Mathematics in the Modern World GEC 14 Teachers

CHAPTER I

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Think of all the people in your community, and think of their ages. The pairing of
names and ages is a relation. In relations and functions, the pairs of names and ages are
"ordered", which means one comes first and the other comes second. To put it another
way, we could set up this pairing so that either you give me a name, and then I give you
that person’s age, or else you give me an age, and I give you the names of all the people
who are that young.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

(1) recognize functions from relations and determine their respective domain and range
(2) sketch the graph of functions (linear, quadratic, rational, and radical); and
(3) derive the inverse function of a given function.

1 Ordered Pair

Definition. An ordered pair is a pair of numbers that go together. The numbers are
written within a set of parentheses and separated by comma.

For example, (5, 8) is an ordered pair; the order is designated by the first element 5 and
the second element 8. The pair (8, 5)is not the same as (5, 8) because of the different
ordering. Sets of ordered pair can represent relations or functions.

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2 Relation

Definition. A relation is a set of ordered pairs. If f is a relation and ( x, y) ∈ f such

that x ∈ X and y ∈ Y, then X is called the domain of f and Y is called the range of f .
Therefore, the domain is simply the set of first coordinates of the ordered pairs while the
range is the set of all second coordinates. In all our work, we shall restrict our domain
to subsets of the set of real numbers R.

Consider the following set of ordered pairs. The first numbers in each pair are the first
five natural numbers. The second number in each pair is twice that of the first.

{(1, 2) , (2, 4) , (3, 6) , (4, 8) , (5, 10)} .

The domain is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} . The range is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} .

Note that each value in the domain is also known as an input value, or independent
variable. Each value in the range is also known as an output value, or dependent vari-
able. Relations may be denoted either by small letters or capital letters.

Example. Suppose the heights (in inches) of five students are shown in the following
table.

Student 1 2 3 4 5
Height 72 64 60 57 71

The pairing of the student number and their corresponding height is a relation and can
be written as a set of ordered pair

H = {(1, 72) , (2, 64) , (3, 60) , (4, 57) , (5, 71)} .

The domain of H = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The range of H = {72, 64, 60, 57, 71}.

Example. Find the domain and range of the relation

   
1
M= (0, 0) , (−6, 4) , , 1 , (−3, 4) .
4

n o
The domain of M = −6, −3, 0, 14 . The range of M = {0, 1, 4} .

A relation may consist of a finite number of ordered pairs or an infinite number of or-

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dered pairs. Furthermore, a relation may be defined by several different methods: by a

list of ordered pairs, by a correspondence between the domain and range, by a graph,
or by an equation.

Example. A relation may be defined as a set of ordered pairs.

(1) f = {(1, 3) , (2, −1) , (3, 2) , (5, −3)}

(2) F = {(−2, 4) , (−1, 1) , (0, 0) , (1, 1) , (2, 4)}

Example. Find the domain and range of the each relation in the previous example.

(1) The domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 5}. The range of f = {−3, −1, 2, 3}.
(2) The domain of F = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}. The range of F = {0, 1, 4}.

Example. A relation may be defined by a correspondence. Consider the corresponding

ordered pairs {(3, −9) , (2, −9) , (−7, −9)}. Find the domain and range.

The domain is {−7, 2, 3}and range is {−9}.

Example. A relation may be defined by a graph. Consider the corresponding ordered

pairs {(1, 2) , (3, 4) , (1, −4) , (−3, 4)}. Find the domain and range.

The domain is {−3, 1, 3}and range is {−4, 2, 4}.

Example. A relation may be expressed by an equation such as x = y2 . The solution to

this equation define an infinite set of ordered pairs of the form ( x, y) | x = y2 . The


solutions can also be represented by a graph in a rectangular coordinate system.

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Domain: { x | x is a real number and x ≥ 0} or [0, +∞).

Range: {y | y is any real number} or (−∞, +∞).

Example. Consider the graph below

The domain consists of an infinite number of x-values extending from −8 to 8. The range
consists of all y-values from −5 to 5. Thus, the domain and range must be expressed in
set-builder notation or in interval notation.

Domain: { x | x is a real number and −8 ≤ x ≤ 8} or [−8, 8].

Range: {y | y is a real number and −5 ≤ y ≤ 5} or [−5, 5].

Example. Consider the graph below.

The arrow on the curve indicates that the graph extends infinitely far up and to the
right. The open circle means that the graph will end at the point (4, −2), but excluding
the point. The domain is [0, +∞) and the range is (−2, +∞).

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
For Exercises 1 − 3,

a. Write the relation as a set of ordered pairs.

b. Determine the domain and range.

x y
2 2.5
4 5
(1)
6 7.5
8 10
10 12.5

(2) 3.

For Exercise 4 − 5,determine the domain and range.

4. 5.

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3 Function

Definition. A function is a relation in which each possible input value leads to exactly
one output value. Given a relation in x and y, we say “y is a function of x” if for every
element x in the domain, there corresponds exactly one element y in the range.

To understand the difference between a relation that is a function and a relation that is
not a function, consider the following examples below.

Example. Determine which of the relations define y as a function of x.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Solution 1. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(1, 3) , (2, 4) , (3, 5) , (4, 6)}. Notice that for each x in the domain there is only one cor-
responding y in the range. Therefore, this relation is a function.

Solution 2. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(1, 1) , (9, 3) , (9, −3) , (0, 0)}. Notice that when x = 9, there are two possible range
elements: y = 3 and y = −3. Therefore, this relation is not a function.

Solution 3. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(0, 0) , (1, 1) , (2, 4) , (−2, 4)}. Because each value of x in the domain has only one cor-
responding y value, this relation is a function.

Solution 4. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(1, 4) , (2, 4) , (3, 5) , (3, 6)}. Notice that when x = 3, there are two possible range el-
ements: y = 5 and y = 6. Therefore, this relation is not a function.

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3.1 Vertical Line Test

A relation that is not a function has at least one domain element x paired with more than
one range value y. For example, the ordered pairs (4, −1) and (4, 6) do not constitute
a function because two different y-values correspond to the same x. These two points
are aligned vertically in the xy-plane, and a vertical line drawn through one point also
intersects the other point. Thus, if a vertical line drawn through a graph of a relation
intersects the graph in more than one point, the relation cannot be a function. This idea
is stated formally as the vertical line test.

Example. The vertical line test also implies that if any vertical line drawn through the
graph of a relation intersects the relation in more than one point, then the relation does
not define y as a function of x. Consider the examples below.

(1)

(2)

3.2 Function Notation

A function is defined as a relation with the added restriction that each value in the
domain must have only one corresponding y-value in the range. In mathematics, func-
tions are often given by rules or equations to define the relationship between two or

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more variables. For example, the equation y = 3x defines the set of ordered pairs such
that the y-value is three times the x-value. When a function is defined by an equation,
we often use function notation. For example, the equation y = 3x can be written in
function notation as

where f is the name of the function, x is an input value from the

f ( x ) = 3x domain of the function, and f ( x ) is the function value (or y-value)
corresponding to x.

The notation f ( x ) is read as “ f of x” or “the value of the function f at x”.

A function may be evaluated at different values of x by substituting x-values from the

domain into the function. For example, to evaluate the function defined by f ( x ) = 3x at
x = 2, substitute x = 2 into the function.

f ( x ) = 3x
f (2) = 3(2)
f (2) = 6

Thus when x = 2, the corresponding function value is 6. We say “ f of 2 is 6” or “ f at 2

is 6”.

Example. Given the function defined by g( x ) = 2x − 1, find the function values .

(1) g(0)
(2) g(2)
(3) g(4)
(4) g(−2)

Solution. Evaluating the function,

(1)

g( x ) = 2x − 1
g (0) = 2(0) − 1 Substitute 0 for x.
= 0−1
= −1 We say, ”g of 0 is −1”. This is equivalent to the ordered pair (0, −1).

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(2)

g( x ) = 2x − 1
g (2) = 2(2) − 1 Substitute 2 for x.
= 4−1
=3 We say, ”g of 2 is 3”. This is equivalent to the ordered pair (2, 3).

(3)

g( x ) = 2x − 1
g (4) = 2(4) − 1 Substitute 4 for x.
= 8−1
=7 We say, ”g of 4 is 7”. This is equivalent to the ordered pair (4, 7).

(4)

g( x ) = 2x − 1
g(−2) = 2(−2) − 1 Substitute −2 for x.
= −4 − 1
= −5 We say, ”g of − 2 is −5”. This is equivalent to the ordered pair (−2, −5).

Notice that g(0), g(2), g(4), and g(−2) correspond to the ordered pairs (0, −1),
(2, 3),(4, 7), and (−2, −5). In the graph, these points “line up”. The graph of all
ordered pairs defined by this function is a line with a slope of 2 and y-intercept
of (0, −1). This should not be surprising because the function defined by g( x ) =
2x − 1 is equivalent to y = 2x − 1.

Example. Given the functions defined by f ( x ) = x2 − 3x and g( x ) = 2x + 5, find the

function values.

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(1) f (t)
(2) g(w + 4)

Solution. Evaluating the function.

(1)

f ( x ) = x2 − 3x
f ( t ) = ( t )2 − 3( t ) Substitute x = t for all values of x in the function.
= t2 − 3t Simplify.

(2)

g( x ) = 2x + 5
g ( w + 4) = 2( w + 4) + 5 Substitute x = w + 4 for all values of x in the function.
= 2w + 8 + 5
= 2w + 13 Simplify.

4 Different Types of Functions

4.1 Constant Function

A function may be expressed as a mathematical equation that relates two or more vari-
ables. We know that an equation in the form y = k, where k is a constant, is a horizontal
line. In function notation, this can be written as f ( x ) = k. For example, the function
defined by f ( x ) = 4 is a horizontal line, as shown below

We say that a function defined by f ( x ) = k is a constant function because for any value
of x, the function value is constant.

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4.2 Linear Function

An equation of the form y = mx + b is represented graphically by a line with slope m

and y-intercept (0, b). In function notation, this can be written as f ( x ) = mx + b. a
function in this form is called a linear function. For example, the function defined by
f ( x ) = 3x − 2 is a linear function with slope m = 3 and y-intercept (0, −2),as shown
below

Definition. Let m and b represent real numbers such that m 6= 0.

 A function that can be written in the form f ( x ) = mx + b is a linear function. The

domain and range of any linear function is R.
 A function that can be written in the form f ( x ) = b is a constant function. The
domain of any constant function is R and the range is {b} .

Note: The graphs of linear and constant function are lines.

4.3 Quadratic function

A quadratic function is a function of degree two. The general form of a quadratic func-
tion is f ( x ) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0. The graph of
a quadratic function is in the shape of a parabola. The leading coefficient, a, determines
the direction of the parabola.

(1) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward, for example, f ( x ) = x2 .

(2) If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward, for example, f ( x ) = − x2 .

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The standard form of a quadratic function is f ( x ) = a ( x − h)2 + k. The vertex (h, k) is

located at  
b b
h = − , k = f (h) = f − .
2a 2a

Note: The minimum point on a parabola opening upward and the maximum point on a parabola
opening downward is called the vertex of the parabola.

Example. Graph the function defined by f ( x ) = x2 .

Solution. The domain of the function is the set of real numbers. To graph the function,
choose arbitrary values of x within the domain of the function. Be sure to choose values
of x that are positive and values that are negative to determine the behavior of the func-
tion to the right and left of the origin. The function values are equated to the square of
x, so f ( x ) will always be greater than or equal to zero. Hence, the y-coordinates on the
graph will never be negative. The range of the function is [0, +∞) . The arrows on each
branch of the graph imply that the pattern continues indefinitely.

x f ( x ) = x2
−3 9
−2 4
−1 1
0 0
1 1
2 4
3 9

Domain and Range of a Quadratic Function

(1) The domain of any quadratic function is the set of real numbers or R.

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(2) The range of a quadratic

h  function
 written
 in general form f ( x ) = ax2 + bx + c with
b
a positive a value is f − 2a , +∞ .
(3) The range of a quadratic
 function
 written
i in general form f ( x ) = ax2 + bx + c with
a negative a value is −∞, f − 2a
b
.

Example. Find the domain and range of the function defined by f ( x ) = −5x2 + 9x − 1.

Steps Solution
1. As with any quadratic function: The domain is R.
The parabola opens downward
2. Because a is negative:
and has a maximum value.
b
3. Determine the x-value of the vertex. h = − 2a = − 2(−9 5) = 109

9 9 2 9 61




4. Determine the maximum value f (h). f 10 = −5 10 + 9 10 −1 = 20
 i
5. The range of f ( x ) −∞, 20
61

4.4 Radical Function

√
If n is an integer greater than 1, then a function written in the form f ( x ) = x is called a
radical function. Note that if n is an even integer, then the function will be a real number
only if the radicand is nonnegative. Therefore, the domain is restricted to nonnegative
real numbers, or equivalently, [0, +∞). If n is an odd integer, then the domain is all real
numbers.
√
Example. Given f ( x ) = − x. Write the domain and range of f in interval notation.
Sketch the graph.

Solution. The index is an even integer. The radicand must be greater than or equal to
zero, otherwise it is undefined. The domain is [0, +∞).

Evaluating the graph of f , the range is (−∞, 0].

√
Example. Given the function defined by f ( x ) = 3 − x. Write the domain and range of
f in interval notation. Graph f by making a table of ordered pairs.

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Solution. The index is an even integer. The radicand must be greater than or equal to
zero.

3−x ≥ 0
− x ≥ −3 Multiply both sides of the inequality by (−1).
x≤3 Reverse the inequality sign.

The domain is (−∞, 3].

Create a table of ordered pairs where x values are taken to be less than or equal to 3.
√
x f (x) = 3−x √ √
f (3) = 3−3 = 0 = 0
3 0 √ √
f (2) = 3−2 = 1 = 1
2 1 √ √
√ f (1) = 3−1 = 2
1 2 √ √
√ f (0) = 3−0 = 3
0 3 p √
f (−1) = 3 − (−1) = 4 = 2
−1 2

Evaluating the graph of f , the range is [0, +∞).

√
3
Example. Given the function defined by f ( x ) = x − 3. Write the domain and range of
f in interval notation. Sketch the graph.

Solution. Since the index is odd, the domain is all real numbers or (−∞, +∞).

Evaluating the graph of f , the range is (−∞, +∞).

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4.5 Rational Function

Many real-world problems require us to find the ratio of two polynomial functions.
Problems involving rates and concentrations often involve rational functions. A rational
function is a function that can be written as the quotient of two polynomial functions
P( x ) and Q( x ).
P( x )
f (x) = , Q( x ) 6= 0.
Q( x )

The domain of a rational function includes all real numbers except those that cause the
denominator to equal zero.
3x +7
Example. Find the domain of the function defined by f ( x ) = x +2 .

Steps Solution
1. Set the denominator equal to zero. x+2 = 0
Solve to find the x-values that cause the denominator to equal zero.
2. x = −2
Subtract −2 to both sides of the equation.
3. The domain of f ( x ) : Rr {−2}
x +3
Example. Find the domain of g( x ) = x 2 −9
.

Steps Solution
1. Set the denominator equal to zero. x2 − 9 = 0
x2 = 9
2. Solve to find the x-values that cause the denominator to equal zero.
x = ±3
3. The domain of g( x ) : Rr {−3, 3}

For your reference, we provided the graphs of six basic functions in the following table
together with their corresponding domain and range.

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Function Graph Domain and Range

f (x) = x Domain (−∞, +∞) Range (−∞, +∞)

y = x2 Domain (−∞, +∞) Range [0, +∞)

y = x3 Domain (−∞, +∞) Range (−∞, +∞)

f (x) = |x| Domain (−∞, +∞) Range [0, +∞)

√
y= x Domain [0, +∞) Range [0, +∞)

1 Domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) or Rr {0}

y= x
Range (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) or Rr {0}

These functions are used often in the study of algebra. Therefore, we recommend that
you associate an equation with its graph and familiarize it.

4.6 Inverse Functions

Two functions f and g are inverse functions if for every coordinate pair in f , ( a, b), there
exists a corresponding coordinate pair in the inverse function, g, (b, a). In other words,
the coordinate pairs of the inverse functions have the input and output interchanged.
The inverse of the function f is denoted by f −1 and is read as “ f inverse”. The inverse
of a function does not mean the reciprocal of a function.

A function normally tells us what y is if we know what x is. The inverse of a function
will tell us what x had to be to get the value of y.

A function f −1 is the inverse of f if:

 for every x in the domain of f , f −1 [ f ( x )] = x, and

 for every x in the domain of f −1 , f f −1 ( x ) = x.
 

The domain of f is the range of f −1 and the range of f is the domain of f −1 .

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For instance, supposing the function is made up of these points: {(1, 0) , (−3, 4) , (0, 5)}.
Then the inverse is given by this set of points: {(0, 1) , (4, −3) , (5, 0)}. Since the inverse
does not have any two points sharing an x-value, the inverse is also a function.

Now suppose the function is made up of these points: {(1, 2) , (2, 1) , (3, 4) , (5, 1)}. The
inverse of this function is {(2, 1) , (1, 2) , (4, 3) , (1, 5)} .This inverse has two points, (1, 2)
and (1, 5) , that share a common x-value but have different y-values. This means that
the inverse is not a function.

Existence of an Inverse Function

A function says that for every x, there is exactly one y. That is, y values can be duplicated
but x values can not be repeated.

If the function has an inverse that is also a function, then there can only be one y for
every x.

A one-to-one function, is a function in which for every x there is exactly one y and
for every y, there is exactly one x. A one-to-one function has an inverse that is also a
function.

There are functions which have inverses that are not functions. There are also inverses
for relations. For the most part, we disregard these, and deal only with functions whose
inverses are also functions.

 If the inverse of a function is also a function, then the inverse relation must pass a
vertical line test. Since all the x-coordinates and y-coordinates are switched when
finding the inverse, saying that the inverse must pass a vertical line test is the same
as saying the original function must pass a horizontal line test.
 If a function passes both the vertical line test (so that it is a function in the first
place) and the horizontal line test (so that its inverse is a function), then the func-
tion is one-to-one and has an inverse function.

Example. Find the inverse of the function defined by f ( x ) = 2x + 3.

Steps Solution
1. Replace f ( x ) with y. y = 2x + 3
2. Interchange x and y. x = 2y + 3
x − 3 = 2y
3. Solve for y, and rename the function to be f −1 ( x ). x −3
2 =y
f ( x ) = x−
− 1
2
3

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x −2
Example. Find the inverse of the function defined by f ( x ) = x +2 .

First, f ( x ) is a rational function, where x 6= −2. The restriction on the domain comes
from the fact that it cannot divide by zero. The domain of f ( x ) is R r {−2}.

Steps Solution
x −2
1. Replace f ( x ) with y. y= x +2
y −2
2. Interchange x and y. x= y +2
x ( y + 2) = y − 2
xy + 2x = y − 2
xy − y = −2x − 2
3. Solve for y, and rename the function to be f −1 ( x ).
y( x − 1) = −2x − 2
y= −2x −2
x −1
f −1 ( x ) = −x2x−−1 2

The domain of f −1 ( x ) is R r {1}. Since the range of f is the domain of f −1 , therefore

the range of f ( x ) is R r {1}.
2x
Example. Find the inverse of the function defined by g( x ) = x −3 .

First, g( x ) is a rational function, where x 6= 3. The restriction on the domain comes from
the fact that it cannot divide by zero. The domain of g( x ) is R r {3}.

Steps Solution
2x
1. Replace g( x ) with y. y= x −3
2y
2. Interchange x and y. x= y −3
x (y − 3) = 2y
xy − 3x = 2y
xy − 2y = 3x
3. Solve for y, and rename the function to be g−1 ( x ).
y( x − 2) = 3x
3x
y= x −2
g −1 ( x ) = 3x
x −2

The domain of g−1 ( x ) is R r {2}. Since the range of g is the domain of g−1 , therefore
the range of g( x ) is R r {2}.
5− x
Example. Find the inverse of the function defined by h( x ) = 3x +2 .

First, h( x ) is a rational function, where x 6= − 23 . The restriction on the domain comes

from the fact that it cannot divide by zero. The domain of h( x ) is R r − 23 .


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Steps Solution
5− x
1. Replace h( x ) with y. y= 3x +2
5− y
2. Interchange x and y. x= 3y+2
x (3y + 2) = 5 − y
3xy + 2x = 5 − y
3xy + y = 5 − 2x
3. Solve for y, and rename the function to be h−1 ( x ).
y(3x + 1) = 5 − 2x
5−2x
y= 3x +1
5−2x
h −1 ( x ) = 3x +1

n o
The domain of h−1 ( x ) is R r − 31 . Since the range of h is the domain of h−1 , therefore
n o
the range of h( x ) is R r − 13 .

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
(1) Determine if the relations define y as a function of x.

(a)
(b) {(
n 1, 2) , (3, 4) , (5,4) , (−9, 3)}
 o
(c) (0, −1.1) , 21 , 8 , (1.1, 8) , 4, 21
(2) Use the vertical line test to determine whether the relation define y as a function
of x.

3. Given the function defined by g( x ) = 3x − 5, find the function values,

(a) g( a)
(b) g( x + h)
4. Write the domain and range for:
(a) f ( x ) = −1
(b) g( x ) = 6 − 3x
2x −1
(c) h( x ) = x +9
5. Graph g( x ) = 6 − 3x by making a table of ordered pairs.
√
6. Given the function defined by h( x ) = x − 5. Evaluate the function for the given
values of x: h(4), h(5), h(6), h(7), h(8).
√
7. Given the function defined by f ( x ) = 2 − x. Write the domain and range of f .
Graph f by making a table of ordered pairs.
8. Find the domain, range, and inverse of each function.
(a) g( x ) = 4x + 6
(b) h( x ) = {(3, 5) , (8, 1) , (−3, 9) , (0, 2)}
(c) f ( x ) = 2x −7
4+ x

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