cold fluid. At the same
time, the structure of heat exchanger and the flow rate of working fluid affect the effectiveness of
heat exchanger in a way that affect the heat transfer coefficient [54]. The pressure loss in the
effectiveness of heat exchanger also affects heat exchanger performance.
In addition, due to changes in the pressure in compressed air storage during energy storage
and release process and changes in operating conditions, the air mass flow also changes, which
also leads to changes in the effectiveness of heat exchanger. Fig.7 shows the relationship between
the effectiveness of heat exchanger and air flow and TES medium. It can be seen from Fig.7 that
the effectiveness of heat exchanger is different when different TES media are used, and the heat
exchanger performance decreases with the increase of air flow rate [55].
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Water
Therminol D12
0.82 Therminol 66
0.80

The effectiveness of heat exchanger

0.78

0.76

0.74

0.72

0.70

0.68

0.66

0.64
50 100 150 200 250
Air flow rate(kg/s)

Fig.7 The effectiveness of heat exchanger vs air flow and TES medium
3.2.2 Temperature
The TES temperature refers to the temperature stored in heat accumulator after TES medium
exchanges heat through heat exchanger during energy storage process. As shown in Fig.8 [56-57],
unlike the effectiveness of heat exchanger, the TES temperature has little effect on the system
cycle efficiency. In Fig.8, as the TES temperature is lowered, the cycle efficiency does not
fluctuate too much, and the cause of the decrease is the effective energy loss occurring during heat
exchange of TES medium and compressed air.
However, TES temperature is also an important operating parameter, which directly affects
the system engineering and operation of entire energy storage power station, and also has an
impact on the selection of compressor and heat accumulator and material fatigue limit of the
equipment.

0.8

2 2 1 5
0.7
5
3 5 5
0.6 3
43
Cycle度 efficiency

0.5
度度度

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Low- Medium- High-temperature processes
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Temperature(℃)
度 度 (°C)

Fig.8 Prediction cycle efficiency vs. temperatures based on [57]

(Data Sources: 1[58], 2[59], 3[60], 4[61], 5[62])
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3.2.3 Efficiency
The TES efficiency TES is the ratio of TES capacity QTES of TES tank to the total heat
exchange Qc between compressor stages:
QTES
TES  (13)
Qc
The AA-CAES adds a TES cycle, and the heat of compression is stored in the heat
accumulator. The TES efficiency TES reflects the efficiency of system to store heat energy. The
higher the TES , the more heat stored in regenerator, the more heat the inlet air of expander can
absorb, the higher the temperature, and the higher the overall efficiency of system.

4. Current research status

4.1 TES Methods

As the core technology of TES, the choice of TES method is crucial. The TES methods
mainly include sensible heat storage, latent heat storage and thermal chemical storage [63].
Among these three types of TES methods, the theory and technology of sensible heat storage are
relatively mature, and latent heat storage is currently the highest level of attention and the highest
comprehensive TES technology. Although thermochemical heat storage is still in the theoretical
stage, it has the most promising prospects because of its maximum energy storage density [64].
Compared with electricity storage, the technology of TES is more difficult, because the thermal
energy quality is lower than electric energy, and it is difficult to store, and the stored heat energy
is not easy to use and the loss is large. In large-scale AA-CAES system, because the compressor
operating temperature and exhaust temperature cannot be too high, medium and high temperature
TES has become a bottleneck in the development [65]. To further optimize CAES system and
improve its efficiency, research on high temperature TES and high temperature resistant materials
for compressors is necessary. [66].
Therefore, optimizing TES method and attaching importance to the development of
high-grade TES can provide new opportunities for further development of TES. However, TES
materials, TES temperature resistance, heat transfer characteristics of heat exchangers, and cost
and safety constraints are all new problems that hinder the development of high-grade TES. To
solve these problems, in-depth research and exploration are needed from the aspects of optimizing
TES materials and process.
4.1.1 Sensible heat storage
At present, the application of TES in AA-CAES is similar to that of solar thermal power
generation system. Most of them adopt sensible heat storage: generally, packed bed heat storage
and double-tank heat exchange fluid heat storage. Most of them use solids such as rock, ceramics,
concrete, or water, heat transfer oil, and inorganic salts as TES medium [67].
4.1.1.1 Double-tank heat exchange fluid heat storage
The principle of TES in a double-tank heat exchange fluid is as follows: TES medium and
cold storage medium are respectively stored in two tanks, and the hot and cold fluid is circulated
in system along with energy storage process and energy release process, and heat transfer is
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performed through heat exchanger by indirect contact heat exchange. The circulating power is
provided by circulation pump. The TICC-500 shown in Fig.9 is used a double-tank heat exchange
fluid heat storage. The double-tank heat exchange fluid heat storage is widely used in practical
demonstration projects because of its mature technology, low cost and simple system. It is also a
widely used and researched TES in CAES. After determining the specific TES method, the
TES/transfer characteristics of TES medium will directly affect the system related parameters.
Therefore, TES medium is also important for the system characteristics.
 Air
StageⅠ StageⅡ StageⅢ StageⅣ StageⅤ

M
High-temp
tank
CoolerⅠ CoolerⅡ CoolerⅢ CoolerⅣ Mid-temp
tank
High-temp
CoolerⅤ
pump
Low-temp Mid-temp
pump pump
CAS Exhaust

StageⅠ StageⅡ StageⅢ

Reducer

Low-temp
tank CAS G

Pre-Heater HeaterⅠ HeaterⅡ HeaterⅢ

Fig.9 AA-CAES system with double-tank heat exchange fluid heat storage
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4.1.1.2 Packed bed heat storage

The principle of packed bed heat storage is: the packed bed used as both a heat exchange and
a TES device is a container filled with particles of the selected TES material, and the air flows
directly through the packed bed during energy storage and release, and directly transfers heat after
contact with the surface of TES material in the packed bed, that is, direct contact heat transfer, the
system shown in Fig.10 [68-69]. The packed bed heat storage system is simple, and since heat
exchange is in direct contact with the surface of TES material, the heat exchange area is large and
the heat loss is small. Although most of current research on AA-CAES focuses on the use of
indirect contact heat exchangers and thermal fluids for storing heat of compression, packed beds
have received a lot of attention with their excellent properties, some people have also paid
attention to the application in AA-CAES was analyzed in detail. Barbour [69] developed a
numerical model of AA-CAES with packed bed heat storage, verified the advantages of direct
contact heat exchangers, and then using exergy analysis to calculate the influence of residual heat
on packed bed. Jiang [70] established a heat transfer model in packed bed, and used ANSYS
software to simulate the TES characteristics of packed bed. And then the numerical simulation of
TES process was used to obtain the transfer function of outlet temperature and inlet air mass flow.

LP Exp HP Exp G

Exhaust

High
Low temperature CAS
temperature
packed bed packed bed

Air

LP HP
M
Comp Comp

Fig.10 AA-CAES system with packed bed heat storage

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4.1.2 Latent heat storage

Although sensible heat storage has the advantages of mature technology and good economics,
its key performances such as TES capacity and density are lower than latent heat storage. With the
expansion of the scale of AA-CAES and the trend of high TES/heat exchange, sensible heat
storage will not meet the performance requirements of AA-CAES system, so it is very necessary
to apply the latent heat storage in AA-CAES. The principle and system structure of latent heat
storage is similar to that of double-tank heat transfer fluid because of the utilization of indirect
contact heat transfer. The difference is that the former uses a specific phase change material (PCM)
as TES material. During the heat transfer and TES process, the PCM flows through heat
exchanger to transfer heat through its temperature changes and state changes.
Regard to high-temperature TES, with the development of solar thermal industry,
high-temperature TES using molten salt as TES medium has matured and obtained a wide range
of engineering applications. Therefore, many people have learned from the experience of
high-temperature molten salt heat storage in solar thermal power generation systems, and began to
explore its feasibility as an effective technical means for the application of TES in CAES. Xue [71]
considered the application of latent change heat storage in AA-CAES, and proposed the concept
of combining high temperature molten salt heat storage with non-combustion CAES system as
shown in Fig.11. Comparative analysis of Fig.11 and Fig.9 shows the similarity between latent
heat storage and heat storage in a two-tank heat exchange fluid. Xue calculated and analyzed the
relevant parameters of the system, and concluded that increasing the TES temperature and the
inlet pressure of expander can significantly improve the energy storage efficiency of the system,
and discusses the importance of high temperature TES.

Energy release
G HP Exp HP Exp

Exhaust Heater 2 Heater 1

High temperature
molten salt tank

Molten salt
pump
Molten salt
electric heater
Low temperature
CAS
molten salt tank

Rectifier

Molten salt
pump

LP HP
Low valley electricity, M Comp
Comp
Wind power,
photoelectric

Air
Cooler 1 Cooler 2

Fig.11 AA-CAES system with high temperature molten salt heat storage
In addition to considering the choice of PCMs that can be used in AA-CAES, Tessier [72]
studied the overall structural design of systems with latent heat storage and proposed an
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AA-CAES system using cascaded PCMs, and then analyzed the system by exergy analysis.
According to the analysis, the melting temperature and enthalpy of PCMs could be used to
optimize the system and improve the efficiency.
In general, there are relatively few studies on the application of latent in AA-CAES, and
there are few specific system designs. At present, there is no practical application in demonstration
project and power plant construction. The successful application experience in solar thermal
power generation systems and the introduction of technology into CAES remain at the initial
theoretical stage.

4.2 TES Characteristics

Research on the characteristics of TES is an important aspect of current research on
AA-CAES. The current research is ideal for TES design, and the calculation of heat exchanger
efficiency is relatively simple. However, when optimizing and improving an AA-CAES system,
the parameters and characteristics of TES must be carefully considered, such as TES temperature,
the heat transfer temperature difference/pressure loss, heat loss and so on. Secondly, in order to
adapt to the variable condition characteristics of AA-CAES system, in addition to calculating the
static characteristics of TES, it is also necessary to calculate its dynamic characteristics under
non-rated conditions. For example, when analyzing changes in operating conditions, the
relationship between compression power, expander power, air mass flow, and air flow rate and
parameters of TES should be considered [73]. Establish the connection of TES to whole power
station, and analyze the dynamic characteristics of TES to variable condition operation brought
about by other components of AA-CAES system, so that TES can play an optimal role under
different operating conditions, and the advantages and potentials of TES can be accurately
assessed.
4.2.1 Efficiency
As a key component of AA-CAES system, many people have done some researches and
exploration on the design and efficiency calculation of TES. Taking a heat exchanger and heat
accumulator in A-CAES or AA-CAES system as an example, the inherent properties of heat
exchanger/heat accumulator are studied based on the thermodynamic principle. The influence of
relevant parameters such as the pressure loss and the effectiveness of heat exchanger on the
overall system parameters and efficiency are analyzed, and the thermodynamic analysis and
exergy analysis of system are taken to explore the feasibility of AA-CAES system with TES [43,
74-76].
From the perspective of energy conversion, Liu [76] proposed an evaluation method for the
efficiency of regenerative CAES system, established a thermodynamic model for energy storage
and energy release stages, and verified its rationality with the specific scheme. Zhang [42] further
evaluated the effect of temperature and pressure of compressed air storage on heat utilization of
TES based on the thermodynamic model of influence of TES on system efficiency, and concluded
that even if the system efficiency reaches the maximum, there is still residual heat in TES
available for other uses, so the optimization can be made on this basis. In addition to studying the
thermodynamic model of TES and its influence on overall system, many people also conduct
research and analysis on the improvement and optimization of TES and AA-CAES.
Han [77] improved on the basis of thermodynamic model of TES, and calculated the
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effectiveness of heat exchanger in energy storage and release process separately. Taking a system
with sensible heat storage as an example, the effects of different TES medium on the
characteristics of TES and AA-CAES are calculated and analyzed. Based on the thermodynamic
analysis of AA-CAES system, Wolf [78] concluded that due to the heat of compression could not
be fully utilized, it accumulates in TES during energy release process, and the aggregation effect
of the heat of compression in TES was studied and analyzed, and a solution was proposed. Han
[79-81] proposed specific improvement and optimization schemes for TES, including adding a
heating compressor to reduce TES temperature, and proposing an AA-CAES system with high
temperature TES to enhance the energy storage density based on the traditional structure, using
two TES medium to store the heat of compression to reduce the temperature difference of heat
exchanger and the irreversible loss of system, and thereby improving the energy storage efficiency
of system.
In addition to theoretical analysis, many people also systematically design according to
theoretical concepts, and give specific solutions for TES. Yang [82] introduced the design of key
components of 1.5MW AA-CAES system. The heat accumulator mainly selected solid materials
such as pebble, pottery and concrete, and the TES medium is liquid water. The system is
calculated according to specific parameters, and the characteristics and application prospects of
AA-CAES are summarized. Budt [83] simulated an A-CAES system using Modelica, and
recovered all heat of compression by increasing the number of compression stages, and then
proposed a CAES system with low temperature TES .
4.2.2 Variable conditions
Taking into account the variable conditions characteristics of TES, such as TES efficiency,
effectiveness of heat exchanger, TES temperature, system operating pressure, TES/heat exchange
medium physical property parameters, etc. All of them have played an important role in the study
of variable operating characteristics of AA-CAES system. Liu [84] used a CAES system with the
packed bed thermal storage as an example to analyze TES characteristics and efficiency of packed
bed under different pressures by experimental study, and analyzed the impact on TES under
variable condition of system. Sciacovelli [85] proposed an A-CAES system with a packed bed
thermal storage, established a link between the dynamic characteristics of TES and the overall
system performance, including the effects of TES efficiency on the overall system efficiency and
the effect of its dynamic characteristics on other components, finally leaded to the conclusion that
maximum operating efficiency can be achieved when the temperature cycle in the packed bed is
stable.
In terms of variable condition characteristics of overall system, Guo [86] established a
variable condition operation model of each component of regenerative CAES system, and studied
variable condition characteristics of compression section, expansion section and whole system,
respectively revealing that the variation of key parameters of compression section with back
pressure, the variation of key parameters of expansion section with inlet pressure, and the
variation of key operating parameters during energy storage/release process. Jia [87] designed the
thermodynamic model of 20MW AA-CAES system based on the TICC-500. The dynamic
simulation system was used to study, analyze and summarize the dynamic characteristics of each
part of system. The trend of heat exchanger outlet air temperature, cold working fluid outlet
temperature and hot tank water temperature with time was studied in TES part.
The current study is not perfect for the establishment of variable condition operation models
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for specific components. There are few studies on components such as heat exchangers and heat
accumulators, as well as coupling relationships between components, parameters, and processes.
4.2.3 Economics
Although there are many studies on the economic calculation of CAES system and TES
system [88-90], the economic calculation of AA-CAES system with TES is still less. Han [91]
proposed a performance calculation and economic analysis method based on cost investment and
benefit income for 100MW AA-CAES concept power station, in which the TES system is
included as an important component in the calculation of construction cost. Liu [92] established
the technical and economic calculation model of CAES system, and calculated the situation of
regenerative CAES system applied to industrial users under the conditions of subsidized and
unsubsidized calculations. Uncertainty analysis such as profit and loss analysis and sensitivity was
conducted to identify sensitive factors affecting the economics of system.
In the economic calculation of AA-CAES, the initial investment parameters such as the
construction cost of each component are selected based on the empirical data given in relevant
literature [93-94]. The calculations on the component of TES are based on the proportional
coefficient given in the literature, and lack of the consideration of system details and actual
situation. For example, the choice of different thermal storage methods and different thermal
storage medium will have a greater impact on the economics of system. In addition, it is necessary
to analyze the positive and negative effects of TES on the overall system economy from multiple
perspectives. The addition of TES utilizes the heat of compression and the exhaust heat, which
improves system efficiency and economy to some extent. However, it also reduces the response
speed of energy release process and has a certain negative impact on the efficiency and economy
of system.

4.3 Novel systems

In addition to optimizing TES from the choice of TES methods and the calculation of TES
characteristics, it is also possible to study from the perspective of system design. In view of the
characteristics of AA-CAES due to the addition of TES, many people have carried out the design
and research of some novel systems for improving the TES in AA-CAES, aiming at improve
system efficiency and market competitiveness.
4.3.1 CCHP
Due to the introduction of TES, the traditional CAES has the characteristics of utilizing
various energy flows of cold, heat and electricity, that is, TES cannot only provide heat for the
energy release process of AA-CAES, but also provide external heat supply, and the exhaust of
expander can provide external cool supply, which increases the overall energy efficiency of
system. Therefore, many people have studied the application of AA-CAES in combination cooling,
heating and power (CCHP), fully considering the boosting effect of AA-CAES and enhancing its
competitiveness in the market. Grazzini [95] discussed the structural size and operating
characteristics of heat exchanger in an irreversible refrigerator. Based on this, the thermodynamic
characteristics and energy recovery efficiency of AA-CAES system with TES were discussed. The
ability of various forms of energy to transform each other, the application of AA-CAES system in
the field of cogeneration of cold and heat is proposed.
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There is no change in the principle of AA-CAES applied to CCHP, except that the heat
generated in compression process is used for heating, and the low-temperature air at the outlet of
expander is used for refrigeration, and the useful work generated in expansion is used for power
generation. The principle is shown in Fig.12. The CCHP is characterized by high energy
efficiency and if measured based on thermal energy utilization, the system efficiency can reach
70-85% [96].

Heater

M Comp CAS
Exp G

Cooler
Air Hot water Exhaust

Heating section Cooling section Power supply

（Recovery of heat of compression） (Low temperature exhaust） section

Fig.12 CCHP system coupled on AA-CAES system

Lv [97] proposed a CCHP system based on AA-CAES, and carried out variable condition
and economic analysis. In this system, the heat of compression is used to provide hot water, and
exhaust is used for cooling. Kim [98] proposed a micro CAES system with a man-made
compressed air storage which was subjected to thermodynamic analysis and enthalpy analysis, and
analyzed the application of system for heating and cooling in heating and air circulation which
indicates that CAES has the effect of improving system efficiency in CCHP. Safaei [99]
established a cogeneration model that includes CAES, gas turbines, and wind power to take full
advantage of heat generated by CAES, and optimizes it from an economic and environmental
benefit perspective. Yang [100] proposed a solar power and CAES coupled energy storage
cogeneration system for the operation of gas turbine CCHP system, established a system model
and discussed its variable condition characteristics and performance. In 2016, a 100kW
photothermal composite CAES system STHC-100 in Smart Micro Energy Network
Demonstration Park, Qinghai University was built by Tsinghua University, Xi'an Jiaotong
University and the IET, which realized the external CCHP [101-102].
4.3.2 Coupling with new energy generation systems
Considering the TES of solar thermal power generation system is more complete and mature,
many people have discussed AA-CAES coupling with solar thermal power generation and wind
power generation, that is, wind power is used to supply power to compressor, solar heat storage
system is used to assist TES in CAES to provide heat energy, and CAES system can improve the
intermittent and volatility of wind energy and solar energy. Such a complementary coupling
system not only compensates for the inherent defects of renewable energy generation, but also
improves the operating characteristics and efficiency of AA-CAES, thereby achieving mutual
improvement. An integrated generation system with wind-solar complementary energy storage
shown in Fig.13 consists of wind turbines, solar collectors/heat accumulator, air compressors and
compressed air storage, compressor stage heat exchange/accumulation device, and the exhaust
heat recovery device and the expander [103]. In the system, the wind power compresses air to a
high pressure state and stores it in compressed air storage. When the electricity demand is
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available, the high-pressure air is heated by the heat of compression, exhaust heat and solar energy,
and then expanded into expander to perform work.

LP HP
M Comp
Comp

Wind power plant Cooler 1 Cooler 2

Air

Solar heat storage / heat exchange system CAS

Exhaust
Heater 2 Heater 1

Power
supply
G LP Exp HP Exp

Fig.13 AN integrated system with wind-solar complementary energy storage

Grazzini [104] studied CAES applied to new energy power plants, and studied the selection
of air storage pressure, the design of TES device and regenerator, and the structural configuration
of system, and proposed the feasibility of establishing a direct connection between wind turbine
and CAES compressor. Succar [105] discussed the application of AA-CAES in wind power, and
summarized its operating characteristics as well as the advantages of non-combustion and high
efficiency. Based on the concept of energy Internet, Xue [106] designed an energy processor
architecture based on non-combustion CAES. The application prospects of non-combustion CAES
are discussed from the perspective of CCHP and zero carbon emissions. The demonstration
system verifies the feasibility of non-combustion CAES as a clean energy processor platform, and
provides a synergistic and comprehensive utilization scheme for various energy sources for energy
Internet. Xu [103] proposed a new type of wind-solar complementary CAES system, which makes
a deep comparative analysis of thermal and energy storage characteristics of system. Li [107]
introduced solar thermal energy as a high-temperature heat source, and proposed a system of
A-CAES complementary to solar energy. Through simulation, an improved scheme, i.e. a TES
system is added to subsystem, was proposed, in which a tower solar power generation method
with a higher heat collection temperature is adopted.
4.3.3 Coupling with other energy storage methods
In addition to coupling with new energy power generation systems, under certain conditions,
different energy storage systems can also cooperate with each other to learn from each other. Kim
[46] conducted a thermodynamic analysis and exergy analysis on a micro-CAES system and the
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cooling and heating cycle of air therein, and proposed a new constant-pressure CAES system
combined with pumped storage, focusing on the height of the air storage cavern and the effect of
heat transfer between the cave and air and water on the system.
4.3.4 LAES
In recent years, some people have proposed a new type of liquefied air energy storage (LAES)
as shown in Fig.14. Duing energy storage process, in addition to the heat recovery and storage of
the heat of compression, the heat storage/cold storage system also uses the external and the stored
cooling capacity to cool compressed air, and liquefy the air for storage. Duing energy release
process, the liquefied air is first decompressed, the cooling capacity is stored in heat storage/cold
storage system, and vaporized air is preheated by external waste heat [108]. LAES realizes the
liquefaction storage of compressed gas, and the volume of air after liquefaction is greatly reduced,
so that the volume of compressed air storage is greatly reduced, thereby further reducing the
geographical and environmental constraints in actual construction process. LAES also makes it
possible to build energy storage stations with higher energy storage densities [109-110].
Power input

Liquefaction
Air Compression Cooling process
process

Heat storage Cool storage

medium medium

Heat storage Cool storage

device device
Liquid air
Heat storage Cool storage storage tank
medium medium

Exhaust Expansion Heating Vaporization

process process

Power output

Fig.14 LAES system

Sciacovelli [111] established a LAES system model based on a LAES pilot plant in the UK,
studied its dynamic characteristics, and applied the packed bed to LAES to discuss the increase in
efficiency of LAES system and energy consumption caused by packed bed thermal storage system.
He [112] established the thermodynamic model and exergy analysis model of LAES, and carried
out thermodynamic analysis and sensitivity analysis. It is concluded that the energy storage
density of LAES system is much larger than that of AA-CAES system, and the cycle efficiency is
slightly lower than AA-CAES system. Kantharaj [113] proposed a new LAES system with a
ground compressed air storage tank and a liquid air storage tank. During energy storage process,
when the compressed air storage tank is about to be full, by converting an amount of compressed
air to liquid air can still draw electrical energy from the grid. During energy release process, when
the compressed air storage tank is to be empty, the liquid air storage tank provides air. If the
storage time is long or the storage of high pressure air cannot take advantage of certain large-scale
geological features, it is more economical than pure LAES and more economical than pure CAES
devices. Xie [114] conducted an economic feasibility assessment of LAES, optimizing the size of
individual components in energy storage and release process, and liquid air storage and release
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process, and proposed to increase the profitability of LAES by introducing waste heat into the
system or increasing the size of system.
In summary, the new system designed for TES in AA-CAES system has great potential for
development, and will greatly benefit the development of large-scale and commercialization of
AA-CAES in the future. However, the research of these new systems is still in initial stage, and
there are many theoretical studies, but the demonstration projects built and the power plants put
into actual production and operation are still very few.

5. Future research directions

AA-CAES is regarded as an important research object for large-scale CAES in the future due
to its excellent multi-functional auxiliary characteristics. However, because TES is an emerging
technology introduced recently, AA-CAES system still has drawbacks such as insufficient
technical development, relatively low system efficiency, complicated system structure and poor
flexibility. Improvements in key components and key technologies in system will further enhance
energy storage efficiency, operational flexibility and market competitiveness, enabling them to
better adapt to future energy development needs. As a short-term and important part of AA-CAES,
TES needs to be further researched and optimized to improve and improve overall system.
Therefore, in order to solve these drawbacks of AA-CAES, this section proposes a series of
specific solutions from the perspective of TES, and also serves as the future research direction of
TES in AA-CAES.
The future research direction of TES should focus on the following aspects:
1) An optimization and improvement scheme should be proposed for TES method and
structural design;
2) To establish a thermodynamic model of TES, study variable condition characteristics and
dynamic simulation control;
3) To study the energy grade of TES in the cogeneration application and the mutual
constraint relationship between energy flows.

5.1 Efficient and compact TES/heat transfer

At present, mature sensible heat storage is generally adopted in TES, and water or heat
transfer oil is used as TES medium. Under the same TES/heat exchange requirements, the sensible
heat storage requires a larger number of TES medium and larger heat exchangers than the latent
heat storage and thermochemical heat storage. The main impacts caused by over-volume are:
making the system too cumbersome, high construction and material cost, not conducive to the site
selection of the power plant; heat loss and pipeline loss during operation affect heat transfer
efficiency. In addition to TES method and medium, from the perspective of structural design of
TES, the heat transferred between TES medium and compressed air in heat exchanger and
capacity of TES medium in heat accumulator both are key factors affecting system operating costs
and material losses.
Therefore, future research should aim at the efficiency of TES, and propose optimization and
improvement schemes from the aspects of TES materials and system structure. Through R&D and
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optimization of different TES materials and analyzing its temperature ranges, the optimization
scheme of TES material is proposed to enhance the heat transfer between the materials from the
internal of heat exchanger. Developing efficient and compact TES system structure is a means to
effectively improve its efficiency. The system scale matching principle and the structural
optimization design principle can be utilized to improve the heat exchange efficiency, thereby
further reducing the volume of TES and the loss during operation, and meeting the requirements
of efficient and compact TES /heat exchange technology.

5.2 Operating characteristics and efficiency under variable

conditions
The AA-CAES power station has functional positioning for assisting new energy generation,
peaking shaving, and stabilizing grid load. This leads to that AA-CAES power station is often
under non-rated conditions, that is, TES is then under non-rated conditions. At present, the
calculation and analysis of TES in AA-CAES are mostly carried out under rated conditions.
However, when load condition changes, the change of AA-CAES system parameters will affects
the performance of TES. Changes in the parameters of TES also affect system performance and
efficiency. In addition, when the condition changes, the parameters such as heat transfer stage,
TES temperature and energy distribution of different grades need to be redesigned to ensure that
the system is in optimal output state. The thermodynamic model currently established is relatively
simple. Generally, only the effectiveness of heat exchanger and pressure loss on the system is
considered. A multi-parameter composite influence model should be established to
comprehensively investigate the influence of TES on overall system.
Based on this, future research should focus on improving the thermodynamic model of TES,
conducting experimental research on the variable conditions characteristics, and realizing the
dynamic simulation of full conditions of TES. Improve the system thermodynamic model, in
addition to the effectiveness of heat exchanger, further study the effects of important parameters
such as the quantity of heat transfer, TES temperature and heat transfer temperature difference on
system efficiency; establish variable condition characteristics model, and study the influence of
changes of parameters such as ambient temperature, environmental pressure, input load and output
load on the performance of TES/release process, and reversely study the effects of production rate
and loss rate of compression heat, heat transfer characteristics of heat exchanger on the functional
force and system performance of compressed air when TES under non-rated conditions; on the
basis of variable condition of TES, the dynamic simulation test is carried out to analyze the
performance law of system during the cyclic dynamic operation and the response characteristics to
disturbance.

5.3 Multi-energy joint system design

In addition to traditional electric power storage and release, AA-CAES that introduces TES
also increases the utility of supplying heat and cooling to the outside of system and participating in
the integrated energy market. The current research focuses on the feasibility and system structure
design of AA-CAES for CCHP, but there is no specific design for how to coordinate and allocate
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the heat supply of TES in AA-CAES system and to external system, and the constraint
relationship between different energy flow supplies. In addition, the problem of energy
distribution under non-rated conditions also needs to be considered to determine the limits of
system energy utilization on the premise of economic feasibility, and fully adapt to the needs of
integrated energy market. For the energy of different grades, how to store and use it to avoid the
irreversible loss caused by the mixing of different working fluids is also considered.
In view of this background, future research should further clarify issues such as energy grade
classification of TES and the mutual constraint relationship between energy flows in combined
heat and power supply. Different storage schemes are proposed for different grades of cold/heat
energy recovered from system, and grading storage and cascade utilization methods are adopted,
thereby reducing system losses and achieving efficient use of energy; in multi-energy coordination,
considering energy allocation problem of different uses, analyzing the mutual influence and
mutual constraint relationship between different energy flows. The optimal allocation scheme for
these energies is proposed, so that the system can maintain the state of high efficiency operation.
Combined with variable condition characteristics, its impact on energy distribution should be
considered, in order to better adapt to market operation needs.

6. Conclusions

(a) As energy environment and power generation industry are increasingly demanding
renewable energy and large-scale clean energy storage technologies, AA-CAES is bound to
receive more and more attention due to its unique advantages. As an important part of AA-CAES,
TES is an important branch of AA-CAES research, and its performance has an important impact
on the performance of overall system.
(b) The development history of CAES is summarized, and the development history of TES
applied in CAES is briefly described. The working principle of TES is briefly introduced in the
way of establishing a mathematical model. Some important parameters of TES are listed and
briefly described their impact on system.
(c) The current research of AA-CAES and TES are summarized and analyzed, including the
aspects of application in demonstration project, the performance calculation of TES, variable
condition characteristics, and application in multi-energy combination and coupling with other
systems.
(d) Finally, based on the summary of the status, the future research directions of TES and
AA-CAES is prospected in order to improve the efficiency and market competitiveness of
AA-CAES system, including: optimization and improvement plan for TES method and design are
proposed, establishing a thermodynamic model of TES, studying variable conditions
characteristics and dynamic simulation control, and studying energy grade of TES in CCHP and
the mutual constraint relationship between energy flows.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No.
 Journal Pre-proof

2017YFB0903601).

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Declaration of interests

 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:
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Highlights:
•An overview of the development history of compressed air energy storage is presented.
•The principle and key parameters of thermal energy storage in CAES are analyzed.
•The current research status of thermal energy storage in CAES are summarized.
•The future research directions of thermal energy storage in CAES are discussed.