Core-Communicative Skills 2

First printed in 2017 by Brenya Distributions Ltd.
Accra
Second printing in 2019 by Paramount Paper Works, Accra
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC),
2017, 2019
First Publication, 2017
All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior
permission of the copyright holder.
Cover page illustrated by William Jacobs

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

clients, it is necessary to appreciate all colleagues and staff of the College of Distance
Education (CoDEUCC) who have contributed in attaining this objective. The revision
of this module has been made possible through the support and commitment of several
people whose contribution in diverse ways is making CoDEUCC attain its mission in
the history of distance education in Ghana.
First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed modules. The
purpose of the review was to bring to bear new knowledge and trends in the subject
content. I therefore appreciate the work of the reviewers of this module for making the
content of this module indispensable in attaining success for all clients. Thus, much
thanks go to the following Rev. (Dr.) P. A. Gborsong, Mr. G. A.K. Gogovi, Prof. V.
K. Yankah and Mr. K. Essel for their painstaking effort.
I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the Reprographic,
Productions and Dispatch Unit, CoDE, who worked hard to bring this material into
print. The support of the Advisory Committee, particularly Heads of Department and
Chief Examiners has also been invaluable.
I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah, all UCC Management and the
various printing houses without whose support this module would not have been
produced.
Special thanks go to Mrs. Christina Hesse for typesetting into the house style of CoDE.
Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)
ABOUT THIS BOOK
This Course Book “Communicative Skills 2” has been exclusively written by

experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of the English Language
in order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional work
as a teacher and administrator.
This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect
the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is
equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are
expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each
session.
To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules are
clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.
Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.
Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find
difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your
face-to-face meetings.
We wish you a happy and successful study.
Rev. (Dr.) P.A. Gborsong

Mr. G. A.K. Gogovi
Prof. Victor K. Yankah
Mr. K. Essel
CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business S tudies i

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
UNIT OBJECTIVES
SESSION OBJECTIVES
DO AN ACTIVITY
NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT
TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)
REFER TO
READ OR LOOK AT
SUMMARY
SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST
ASSIGNMENT
CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Busienss S tudies vii

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
OVE R E OVE R E
SUMMA RY SUMMA RY
viii CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business S tudies

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i
Acknowledgement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Table of Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings ... ... ... ... ... ...
UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION
Session 1: The Communication Process

1.1 Personal Communication
1.2 Verbal Skills for Everyday Life
1.3 Skills for Preventing Misunderstanding
Session 2: Personal Business Communication

2.1 Satisfying Needs as a Consumer
Session 3: Communication at the Workplace

3.1 Interactions in the Work Environment
3.2 Responsibilities for Written Communications
Session 4: Using Communication Technology

4.1 The New Technology
4.2 Word and Information Processing
4.3 A Revolution in Technology
Session 5: Principles of Communication Psychology I

5.1 What Do we know about Human Behaviour?
5.2 Human Needs and Behaviour
Session 6: Principles of Communication Psychology II

6.1 Our Language Affects Our Behaviour
6.2 Non-Verbal Communication
UNIT 2: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) –

THE PARAGRAPH
Session 1: The Paragraph and the Controlling Idea

1.1 Characteristics of a Paragraph
1.2 The Controlling Idea
1.3 The Usefulness of the Controlling Idea
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 2: The Topic Sentence

2.1 The Topic Sentence
Session 3: Developing the Controlling Idea
3.1 Major Support Sentences
3.2 Minor Support Sentences
Session 4: The Good Paragraph
4.1 Unity
4.2 Completeness
4.3 Coherence
Session 5: Writing a Good Paragraph
5.1 Logical Arrangement of Material
5.2 Transition Words or Expressions
5.3 N. B.
5.4 Order
5.5 Acceptable Language
Session 6: Paragraph Development and Organisation
6.1 Different Ways to Developing a Paragraph
6.2 The Deductive Method
6.3 The Inductive Method
6.4 Comparison, Contrast
6.5 Definition
6.6 Classification
6.7 Cause and Effect
6.8 Factual Details
6.9 Examples
6.10 Anecdote
6.11 A Combination of Methods
6.12 Paragraph Organisation
6.13 The Introduction
6.14 The Main Body/Sentences of Development
6.15 Summary Sentence
UNIT 3: DEVELOPMING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY

Session 1: Identifying and Limiting the Topic
1.1 Finding a Topic
1.2 Limiting the Topic
Session 2: Writing the Outline to an Essay
2.1 What is an Outline?
Session 3: Writing the Introduction to the Essay
3.1 What is the Introduction?
3.2 Requirements of a Good Introduction
3.3 Types of Introduction
ii CoDEUCC/Di pl oma in Maths & Science Education

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 4: Ways of Developing the Essay

4.1 Choosing the Method
4.2 Methods
Session 5: Writing the Conclusion to an Essay
5.1 What is the Conclusion?
5.2 Requirements of a Good Conclusion
5.3 Pitfalls to Avoid
Session 6: Editing your Essay
6.1 Editing – What is it?
6.2 The Process of Editing
UNIT 4: LETTER WRITING

Session 1: Informal Letters 1 – Features
1.1 Types of Personal Letters
1.2 Features of Informal Letters
Session 2: Informal Letters 2 - Introduction
2.1 What is an Introduction?
2.2 Introduction in Informal Letters
2.3 Introduction of Letters to Contemporaries
2.4 Introduction of Letters to Older Relatives
2.5 Introduction of Letters to Younger Relatives
Session 3: Informal Letters – Expression
3.1 What is Expression?
3.2 Components of Expression: Subject Matter
3.3 Purpose of Discourse
3.4 The Component of Grammatical Accuracy
3.5 Expression includes Mechanical Accuracy
Session 4: Formal Letters - Features
4.1 What a Formal Letter Is
4.2 Formal Letters between Individuals tend to Deal with
Formal Matters
4.3 Formal Letters have some Distinctive Features
Session 5: Formal Letters – Introduction
5.1 No Opening Greeting in Formal Letters
5.2 Statement of Acknowledgement as an Introduction
5.3 The Type of Formal Letter Determines the Type of
Introduction
Session 6: Formal Letters 3: Language
6.1 Types of Formal Letters
6.2 The Four Content Features of Formal Letters
6.3 Language of Formal Letters
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.4 Mechanical Accuracy in Formal Letters
UNIT 5: WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA

Session 1: Writing Reports: Routine Reports
1.1 What are Written Routine Reports?
1.2 Nature of Routine Reports
1.3 Content of Routine Reports
1.4 Examples of Routine Reports
Session 2: Writing Reports: Special Reports - Terms of Reference
2.1 What is a Special Report?
2.2 Definition of Terms of Reference
Session 3: Writing Reports: Special Reports – Sources of Information
3.1 Sources of Information
Session 4: Writing Reports: The Letter Format
4.1 Reports in Letter Form
Session 5: Writing Reports – Reports in Tabular Form
5.1 Forms of Presenting Reports
5.2 Other Forms of Presenting Reports
5.3 Reports in Tabular Form
Session 6: The Memorandum
6.1 What is a Memorandum?
6.2 Office Memorandum
UNIT 6: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Session 1: Planning Your Research Paper
1.1 Selecting and Limiting a Topic
1.2 Writing a Preliminary Thesis Statement
1.3 The Procedure for Developing a Thesis Statement
1.4 Things to Note about Thesis Statements
1.5 Making a Rough Outline
Session 2: Doing the Research
2.1 Using a Library
2.2 The Card Catalogue
2.3 The Dewey Decimal System
2.4 The Library of Congress Classification
2.5 General Reference Works
2.6 Periodical Indexes
Session 3: Making a Working Bibliography
3.1 Bibliography Cards
Session 4: Organizing Your Information
4.1 Revising Your Preliminary Thesis Statement
4.2 Making a Detailed Outline
iv CoDEUCC/Di pl oma in Maths & Science Education

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.3 Taking Additional Notes
Session 5: Drafting and Documenting Your Paper

5.1 Writing Your First Draft
5.2 Documentation
5.3 Footnotes
Session 6: Revising and Finishing Your Paper
6.1 Beginning the Revision
6.2 Guide to Revising
6.3 The Finished Paper
References ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies v

COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1
UNIT 1: COMMUNICATION
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Communication Process
Session 2: Personal Business Communication
Session 3: Communication at the Workplace
Session 4: Using Communication Technology
Session 5: Applying Principles of Communication Psychology I
Session 6: Principles of Communication Psychology II
Communication is a very essential part of life. Its importance is based

on the fact that it lies at the heart of whatever work people do. In fact,
no matter how people earn their living, the most important skill they will need in order
to work successfully is the ability to communicate with other people. It is in the light of
this that this unit is structured to expose to readers certain essentials of communication.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i. identify and explain the communication process.
ii. describe the form of communication required in a personal business.
iii. describe how communication works at the work place.
iv. describe the use of technology in communication.
v. identify and describe principles of communication psychology.
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies 1

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION
This is blank sheet for your short note on:

• Issues that are not clear: and
• Difficult topics if any
2 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies

COMMUNICATION UNIT 1
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Dear students, you’re welcome to the first session of Unit 1. In this

session we shall study how communication works. Have you ever
ponded over how you reach other people with information. We shall look at this in this
session and subsequent ones.
Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) Tell what communication is.
b) State the various forms of communication.
c) Describe the process of communication.
Now read on…
The exchange of information between and among individuals is referred to as

communication. Human beings direct and receive information in diverse ways, both
verbally and non-verbally. There are various ways of transmitting information; we often
depend on sounds to send information. Other ways of information transmission are:
speaking, writing, gestures, and facial expressions. Listening, reading, and observing
are the means we employ to receive information. The most complex issue in the
communication process is the ability of the receiver to interprets the information as the
source meant it to be understood.
The communication process is not as easy as it appears. Let’s consider this scenario.
Kofi, a sixteen year old senior high school, received a call from his sister, Akosua.
“I can’t go jogging with you this morning because I have to look for another job.” said
Akosua.
“OK,” replied Kofi, “inform me when you are going.”

So the chat ended! When Akosua ended the call, Kofi told her other siblings that
Akosua had lost her job at Akosombo Textile Limited and had to look for another one.
It was not until a few days later that the actual situations were exposed. Akosua had not
lost her job at the ATL, she was just looking for another casual job to add to the too–
few hours she was doing at ATL.
Why did this gap in communication happen? Both the sender and the receiver were
wrong. The source, that is, Akosua gave too little information; she was not clear or
candid in carrying over her message. Too many points were left to the understanding of
the receiver. Kofi , the destination, was also guilty because he reached an unjustified

UNIT 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SESSION 1
decision based on the message available. Just because Akosua was looking for another
work, Kofi should not have assumed that Akosua had lost her present one.
Miscommunication can take place effortlessly in any environment–especially in the

current digital age where even the touch of a button can attract a wrong message. That
is why it is significant for individuals to study the entire communication process and
sharpen their verbal skills. To communicate effectively, people need to improve their
abilities in speaking, writing, listening, reading, and observing. It is necessary to note
that both the source and the destination have specific responsibilities in the
communication process. This unit begins the study of the communication of ideas
essential for success in individuals’ total life be it personal and business life.
1.1 Personal Communication

Communication starts at the early stages in life. The baby’s cry demands the parents’
response. Is the baby hungry or sick? Does it need to have a diaper changed? Is the cry
for attention? The fact that the baby has a need is communicated by a simple cry. As
children grow older they adopt a more multifaceted communication process. Words
substitute the cry as the ways of communication.
As our stock of vocabulary develops, our ability to communicate also develops. To a

great extent, the degree of people’s stock of vocabulary determines their abilities to
send and receive information. Besides exchanging information with relatives and
friends, the child must learn to communicate effectively and efficiently in school so as
to prepare adequately for future life.
1.2 Verbal Skills for Everyday Life

Communication skills are significant not only for activities among family members and
friends and in school but also for our everyday life. Reading, writing, speaking and
listening all play a vital role in our present-day lifestyle. Take for instance the
communication involved in gaining admission into a university for further studies.
Reading plays a prominent role. Prospective students must read the directions to fill in
application forms. They must also read the brochures issued by the respective
institutions, since knowledge of the rules, regulations, prerequisites, programme types,
colleges, faculties, departments, and halls of residence in these educational institutions
are roads essential to arming potential students with the needed information Reading
skills are also relevant for taking the written test. Complex questions, sometimes, with
thorny alternatives for answers, demand critical reading skills. Road signs on various
campuses, too, not only require interpretive skills but also may require reading skills.
4 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Educati on and Business Studies

SESSION 1
Writing skills are required to fill out application forms. Appropriate information must
be clearly provided. Speaking skills are employed in asking questions, providing
answers, and following through in the application process. Listening plays an especially
important role in interviews. If a panel member asked you to provide your date of birth
and you instead gave a wrong date, you would decrease your possibility of passing the
interview.. Prudent listening and correct interpreting drive your progress in this and
many other conditions.
1.3 Skills for Preventing Misunderstanding

As can be seen, the communication process plays a vital role in gaining admission into a
university for further studies. Communication skills are important in many other aspects
of the young adult’s life. As an additional case, note the challenges that can result from
a communication breakdown in applying for a social security card.
Yaa Owusu, a first year student in one of our local universities, went to the local social
security office to apply for a card as she intended to apply for a student loan facility. As
instructed, Yaa brought with her a copy of her birth certificate. She carefully filled out
the application form, using the name indicated on her birth certificate, Yaa Obiribea
Owusu , Satisfied that she had completed all the requirements, Yaa signed her
application and went to her hall of residence.
Two week later, Yaa was called on her mobile phone with a request to come to the
office. The reason was that Yaa had signed her application “Yaa Owusu” instead of
“Yaa Obiribea Owusu”. Yet the instruction had clearly stated, “Sign name as shown on
application.” If Yaa had signed her name properly, she could have not have been sent an
invitation call. Not reading the instructions carefully had cost Yaa the money she spent
on transportation if she had signed the application correctly.
In this session, we have studied the meaning of communication. We also

looked at some forms of communication and how communication works.
We finally studied some skills in communication.
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. What is communication?
2. Explain personal communication.
3. Describe two forms of communication.
4. What are communication skills?
5. Give four skills of communication.

UNIT 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: PERSONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
You’re welcome to the second session of Unit 1. I hope you enjoyed

the first session of the unit. In this session, we shall study some aspects
of communication- We shall really enjoy it just as the previous session.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. Describe business communication as a special form of communication
2. Identify some ways of communicating in business
Now read on…
Even though you may never work as a businessman or woman, you cannot avoid
communicating with government and business in undertaking your personal business.
Periodical purchases of food, clothing, gas, and household supplies require reading,
listening and speaking skills. Reading labels and instructions carefully enables you to
make appropriate and judicious selections. Asking questions, making requests, giving
instructions and describing your needs all require accurate and specific speaking skills.
Listening too, is required to follow directions in meeting your personal buying needs.
2.1 Satisfying Needs as a Consumer

Buying a car, home, life insurance, medical insurance, or a major home appliance
demands communication skills. This applies to contractual agreements for home
improvements, installment, buying, or investment. Solving problems emanating from
faulty merchandise, insurance claims, legal matters, and medical concerns needs even
more innovative communication skills. Not only must you rely on speaking, listening,
and reading, but also you must apply your writing skills to such activities.
Let’s look at how Timothy Nyame, an accounts clerk, solved the following problem.
The electronic game he had purchased nearly two years ago was no longer working.
One of the circuit boards was broken. The company had no authorized repair stores in
the city where Timothy lived, so he had to write a business letter to seek a solution to
his problem. This meant writing to the company, explaining the nature of the problem,
requesting shipment of the appropriate replacement part and making arrangements for
payments. He needed to state the information simply, exactly, and clearly in his letter.
To plan and write his letter, Timothy used his knowledge of spelling grammar, writing
style, message organization, and business–letter format—all areas you will be studying
in this module.

UNIT 1 PERSONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
SESSION 2
Communicating with Government

Writing skills are essential for solving problems that may arise with government. Esi
Afful, a nurse’s aide, was shocked when she opened a letter that stated, “If the enclosed
parking ticket is not paid within 30 days, a warrant will be issued for your arrest.” On
examining the enclosed parking ticket, Esi saw that it had been issued in a city more
than 120 kilometers from her home on a day that she had been working. After a closer
reading, she noticed that the cited vehicle had the license plate number GE 4344 - 15.
Esi’s license number was GE 3444. Evidently, someone had made an error in entering
the license number into the computer to locate the owner’s name and address—a perfect
example of miscommunication in our electronic age.
Nevertheless, Esi was still faced with the problem of having to correct the situation.
She could take a day off from work and drive 120 kilometers to the court to correct the
miscommunication, but why waste so much time and money when a well–written letter
could achieve the same results? Esi chose to write the letter. Again, the writer needed
skilful and clear expression to ensure that the reader understood the circumstances and
took the action requested.
In this session, we have studied personal business communication. We

looked at some ways of communicating to satisfy our business partners or
customers. We, also, saw how we can communicate with government.
Exercise 2.1
1. Describe personal business communication

2. Explain how you will communicate to satisfy a business partner.
3. Describe how you will communicate to satisfy someone in government.

UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION SESSION 3
SESSION 3: COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE

Dear students, you’re welcome to session three in Unit 1. I hope you’ve
started using some skills mentioned in the previous session. In this
session, we shall study how to communicate at the workplace. This will help you to
interact favourably with your work mates.
Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
1. Describe how to communicate in the work environment.
2. Mention the various forms of communication that go on at the workplace.
Now read on…
No matter what occupation you select—accountant electronic technician office worker,

business executive, nurse, construction worker mail carrier, flight attendant, or
computer programmer—you will need to deal with communication in the workplace
3.1 Interactions in the Work Environment

In your work environment you will interact with coworkers, superiors, subordinates,
customers, suppliers, and machines. You will be involved in face–to–face dialogues,
telephone conversations, conferences and committee meetings. All these activities will
require you to exercise your speaking and listening expertise.
Media such as forms, letters, memoranda, reports, bulletins, news releases, meeting
minutes, newsletters, and employee handbooks require reading and writing skills. At
this point you may view yourself only as a reader of these documents but your job may
also involve your writing some of them or parts of them. You may be asked to generate
letters to customers and suppliers, memos to co-workers or subordinates, reports to
superiors, or any of the other written documents that an organization produces.
3.2 Responsibilities for Written Communications

Take for example the numerous forms of written communiqués originating at the desk
of an administrative assistant. Simple phone messages may not seem too important but
think of the communication breakdowns that could occur if the assistant forgot to ask
the name of the caller, jotted down the phone number incorrectly, misinterpreted the
message, or even neglected to place the message on the recipient’s desk.
Persons in other occupations, too, are faced with originating a variety of written
documents. Sales people draft letters to customers and suppliers, accountants prepare
reports for clients, nurses chart patients’ progress, insurance agents complete claims and
engineers write specifications. Almost all occupations require some kind of writing

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE
SESSION 3
skill, and virtually all occupations require oral communication skills. Because your
success as a communicator may well measure your success in a chosen field, you
should strive consistently to improve your personal communication skills.
In this session, we have studied interactions in the work environment.

This includes face-to-face interaction, telephone conversations,
conferences and committee meetings.
Exercise 1.3
1. Which are the most important skills that you require in communicating at the
workplace?
2. State the media required for workplace communication.
3. Mention the media of communication that accountants require.

UNIT 1
SESSION 4: USING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
You’re welcome to session four of Unit 1. This will be a very

interesting session because we shall study how we use new
communication technology. You use a lot of new technology. How do you use them?
We shall study this.
Objectives
1. State some forms of new communication technology.
2. Describe the development of communication.
Now read on…
Modern technology makes it possible to send oral and written messages around the
world in a matter of seconds. Computers and electronic transmission systems have
enabled business and government to speed up and improve the communication process.
As a result, communicators today use communication technology to develop and
transmit their oral and written messages.
Data, voice, and graphic networks supply the technology for rapid communication and
decision making. These networks are composed of computer-based systems that “talk”
to each other so that voices, images, and written data can be transmitted electronically
and instantaneously.
Within the last three decades, this emerging new technology has caused a revolution in
human communications. Think about the pace of human progress during past centuries
and compare it with the developments that have taken place during the last twenty
years—even the last ten years.
4.1 The New Technology

Human beings have communicated form the beginning of time. Communication
probably began with grunts, gestures, and expressions. The origins of speaking and
writing are unknown, but signs and symbols were added very early in the timeline of
human development.
Even in the early times people kept records. The Egyptians developed a picture
language called hieroglyphics, at the same time the Sumerians were writing on clay
tablets with a system that used wedge-shaped signs. The Semites were the first to devise
an alphabet, around 1500 B.C., and the Assyrians and Babylonians established libraries
around 600 B.C.

UNIT 1 USING COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
SESSION 4
In early societies writing was taught only to scribes and priests. It was such a laborious
and time-consuming process that only a privileged few were allowed to learn to write.
Even after the development of the pen and quill, writing was such a chore that few
people ever saw a book, let alone owned one. Just imagine how long it would take to
copy by hand the pages of this textbook!
Not until the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century was knowledge
opened to everyone. Printing provided a more rapid and easy way to communicate.
Although type was set by hand, multiple copies could be run once the type had been set.
Then in the middle of the nineteenth century a machine appeared that would speed up
the printing process. Little did Christopher Scholes realize that his invention—the
typewriter—would be the forerunner of the sophisticated computers used in publishing
and modern offices today.
Civilization has progressed from tediously chiseling signs and symbols into rock to
communicating messages instantaneously by machine. Human beings, however, must
still generate the messages processed by these machines. People are responsible for the
content, organization, wording, and format of the information processed. Therefore,
users of modern technology must still be skilled in the communication process. Your
study of the principles and concepts in this textbook will prepare you to make effective
use of the communication technology found in modern business settings today.
Advanced technologies have emerged during the last three decades in word processing,
information processing, telecommunications, and networks. Each is defined and briefly
described for you in the following sections.
4.2 Word and Information Processing

People have been processing words since the Semites developed the first known
alphabet, but the concept of word processing as we know it today was introduced by the
IBM Corporation in the early 1960s. Modern-day word processing now involves the use
of a standardized set of procedures (known as software) combined with computerized
equipment to produce written documents. Popular software programs used for word
processing include WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, WordStar, MultiMate, DisplayWrite
and Appleworks to name just a few.
4.2.1 What Word Processing Can Do

To obtain a better understanding of word processing, let us first generally look at how it
works. Computers have a typewriter keyboard. As data is entered into the computer
through the keyboard and a word processing program, each keystroke is recorded for
storage on a magnetic disk. If you wish to make a change on the disk, you may do so by
“recording over” the present material. Similarly if you make a keyboarding error, all
you need do is backspace to erase the error and then retype the correct stroke in its spot.

UNIT 1
With word processing you can also easily add and delete complete sentences and
paragraphs. Once you have made any corrections and revisions in a letter,
memorandum, report or other document, you are ready to prepare the finished copy.
Printers read the disk and print out your final copy error–free at speeds ranging from
hundreds of words a minute to over a thousand words a minute.
In many situations the same originally typed document must be sent to a number of
different people or the same paragraph must be repeated in different documents. By
using word processing to record these materials, you may print as many original copies
as needed without rekeying the contents.
Reports provide information that is often the basis for important decisions. The person
who writes a report may rewrite it several times before the report is ready for
distribution. Before word processing, the report had to be retyped with each rewrite,
thereby requiring the tedious process of keyboarding and proofreading the entire
document with each revision. By using word processing to prepare a report, you
keyboard and proofread only the changes, the remainder of the report remains unaltered,
waiting to be printed with the changes or additions to form a revised final copy.
4.2.2 Word Processing at Work

Who uses word processing? For what purposes is it used? Frequent users include law
firms, where many documents that require precise wording are produced. In addition,
many legal documents contain large sections of wording that do not need to be changed
for each new client. These standardized paragraphs are recorded on disks and recalled
for the preparation of contracts, wills, trusts, agreements, dissolutions, testimonies, and
many other legal documents.
Banks and other financial institutions use word processing to communicate with their
current and prospective customers. Standardized form letters are entered into and stored
by the word processing equipment. When a single letter needs to be sent to a list of
customers, the standardized form can be retrieved and merged with the list of names to
produce an originally typed letter for each name on the list.
Hospitals and other health care facilities use word processing to prepare patients’ files
and to compile reports of diagnoses and examinations. Standardized examination
reports are stored for each specially, so doctors can immediately cite any abnormal
conditions that may exist. Word processing is also used for preparing government and
insurance reports, professional papers presented by staff members, public service
bulletins, applications for special projects, and a variety of other documents.
Insurance companies use word processing to communicate with their large number of
clients. Specialized types of communication are sent to those clients who carry certain

SESSION 4
kinds of insurance. Personalized letters prepared on word processors are also used to
solicit additional business.
All types of businesses use word processing equipment to prepare proposals. Volumes
of paperwork describing specifications, costs, procedures, and schedules need to be
prepared before a contract can be awarded. Thousands of hours of editing and revision
may be required to prepare a proposal for submission. Word processing eases the
keyboarding and proofreading burden and fosters accuracy.
Within the last few years, declining prices of computer hardware and software have
made computers more affordable to both organizations and individuals. Because word
processing simplifies and streamlines the document preparation process, its use has
spread rapidly to small businesses, self–employed individuals, home, office users, and
students. Yesterday’s electric typewriter has become virtually obsolete as computers
and word processing software dominate in small business and households throughout
the country.
4.2.3 Information Processing

While word processing refers to the process of creating, editing, formatting, storing,
retrieving, revising, and printing text materials electrically, information processing is
the manipulation of data by electronic means to collect, organize, record, and store
information for decision–making purposes. Information processing retains the text–
editing and revision function but also has the capability to use the data in a wider range
of applications.
4.2.4 Information Processing at Work

The hospital that uses word processing to prepare and maintain patients’ records can use
information processing technology in many ways. For example, it can compile a list of
patients by any one of many different categories—by specific disease or disorder, by
admitting doctor, by admission date, or by age. Expanded applications (uses) and
capabilities can be achieved by interfacing (connecting) word processing programs with
other types of computer programs.
Picture the checkout stand of a modern supermarket. Notice how the clerk skims each
product over a certain section of the countertop. Listen for the high–pitched beep as the
name of the item and its price are recorded on the cash register tape. As a customer you
may like this procedure because it provides you with an itemized tape listing the
specific product purchased and its price. To the grocery store, however, the new system
provides valuable inventory information that was not readily available before
information processing technology. For example, the store buyers know how many
frozen turkeys they should purchase for Friday. They know how many cases of a certain
brand of canned peas are needed to restock the shelves. They may even be able to

UNIT 1
determine what products sell too slowly and should therefore be discontinued.
Information processing technology is thus an important tool to help business cut costs
and increase profit.
4.3 A Revolution in Technology

Since the early 1980s the flood of microcomputers entering business and industry has
revolutionized business’s ability to use information processing for management
decision making. No longer must a company invest in expensive mainframe computer
time or acquire costly minicomputers to take advantage of this tool. Reasonably priced
microcomputers coupled with spreadsheet, data base, and graphics programs provide
information processing capabilities to large and small companies alike—even home
offices.
Business writers charged with preparing reports for management decision making may
organize, enter, and store information in computerized data files. From this data base
they may easily transfer information into a spreadsheet for either preparing analyses or
making projections. Spreadsheet data can then be converted into graphic form for ease
of understanding and interpretation through any one of a number of graphics software
programs.
Integrated software programs allow the modern business communicator to combine

word processing technology with information processing technology so that charts and
tables derived from data bases and spreadsheets may be entered directly into reports
prepared through word processing programs. The popularity of microcomputers and
these kinds of programs is growing rapidly because of their relatively inexpensive cost
in comparison with minicomputers and mainframes. Now even the small company or
business can afford to use computer technology to increase its profit.
In this session, we have studied a lot of things about the use of new
communication technology. First, we studied what word processing can
do. Secondly, we studied how word processing works. Finally, we studied information
processing and how it works.
Exercise 1.4
1. Describe the role of modern technology.
2. Describe the growth of communication briefly.
3. What is word processing?
4. Describe briefly, word processing.

SESSION 4


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

PSYCHOLOGY I
You are welcome to the fifth session of unit 1. I hope you’ve enjoyed
all the previous sessions. You are really making progress. Good! In
this session, we shall study some principles of communication psychology. These
principles will help you in your interactions.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to :
1. State and explain some human behavior.
2. Describe Maslow’s theory on human needs
3. State the principles of communication psychology.
4. Describe the principles of communication psychology.
Now read on…
Communication is involved in every part of our lives from the time we wake up until
the time we go back to sleep. Talking with family, friends, other students or employees,
teachers, or supervisors, listening to the radio or watching TV, buying or selling
products or services, speaking, writing, listening, or “sizing up” a situation—when we
do any of these things, we are involved in communication. Since communication has
such a major effect on our lives and since everyone is a communicator, we need to
understand what happens when people communicate. If you look at people who are
successful communicators, you find that they apply effectively the principles of human
behavior
5.1 What do we know about Human Behaviour?

Many problems from communication mishaps are caused by a lack of understanding of
human behavior. If we compare what we know about computer technology, space
travel, and medicine, we can easily see that we are far ahead in these last areas. The
inner workings of a giant mainframe computer are more easily explained than the inner
workings of the human brain and mind!
Continued research in psychology, sociology, and anthropology contributes to our

understanding of human behavior and helps us to apply its principles to communication
psychology. Studies provide us with theories that are useful in understanding human
behavior. However, we must remember that theories are useful only to understand how
and why most people behave as they do—there are always exceptions. Throughout
history, for instance, we find examples of people who have overcome almost
insurmountable obstacles in reaching their goals. So while you are studying behavior

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1
SESSION 5 PSYCHOLOGY I
theory in an attempt to improve your communication skills, remember that we are

talking about the general behavior of most people and that there are exceptions.
5.2 Human Needs and Behaviour

As a communicator, you must recognize that all human beings have certain needs at
certain times. These needs determine our behavior and the goals we set for ourselves. A
successful communicator has the ability to understand the needs of those who will
receive his or her message. A successful communicator speaks and writes with the
receiver’s needs in mind at all times.
According to Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist, most people will respond

positively to messages that will meet their particular needs at particular times. Maslow
theorizes that human needs are based on a system of priorities, similar to the rungs of a
ladder. Once a person’s foot is securely balanced on the first rung—that is, once that
person’s first–rung needs are met—he or she may be willing and ready to ascend to the
second rung. And once that person’s second–rung needs are met, he or she may be
willing and ready to ascend to the third rung, and so on. The point is that until the
primary needs (those associated with the first rung) have been reasonably well satisfied,
most of us will reject messages that focus on fulfilling higher–level needs.
Maslow uses five “rungs” or classifications, to describe the hierarchy of human needs.
These rungs are illustrated on page 17. Keep them in mind as you attempt to send
messages to potential receivers.
Rung 1—Basic Physical Needs: What basic things do we need before we can turn
our attention to other things? We need food, shelter, and clothing—physical needs.
Until these needs are reasonably well met, we think of little else.
Rung 2—Safety and Security Needs: Next we think about keeping ourselves free
from physical harm or mental abuse. Most of us try to avoid situations that could cause
us physical harm or people that threaten our peace of mind.
The first two rungs represent lower–level needs. Once we have met these needs, we can
turn our attention to our upper–level needs.
Rung 3—The Need to Belong: Most of us want to feel that we are part of a group.
During our teen years, we place great importance on being “one of the gang.” Our
families also provide us with a sense of belonging. When we finally go to work full
time, we will want to have friends and enjoy being with our coworkers.
Rung 4—The Need to Be “Somebody”: Once we have met the needs of Rung 3,
feeling comfortable in the society in which we live, most of us want to feel that we are
good at doing something. If we are good at swimming or bowling or some of our school
subjects, we feel very pleased with the recognition we receive. We feel that we are
“somebody.” We have met the needs of our ego.

SESSION 5
Rung 5—The Need to Help Others and to Be Creative: If we are reasonably able to
meet all the previous needs, we seem to lose our anxieties and fears. Two things happen
(1) We are more willing to help people who are still struggling on the lower rungs of the
ladder, those still striving to meet their physical, safety, and security needs, and (2) we
become more creative, and creative people improve the quality of life for us all.
Rung 5—The Need to Help Others and to Be Creativ e
Rung 4—The Need to Be “Somebody”
Rung 3—The Need to Belong
Rung 2—Safety and Security Needs
Rung 1 —Basic Phy sical Needs
According to Maslow, human needs are based on a sy stem of priorities, similar

to the rungs of a ladder.
In this session, we have studied human behavior and human needs. We

studied Maslow’s theory of human needs and used it as a basis for
understanding certain human behaviour. This study will help you as you interact with
people.
Exercise 1.5
1. Describe Maslow’s theory on human needs.
2. Explain the 4 rungs of Maslow’s theory.
3. Describe the principle on the need to help others and to be creative.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
UNIT 1
SESSION 5 PSYCHOLOGY I


UNIT 1
SESSION 6: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

PSYCHOLOGY II
You are welcome to the last session of unit 1. I hope you’ve enjoyed
all the previous sessions. In this session, we shall continue with what
we studied in session 5 concerning how human needs determine human reaction.
Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to :
1. Describe how human needs determine human reactions.
2. Describe how some particular needs determine some particular reactions in
human beings.
Now read on…
To be a successful communicator, you must try to determine the needs of the people to
whom you are writing or speaking. You can do this by noticing which goals seem to
motivate them. But remember that goals may change rapidly. For example, when you
arrive at school in the morning, you have had a good breakfast, so you are not hungry
(Rung 1). You feel safe and comfortable in your surroundings (Rung 2), and you have
enjoyed visiting with friends before class (Rung 3). You have just finished a class that
you enjoy and do well in so you have satisfied the need to be “somebody” (Rung 4).
However, 11:30 a.m. comes and you get hungry. The lunch hour doesn’t begin till 12
noon. You shift in your chair and keep looking at your watch. You find concentrating
very difficult because you have a physical need, the need for food (Rung 1). Until that
need is satisfied, the only really meaningful messages you will receive concern food.
An example of sending a positive message directed toward our needs is our

government’s appeal to us to use car pools. Although the main reason for car pools
would be to conserve energy and to control traffic congestion, we are also told that
riding to work with a group is more fun (Rung 3). Our reaction is favorable because the
message also appeals to our personal needs.
Thus we can learn to identify these levels of needs and relate them to all our
communications. Whether we are looking for a job, buying or selling products or
services, ordering supplies or asking for information, we must always put ourselves in
the place of our receiver, decide what our receiver’s needs are and then phrase our
message to meet those needs. In this way we go a long way toward getting the reaction
we want.

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
SESSION 6 PSYCHOLOGY II
6.1 Our Language Affects Our Behaviour

The words we use can make us behave in different ways. To communicate successfully,
we must remember that words are only symbols, meaning is added by people. Two
people may interpret the same word differently. At the same time, words also have
different kinds of meanings. The denotative meaning, the one that appears in the
dictionary, is one kind, the feelings and impressions the words invokes, the connotative
meaning, is another. The total meaning you get from a word is a combination of its
denotation and connotation.
Consider these words: slender, slim, thin, skinny and scrawny. These words mean
essentially the same denotatively. If one of these words were being used to describe you
however, would you react the same to scrawny as you would to slender?
If a supervisor wished to describe an employee who did not give up easily, that
supervisor could use terms such as persistent, tenacious, persevering, obstinate,
stubborn, or unyielding. All these words have essentially the same denotation—
following through regardless of the obstacles. These words, however, are not
interchangeable because they differ substantially in connotation.
A noted semanticist coined the terms purr words and snarl words to refer to words that
affect people’s emotions either positively or adversely. Purr words are ones such as
beautiful, kindness, freedom, successful, persevering, and slender. People usually
respond warmly to words such as these because of their positive or favorable
connotation. Snarl words such as cheap, negligent, fraud, delinquent, obstinate, and
scrawny stimulate distasteful images. Effective business communicators generally rely
on purr words and avoid snarl words to convey their messages. They are also aware that
the same words can convey different meanings to different people.
6.2 Non-Verbal Communication

When we speak or write, we send our receivers two types of messages, those expressed
in words and those not expressed in words. For example, if your teacher says to you,
“Don’t be late for class tomorrow,” you could surmise that the message asks you to be
on time. The sentence does not state in words but may, through teacher’s stern facial
expression, imply such additional messages as “You are frequently late” or “I am upset
that you may not be on time.” These messages not expressed in words are called
nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication—facial expression, gestures, posture, body movements,
attire, grooming—contribute greatly to the meaning of a message. Keep in mind that
cultural and environmental differences often determine how these nonverbal messages
will be interpreted. On the one hand, people from most cultures seem to turn up the
corners of their mouths to show amusement. On the other hand, people from some
cultures require less “personal space” than people from other cultures.

UNIT 1
Learning to use nonverbal communication can help us make the meanings of our oral
messages clear. The following information on personal space, gestures and posture, and
facial expressions can help us become better communicators.
Personal Space: All of us, as human beings, maintain our own environment. This
means that we all need a certain amount of “space” in which to operate. The amount of
space that we require depends on our particular culture, our circumstances, and the
specific actions expected of us at the time.
The next time you sit with your friends at a table in the cafeteria, notice how each of
you generally seems to use the amount of space in which to eat. You have all
unconsciously occupied approximately the same amount of space at the table.
In the United States people usually stand about two feet apart when they talk to each
other. If someone moves too close to us and invades our personal space, we begin to
exhibit uncomfortable and unnatural kinds of behaviour. We may give signals of
tension (uneasy movements) to get the intruder to move, or we may start to back up in
an attempt to maintain the distance needed between the person speaking and ourselves.
Space violations occur not only in conversations. Picture yourself stepping in a crowded
elevator on your way up to the twenty–third floor. As the elevator rises, everyone peers
up at the floor indicator. Why? Because each person’s personal space has been invaded,
he or she feels uncomfortable and is unable to carry on a conversation. The abnormal or
uncomfortable behavior exhibited at this point is looking up at the floor indicator.
Notice, however, how comfortable we feel when we step into an elevator with only one
or two other persons in it. We might even exchange a casual “Hello,” “Good morning,”
or some other kind of greeting. If the ride is lengthy, the discussion might even continue
with some additional small talk, provided that a comfortable spatial distance can be
maintained for everyone in the elevator.
An understanding of personal space can certainly help you communicate more

successfully. If you back away from people because they have invaded your personal
space, they may perceive this behavior as a sign that you don’t like them. On the other
hand, if you invade others’ personal space, how much information can be assimilated
when they are backing up, feeling uneasiness, or displaying discomfort? Ask yourself,
“How much information has been lost during this stage of discomfort and uneasiness?”
Obviously, a communicator who relies on oral communication must be conscious of
proper spatial relationships under varying circumstances.
Gestures and Posture People can communicate many moods through gestures and
posture. Keeping your head down and hunching your shoulders may be your way of

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
SESSION 6 PSYCHOLOGY II
telling people to leave you alone. Crossing your arms may indicate that you do not
accept what someone is saying. Sliding down in your chair may convey that you are
bored. Shrugging your shoulders may mean that you no longer have any interest in a
situation. If you do not wish to convey these kinds of negative ideas, you need to
monitor your body language in communicating with others.
As a receiver of messages in the communication process, you should keep in mind that
nonverbal communication does not always tell the whole story. Interpret gestures,
posture, and body movements in conjunction with what is being said and the whole
context of the situation.
Facial Expressions: Looking away from a person can convey as much meaning as
looking at a person. Looking away may tell people that we would not invade their
privacy. Or it may mean that we are not comfortable with what they are saying. Or it
may mean that we are trying to hide something. We know that facial expressions can
convey a whole range of meanings—joy, hate, love, sorrow—but as with gestures and
posture, we need to consider the entire situation and evaluate both the verbal and
nonverbal signals in interpreting messages.
In this session, we’ve studied how our needs determine our reactions. In
other words, human beings behave in a certain way as a result of certain
needs in their lives. Therefore, to communicate successfully, we need to be conversant
with how the needs cause him to behave.
Exercise 1.6
1. How does our language affect our behavior as human beings?
2. What is “non-verbal communication”?
3. State five forms of non-verbal communication that we use.

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) –
THE PARAGRAPH UNIT 2
UNIT 2: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) –

THE PARAGRAPH
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Paragraph and the Controlling Idea
Session 2: The Topic Sentence
Session 3: Developing the Controlling Idea
Session 4: The Good Paragraph
Session 5: Writing a Good Paragraph
Session 6: Paragraph Development and Organisation
As teachers and students of English, one of the most important skills we

have to acquire and perfect, is writing. We must not only know how to
write essays, letters, stories etc but know how to write these well. We
must be able to communicate meaningfully through writing, and in order to produce
meaningful essays and other forms of continuous writing, we must know how to
compose a good paragraph. In this unit, therefore, we are going to concern ourselves
with how to write a good paragraph.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. mention the characteristics of a good paragraph;
2. identify the controlling idea and state the topic sentence of a paragraph;
3. develop a controlling idea through the use of major and minor supporting
sentences;
4. describe different ways of developing a paragraph; and
5. describe how to organise a paragraph.

UNIT 2 THE PARAGRAPH
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear, and;
• difficult topics if any.

UNIT 2
THE PARAGRAPH SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE PARAGRAPH AND THE CONTROLLING IDEA
Writing is one of the four skills that speakers of a language acquire. In

school we first learn to write letters of the alphabet and to combine letters
to form words. We then learn to group words into phrases, clauses or sentences.
Finally, we learn to combine sentences to form a paragraph and to put a number of
paragraphs together to form an essay. In this session, therefore, our main concern is to
find out more about the paragraph and about the controlling idea of a paragraph.
Objectives
(a) mention the features of a paragraph; and
(b) identify the controlling idea of a paragraph.
Now read on…
1.1 Characteristics of a Paragraph

Let us begin by asking ourselves what a paragraph is. The Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English offers a simple but very helpful definition of a paragraph: “a
group of several sentences in a piece of writing, the first sentence of which starts on a
new line”. It is clear, according to the definition, that the basic unit of the paragraph is
the sentence. We will assume that as learners of English and as teachers of the subject,
we all know how to write a sentence – a sentence that is meaningful because it expresses
its main idea clearly, and that is grammatically acceptable, because it obeys all the
relevant rules of the language. If, therefore, we happen to have problems with the
writing of acceptable sentences we must try to eliminate these problems completely or at
least control them as early as possible. Having taken note of this let us now look at the
features or characteristics of a paragraph. We should be able to recognise a paragraph
when we see one. We must also be able to describe its significant features or
characteristics and say how it looks like on paper, for example.
We have to note, for example, that the first sentence of a paragraph begins with a capital
letter and that this sentence begins on a new line. This sentence also begins about half an
inch from the left margin of the paper. In other words, the paragraph is indented. After
the first sentence, other sentences are added until we have said all that we need to say,
and it is only when we have done this (that is said all that we need to say), that we put
down the final full stop, question mark, exclamation mark, or any other appropriate
punctuation mark.
As already mentioned, the paragraph is usually indented. Any subsequent indentation

that appears after the first paragraph could therefore indicate the beginning of a new
paragraph.

UNIT 2 THE PARAGRAPH AND THE CONTROLLING IDEA
SESSION 1
The following are examples of indented paragraphs:

As teachers and students of English, one of the most important skills we have to
acquire and perfect, is writing. We must not only know how to write essays, letters,
stories, etc, but know how to write these well. We must be able to communicate
meaningfully through writing, and in order to produce meaningful essays and other
forms of continuous writing, we must know how to compose a good paragraph. In
this session, therefore, we are going to concern ourselves with how to write a good
paragraph.
We must be able to recognise a paragraph when we see one. We must be able to talk
about its significant features or characteristics and say how it looks like on paper,
for example.
We have to note, for example, that the first sentence of a paragraph begins with a
capital letter and that this sentence begins on a new line. This sentence also begins
about half an inch from the left margin of the paper. In other words, the paragraph
is indented.
In some cases, especially when we type our letters or essays, we may use the block type
of paragraph. This type of paragraph, as the name implies, has the shape of a block (“a
solid mass of hard material such as wood or stone with straight sides” – Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English). When the blocked type of paragraphing is used,
each paragraph is separated from the other by a line. Here are examples of “blocked
paragraphs”.
As teachers and students of English, one of the most important skills we have to
acquire and perfect, is writing. We must not only know how to write essays, letters,
stories, etc, but know how to write these well. We must be able to communicate
meaningfully through writing, and in order to produce meaningful essays and other
forms of continuous writing, we must know how to compose a good paragraph. In
this session, therefore we are going to concern ourselves with how to write a good
paragraph.
We must be able to recognise a paragraph when we see one. We must be able to talk
about its significant features or characteristics and say how it looks like on paper,
for example.
We have to note, for example, that the first sentence of a paragraph begins with a
capital letter and that this sentence begins on a new line. This sentence also begins
about half an inch from the left margin of the paper. In other words, the paragraph
is indented.
1.2 The Controlling Idea

A paragraph usually contains only one main idea or one main point. The paragraph does
not talk about everything the writer knows about the subject he is dealing with. The
writer, who for example, decides to write about “water” in a single paragraph has many

UNIT 2
options to choose from. He can talk about what water is, the composition of water, the
types of water he is familiar with or about the sources or the uses of water. He certainly
cannot tell us everything he knows about water in that single paragraph. If he did, his
paragraph would look rather too long and would not be interesting to read.
Ideally, this writer, must choose only one of the things he knows about water and talk
about it. In other words, he must limit himself to at least, only one of the things he
knows about water. The writer must limit himself by choosing a controlling idea for his
paragraph.
A controlling idea, as the name suggests, is the idea that is developed in the paragraph.
It is the controlling idea because everything else that is said in the paragraph is related to
it, that is, the controlling idea. The writer, who for example, wants to talk about “water”
can choose a sentence that summarises what he wants to say. This sentence should
summarise all the information he wants the paragraph to contain. He could, for
example, say that “There are three main sources of water”, or that “The three main
sources of water are …”. The controlling idea that the writer has chosen makes it clear
that all the other sentences in his paragraph will talk about the sources of water and only
about the three main sources he has identified. A good controlling idea definitely has
advantages and the good writer should always remember this.
1.3 The Usefulness of the Controlling Idea

The controlling idea is useful because it limits the writer in the sense that it makes him
concentrate on only what he has chosen to talk about. Consequently, he is prevented
from saying everything that he knows about the subject. He should and can only say
what he has told the reader that he is going to talk about (e.g. the three sources of water).
The controlling idea is also useful because it guides him to select only those details that
are related to the controlling idea and therefore prevents him from deviating, that is,
saying things that are irrelevant because they are not related to the controlling idea. It is
clear, therefore, that anything that a writer considers interesting or important, but which
is not related to the controlling idea must be omitted, or must not be included in the
paragraph.
The letter (Appendix 1) contains five paragraphs and each paragraph limits itself to one
controlling idea which forms an aspect of the application letter. In paragraph 2 for
example, the writer tells us only about his education, the type of education he has been
receiving and the various courses he has been undertaking. The paragraph does not talk
about the experience the writer has gained by working during the summer holidays or
about the people he has mentioned as his referees. It concentrates only on what he has
been studying for his Bachelor of Science in Engineering degree, and the first sentence
clearly contains the controlling idea found in the paragraph. Again, we can see that all
the other sentences in the paragraph are related to the sentence that contains the

UNIT 2 THE PARAGRAPH AND THE CONTROLLING IDEA
SESSION 1
controlling idea. They all give us more information about the degree that the applicant
is going to be awarded at the end of his studies and about the courses he has been
pursuing.
The controlling idea guides the writer-in this case the applicant – so that he knows
exactly what to talk about. It restricts and limits the information that he can include in
the paragraph. Thus, he can only tell the reader about the degree and about the courses
and about nothing else. When he finds it necessary to refer to the practical experience
he has acquired by working during the summer vacation, he moves to another paragraph,
paragraph 3.
From what has been said as far, it should have become clear to us that as
students and us teachers of English we must be able to mention the
features of a paragraph and say what a controlling idea is. The controlling idea serves as
a guide and as a limiting device that helps the writer to produce a good paragraph. In the
next session we are going to find out more about the controlling idea and also about the
topic sentence.
Exercise 2.1
1. Give a brief description of a paragraph.
2. Explain what the term “controlling idea” means.
3. Write down a controlling idea for a paragraph entitled “National Farmers Day”.

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) – UNIT 2
SESSION 2: THE TOPIC SENTENCE

In session 1 of this unit we looked at what a paragraph is and also
examined the term “controlling idea” and the need for us to know what it
means. We also drew attention to the fact that as students and as teachers of English we
should be able to identify the controlling idea in the paragraph we read or write. In the
next session, we intend to pay more attention to the controlling idea and relate it to the
topic sentence (implied or stated) of a paragraph.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) identify a topic sentence; and
(b) state the topic sentence for a paragraph you are asked to write.
Now read on …
2.1 The Topic Sentence

Let us begin by studying the paragraph below:
1 There are three reasons why John is not going to the university.” 2 In the first place, his
family is quite poor and since he has four young brothers and sisters still at school, he
feels that he should help his family financially as soon as possible. 3 Secondly, if he
went to the university, his mother would be left alone to look after the young children. 4
Finally, he has been offered a good job with excellent chances of promotion. 5
Consequently, although he wants to go to the university very much, John is going to take
the job instead.
The writer clearly mentions the three reasons why John is not going to the university to
study. These reasons can be found in sentences 2, 3 and 4.
These three sentences together give us information or details that can help us find the
main or controlling idea in the paragraph. A careful study of the paragraph will guide us
to find a sentence that, as it were, is directly related to all the three sentences we have
identified. Sentence 1 easily and undeniably performs this function. It is directly linked
to all the three sentences and sums up the information they contain because it says:
“There are three reasons why John is not going to the university”.
This sentence limits and controls the topic that the paragraph deals with. It restricts the
writer in the sense that he can only talk about the three reasons and about nothing else.
It guides the writer too since it focuses his attention on John and on the three reasons
why he John is not going to the university. The writer cannot mention a fourth reason or
tell us why John, could for instance, enjoy his stay at home. Sentence 1 certainly
contains the controlling idea in the paragraph. It sums up the information in the
paragraph and by so doing, also announces the purpose of the writer. This type of
CoDEUCC/Post-Di plomain Education and Business Studies 31

UNIT 2 THE TOPIC SENTENCE
SESSION 2
sentence is known as the topic sentence – the sentence that limits and controls the topic
in a paragraph.
A well organised paragraph may contain a topic sentence. When it is present
we can find in it the controlling idea that the writer intends to develop and
explain in the rest of the paragraph. Note that not all paragraphs can have a
topic sentence. A narrative or descriptive piece, for example cannot have a clearly
stated topic sentence. The controlling idea may be implied.
The topic sentence can be found at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the
paragraph. Its position in the paragraph is determined by the writer. However, if it is
the first sentence in the paragraph, it forces both the writer and the reader to concentrate
on the topic right at the beginning of the paragraph. Again, the writer is forced to
restrict himself to the topic. Consequently, his chances of deviating or including
material that is not related to the topic are minimized or completely eliminated. The
reader, having been made aware of the topic very early in the paragraph, can also
anticipate what is going to be said and has a very good opportunity of understanding it.
A topic sentence is good and useful if it is clear and tells the reader exactly what he is
going to read about. Thus you must learn to write topic sentences that enable you to
state clearly and precisely the type of information your paragraph contains and which
excludes all information or details that are not necessary because they do not help to
develop or explain the topic.
Here is another example of a topic sentence:
“Some parents can teach their children to value reading”.
Clearly, the writer is not going to say everything he knows about reading, or about
parents, or about children. He is only going to argue that some parents can teach their
children to see how valuable or useful reading is.
On the other hand, the topic sentence, “I saw Mary Mensah last week”, does not appear
to be a good topic sentence and the writer who uses it can say several things about Mary
Mensah and about what happened. He can, for example, write about when he saw her,
what she was doing when he saw her, or the reason why he went to see her. However, if
we changed the topic sentence to read, ‘I heard some good news from Mary Mensah last
week’, we will then make the topic well defined and clear. It now contains just the piece
of information the writer needs to communicate – he heard some good, not bad news or
any type of news from Mary. Again, the writer is going to confine himself to only the
good news he heard last week and at no other time. In other words, as has been
emphasized several times in this session, the topic sentence contains the controlling idea
that guides the writer and limits the topic he intends to develop in the paragraph. The
topic sentence must be clearly stated. You should therefore learn to write a good topic
sentence if you want to write a good paragraph.
Now read the following topic sentence:

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) – UNIT 2
“My father spent the first years of his childhood in Accra”.

Is it a good topic sentence? Give, at least two reasons for your answer.
This topic sentence can be improved upon. One reason is that the topic it contains is not
limited and therefore it allows the reader to make guesses – it does not focus the
reader’s attention on the exact information the write wants to communicate. Many things
happened to the writer’s father when he, the father was a child and lived in Accra. The
writer cannot talk about all these. Were those childhood days spent with
siblings? What did he do? How did he relate with others? The reader is
compelled to ask a lot of questions, therefore, the topic sentence should be re-
written. The topic must be limited. What about this?
“My father spent the first years of a pleasant childhood in Accra”
The new topic is clearly stated, and is limited. Consequently, the reader now knows
exactly what to expect and he can understand the paragraph better.
Let us go over some of the topic sentences we have been examining:

(i) There are three reasons why John is not going to the university.
(ii) I heard some good news from Mary Mensah last week.
(iii) My father spent the first years of a pleasant childhood in Accra.
Notice that all the examples are in sentences. As Peter Carino (1995) explains in his
book Basic Writing a sentence refers to “a group of words expressing a complete
thought”. Therefore when you are practising how to write a topic sentence use complete
sentences. Make your statement complete. This will make it easier for you to write
your paragraph, especially if you decide that your topic sentence should be the first
sentence of your paragraph. In the paragraph below the topic sentence is the first
sentence and it makes a complete statement. The sense in the sentence is complete, the
topic is clear and the reader has no problem understanding what the writer is saying:
Wars have been waged over water. In recent decades, India and Pakistan fought
over rivers they shared; also Israel and Syria, and Iraq and Syria. In 1964, notes
resources expert Richard J. Barnet, in The Lean Years, a water dispute between
two states of the United States led to a legal battle and “language reminiscent of
the sort that France and Germany used to employ just before they went to war.”
(“The aggressive policies of the State of Iowa,” read one Supreme Court brief,
“have caused great consternation to the State of Nebraska and its citizens, and have
threatened to result in armed conflict on the part of landowners and the State of
Iowa and its representatives.”)
CoDEUCC/Post-Di plomain Education and Business Studies 33

UNIT 2 THE TOPIC SENTENCE
SESSION 2
You should also remember that a paragraph is a unit of an essay. It is part of a longer
passage. The essay has its own topic and the topic of the paragraph is closely related to
the topic of the essay. If therefore you learn to write a good topic sentence and a good
paragraph you are, indeed learning to do two important things: write a good thesis for an
essay and to compose a good essay. The essay has its own controlling idea and the
controlling idea of a paragraph, helps to develop the controlling idea of an essay.
Finally, remember the point made earlier on that not all paragraphs can have a topic
sentence. Sometimes the controlling idea is implied and not explicitly stated in one
sentence. In such a case, you have to read the whole paragraph in order to identify the
controlling idea that has been developed in it.
In fact, Marius (1995) argues in A Writer’s Companion that the first sentence of a
paragraph is usually the most important sentence in the paragraph because it contains the
main thought that is developed through the other sentences. The first sentence
expresses a thought, the second picks it up and develops it and this goes on until the
thought is completely developed. You should therefore look out for descriptive,
narrative and other types of paragraphs which do not usually make use of a topic
sentence and then identify the controlling idea.
In this session we have been discussing the importance of a topic

sentence and the relationship between the topic sentence and the
controlling idea of a paragraph. We observed that the topic sentence contains the
controlling idea of a paragraph and that learning to write a good topic sentence helps us
to write a good paragraph.
Exercise 2.2
1. Explain the importance of the topic sentence of a paragraph.
2. Write a topic sentence for a paragraph on AIDS.

UNIT 2
SESSION 3: DEVELOPING THE CONTROLLING IDEA
The topic sentence or the sentence containing the controlling idea is not the
only sentence in the paragraph. There are other sentences in the paragraph
and it is these sentences that support the controlling idea and thereby help to make the
meaning of the topic clear to us. In this session, therefore, we are going to examine the
role of the other sentences in the paragraph.
Objectives
(a) explain the functions of the major and minor support sentences in a
paragraph; and
(b) show the difference between a major support sentence and the topic
sentence.
Now read on …
The topic sentence can also be seen as a general statement (controlling idea) which
appears at the beginning of the paragraph or elsewhere in the paragraph. It is supported
by the other sentences in the paragraph. This support found in the other sentences helps
to make the controlling idea clear to the reader by giving examples, by explaining it, or
adding new information or factual details to it. Since these sentences support the
controlling idea, we can say that they help to develop the paragraph. You should
therefore remember that after stating the controlling idea you must develop it through
the use of supporting details.
Two main types of sentences are used to provide supporting details in the paragraph.
These are:
(i) Major support sentences, and
(ii) Minor support sentences
3.1 Major Support Sentences

A major support sentence is a sentence in the paragraph that is directly related to the
topic sentence or to the controlling idea. A major support sentence helps to develop the
controlling idea of a paragraph by saying something new about it. It adds more
information to the controlling idea and thus helps to make the meaning of the topic
clearer to the reader.
In the paragraph about, John not going to the university (See Unit 2, Session 2, sub-
session 2.1, The Topic Sentence) three reasons are given. The reader should therefore
expect to see three sentences in the paragraph, each saying something new about the

UNIT 2 DEVELOPING THE CONTROLLING IDEA
SESSION 3
controlling idea, or adding more information to it and making the reader know exactly
why John cannot go to the university. These sentence are the major support sentences.
The second sentence, for example, is one of the major support sentences. It is directly
related to the controlling idea because it gives us one reason why John is not going to the
university. Two other sentences, 3 and 4, are also major support sentences. They
mention two more reasons why John is not going to the university. These sentences are
directly related to the controlling idea and help to develop it.
Let us examine another paragraph:

The restaurant did not seem very inviting. The windows looked as if they had not
been cleaned for months. In one of them there was a notice saying “Cook Wanted”.
The words had been clumsily printed on a dirty piece of paper. A little man in a
coat much too big for him stood looking at it for several minutes. At last he seemed
to make up his mind and opened the door.
The controlling idea as expressed by the topic sentence can be found in the very first
sentence: “The restaurant did not seem very inviting”. The second sentence gives us one
reason why the writer did not seem to like the restaurant: the windows had not been
cleaned for a long time. In fact, the place looked dirty and that was why people did not
like to eat there. The second sentence is a major support sentence. It gives the reader a
reason why the restaurant “did not seem very inviting”.
3.2 Minor Support Sentences

Unlike the major support sentence which is directly related to the controlling idea, the
minor support sentence is directly related to the major support sentence. It says
something new about the major support sentence; it adds more information or a
supporting detail to the idea found in the major support sentence and by so doing,
indirectly helps to develop the controlling idea. It is clear that all three types of
sentences, that is, topic, major and minor support sentences, are related since they are all
about the same topic. The difference, however, is that the major support sentence helps
to develop the controlling idea while the minor support sentence helps to develop the
major support sentence.
Here is another paragraph. Read it carefully and identify the various types of sentences:
Topic, Major Support, and Minor Support sentences.

UNIT 2
1 World War (II) provided the stage for five dynamic leaders who will be
remembered differently in history but who shared a charismatic quality that
enabled them to win the support to their people. 2 Hitler, with his animated
oratorical style and promises of German superiority, had the Germans
believing their country’s destiny was to rule all of Europe and set standards
for the world3 . Benito Mussolini, who could be as charming as he was brutal,
roused Italy with promises of a return to the glory of the Roman Empire and
projected an image of military strength and national glory. 4 Franklin
Roosevelt projected a different but equally effective image. With his wheel
5
chair and his weekly “fireside chats” to the American public, Roosevelt was
at once human and wisely paternal. 6 He projected a confidence that America
could do the job, no matter what the job. 7 Like Roosevelt, Winston
Churchill, with his cigars and bowler hats, seemed very human. 8 But
Churchill was as tenacious as a bulldog- and looked a bit like one-and

through his unflinching demeanor and inspiring speeches gave Britons the
confidence that they could stave off the Nazis and ultimately triumph.
The first sentence is obviously the topic sentence. It contains the main idea in the
paragraph. The topic of the paragraph is about four dynamic leaders in history who won
the unflinching support of their people. Note that the paragraph mentions only four
leaders and that these were leaders who, as a result of their charisma, enjoyed the loyalty
of their respective peoples. We expect to see at least four sentences – major support
sentences – which are directly related to the controlling idea and which provide
supporting evidence to prove that what the topic sentence says about the four leaders,
Hitler, Mussolini, Roosevelt and Churchill, is true.
The second sentence is the first major support sentence and it is about Hitler of
Germany. This sentence therefore helps to develop the controlling idea by identifying
Hitler as one of the four leaders referred to. He had charisma and as a result was able to
win the confidence and support of his people. The third sentence is also a major support
sentence and it mentions Mussolini as the second of the four dynamic leaders. The
fourth sentence further develops the controlling idea by showing why Roosevelt
qualifies to be the third of the four dynamic world leaders. The two sentences which
follow the fourth are both about Roosevelt, but these are not major support sentences.
They do not directly develop the controlling idea. They are rather more closely related
to the fourth sentence – a major support sentence-and give the reader more supporting
details to enable him understand why Americans liked Roosevelt – his “popular wheel
chair” and his “fireside chats”.
The fifth sentence is a minor support sentence and tells us that the Americans liked
Roosevelt because he was seen as an extraordinary human being who was also wise and
paternal. The sixth sentence, also a minor support sentence, tells us more about what

SESSION 3
made Roosevelt so popular in America. This sentence adds a new supporting detail to
what we already know. It points out that Roosevelt won the support of Americans also
because he made them have enough confidence in themselves to believe that they could
achieve success in all their endeavours.
Notice that the first two major support sentences (sent 2 and 3) are not developed. No
new information is provided and this is because the writer did not find it necessary to.
However, the third major support is followed by two minor support sentences because
the writer considers the provision of the new details important since they help the reader
to understand what he is saying better.
The seventh sentence is clearly a major support sentence. It adds more information to
the controlling idea expressed in the topic sentences. It also helps to develop the
controlling idea by revealing that Churchill is the last of the four leaders being
described. Note that this sentence begins with the word “Like”, thus introducing an
element of comparison and thereby helping to establish a link between the idea found in
the preceding sentence and the new one. This sentence (7) is followed immediately by a
minor support sentence. (Notice once again the use of an introductory word of special
significance - “But”. This word which begins the sentence actually succeeds in drawing
the reader’s attention to the contrast between Churchill and Roosevelt, that Churchill had
a particular trait that Roosevelt lacked, that unlike Roosevelt Churchill was very
tenacious).
In this paragraph the writer begins by making a general statement (as found in the Topic
Sentence) and then uses supporting details in the Major and Minor supporting sentences
to prove the claim that he makes, that the four leaders he mentions were charismatic and
they enjoyed the loyalty of their country men and women. The major support sentences
directly help to develop the controlling idea, while the minor support sentences (where
present), on the other hand, help to develop the major support sentences. Both the major
and the minor support sentence help to develop the controlling idea.
It is clear that in order to develop that controlling idea of a paragraph
supporting details are needed. These supporting details are usually found
in the major and minor support sentences. A major support sentence is directly related
to the topic sentence which contains the controlling idea, while a minor support sentence
always comes after a major support sentence.
In some paragraphs the idea highlighted in the controlling idea is repeated or reproduced
in the very last sentence of the paragraph. This sentence serves as the summary or
concluding sentence.

UNIT 2
Exercise 1.3
1. Explain the relationship between the topic sentence and the controlling idea
of a paragraph.
2. Describe two ways of developing the controlling idea.

SESSION 3


UNIT 2
SESSION 4: THE GOOD PARAGRAPH
Knowing how to state the controlling idea, or write an acceptable topic

sentence and being able to differentiate between a major support and a
minor support sentence is certainly not enough. You should know what a good
paragraph is and be able to write one. In this session, therefore, we will look at some of
the characterstics of a good paragraph.
Objectives
(a) mention some of the qualities of a good paragraph; and
(b) write a good paragraph.
Now read on …
A good paragraph is one in which the writer carefully selects details and uses them to
develop a central idea. In addition, the topic is easy to identify; it is clearly stated and its
meaning is clear to the reader. Apart from this, the language used is appropriate and the
paragraph is interesting to read. Let us examine some of the attributes of a good
paragraph and find out how these can be achieved.
4.1 Unity
A good paragraph has unity. This means that all the sentences in the paragraph
contribute to the development of the controlling idea, and that there is no sentence in the
paragraph that is not related to the controlling idea. A paragraph that has unity contains
only one topic or main idea and it is this that the paragraph concentrates on throughout,
without deviating from it. All the other sentences in the paragraph support and clarify
the controlling idea or the main thought. The paragraph has its details systematically
presented so that a general statement, for example, is made at the beginning and is
followed by the supporting details, or on the other hand, the supporting details can come
first and the general statement is given at the end of the paragraph. Whatever happens,
all the sentences should be related to the controlling idea and help to develop it. Lack of
unity in a paragraph creates confusion because the reader finds it difficult to know the
purpose of the paragraph and to follow the development of the controlling idea. He may
even not be able to know the meaning of the paragraph. You should therefore ensure
that all sentences or supporting details in your paragraph that do not help to develop the
controlling idea are deleted.
Study this paragraph on cycling and give reasons to show whether or not the writer took
steps to ensure that the paragraph has unity.

UNIT 2 THE GOOD PARAGRAPH
SESSION 4
Cycling is one of the healthiest of sports. Not only does the bicycle bring its
rider into the fresh air of the countryside; it also provides him with vigorous
exercise, and gives him a needed change of scene. There is no better way of
keeping fit than by regular cycle-trips into the country. The best way to clean a
dirty bicycle-chain is to soak it well in paraffin before oiling it. It is essential
to oil a bicycle frequently to keep it in good condition.
The last two sentences do not serve either as major or minor support sentences. They do
not tell the reader anything new about the controlling idea, “Cycling is one of the
healthiest of sports”. The fourth sentence is supposed to be a major support sentence but
the idea in it, the best way of cleaning a dirty bicycle, says nothing new about cycling
being the healthiest of sports. The last sentence is a minor support sentence and helps to
develop the preceding sentence, but it is not related in any way to the controlling idea in
the passage. The last two sentences must therefore be deleted. If the writer realises that
he has not given the reader enough supporting details – to show that cycling is indeed
the healthiest of sports – then he must look for details that are related to the controlling
idea and make use of them. As the paragraph stands, it lacks unity and leaves the reader
wondering what the purpose of the writer is.
4.2 Completeness
Your paragraph must also be complete. This means that the controlling idea must be
completely developed. Development here means, as has been already pointed out, using
enough details, examples, illustrations etc to support the controlling idea in order to
make the reader realize that you have done exactly what you promised to do in the
paragraph. That is, you have satisfied the needs of your reader and as a result he does
not find it necessary to ask for more information or for further explanation or
classification or additional evidence.
The controlling idea in the paragraph below has not been completely developed. All the
information or supporting detail have not been made available by the writer. The reader
therefore finds that his needs have not been satisfied and this makes the paragraph a bad
paragraph.
I admire my friend Richard because he is so talented, intelligent and kind.

He is also very intelligent and can understand complex problems very
quickly.
The controlling idea indicates that Richard is “talented, intelligent and kind”, and this is
why the writer admires him. The reader expects to find three major support sentences,
each one giving him more information about the three characteristics of Richard, but the
writer speaks about only two and does not give the reader enough supporting details to

UNIT 2
enable him believe or accept what is being said about Richard. The paragraph could be
re-written as follows:
I admire my friend Richard because he is so talented, intelligent, and kind. Not
only can he play most sports well, he is also a good musician and actor. He has
always been the best student in his class, and in the recent pre-university
exams, he has placed third in the entire country. Although he is so intelligent
and gifted, he is not standoffish or boastful. Indeed, Richard is one of the
kindest people I know. If anyone is ill, he is always the first to visit him or her,
and if anyone is sad, he is always very quick to cheer him or her up. If a
person has such wonderful qualities, I think you will agree that it is impossible
not to admire him.
The controlling idea has now been fully developed and the reader now clearly
understands the paragraph.
Completeness in a paragraph is achieved through the use of various methods including

supporting details, examples, comparison, contrast etc. The writer has to use concrete or
factual details, examples or stories etc to provide the needed information in the
paragraph. He can compare or contrast two people, things or ideas. Examples or
illustrations given after the general statement help to make the general statement specific
and to make the meaning of the paragraph clearer.
Comparison or contrast brings together two people, things, ideas etc to help the reader
see the difference or similarities between them. Bringing to the notice of the reader
something that is familiar and making him compare this with another thing that is
unfamiliar excites his imagination and makes him anxious to read on. As a writer you
should learn to use some of the methods described to enable you to completely develop
your controlling idea.
4.3 Coherence
The third characteristic of a good paragraph to be discussed is coherence. Good writers
always make a conscious effort through the use of different types of devices to establish
links between the sentences in their paragraphs. They strive to do this because such
links make their paragraphs easy to read since they facilitate the smooth flow of ideas
from one sentence into another. When ideas flow smoothly and effortlessly, the reader
does not feel that he is reading isolated and unconnected sentences. When the sentences
are isolated and not connected the reader gets the impression that something might have
been consciously or unconsciously left out of the paragraph by the writer. In addition,
the reader feels that the writer has, without warning, introduced a new idea or a piece of
unexpected detail. Such problems adversely affect the interest of the reader and his
ability to understand the passage easily.

UNIT 2 THE GOOD PARAGRAPH
SESSION 4
The sentences in your paragraph must therefore be inter-connected. The thought in one
sentence must be logically linked to the thought in the preceding sentence. When you
succeed in doing this, that is making the idea in one sentence flow smoothly into
another, we say your paragraph has coherence.
As Peter Carino (1995) points out, coherence occurs in a paragraph when one sentence
follows logically and clearly from the one before it, and leads likewise to the sentence
following.
In this session, we have looked at three qualities of a good paragraph.

In the next session we will continue to look at the characteristics of a good
paragraph and find out how, as users of English as a second language, we can produce
good paragraphs.
Exercise 2.4
1. What does unity in a paragraph mean?
2. What can you do to make your paragraph complete?

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) – THE
UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH SESSION 5
SESSION 5: WRITING A GOOD PARAGRAPH
In session 4 we looked at some of the characteristics of a good pargraph. We

will continue our discussion by finding out more about it.
Objectives
• explain in detail, the characteristics of a good paragraph.
Now read on …
Let us begin by going over what we said in the last session about coherence. Coherence
in a paragraph refers to the existence of logical connection between the sentences. You
achieve coherence by weaving your sentences together, letting your sentences flow into
each other, or by building bridges between your sentences so that there is a smooth
transition from one sentence to another.
Coherence helps to create continuity of thought in the paragraph so that your sentences
do not appear to be isolated and unconnected. Lack of coherence in a paragraph makes
the movement from sentence to sentence jerky and the reader finds it difficult to follow
the development of your ideas. You must therefore endeavour to make your paragraph
coherent so that the transition from one sentence to another becomes smooth and natural.
Let us now look at some of the things you can do to achieve coherence in your
paragraph.
5.1 Logical Arrangement of Material

The material that you put together in your paragraph should be logically arranged.
Ideas, thoughts etc must follow one another in a logical order, usually in the order that
you want them to be. Ensure however, that there is a logical transition from one to the
other. You could for example arrange the material in an order of importance, or arrange
it chronologically. You could also use the inductive or deductive method of
presentation. We will discuss some of these methods soon.
Repetition of key words: make your paragraph coherent by repeating key words in the
paragraph. The repetition of a word in a new sentence takes the reader back to the
sentence in which the word was originally used and establishes a link between the two
sentences. In the paragraph that follows certain words or a variation of these words are
repeated and this method helps to link the sentences and the ideas together:
Bicycling is a terrific exercise. When you ride a bike you
exercise all the leg muscles and most of the muscles of the upper body.
In addition, bicycling exercises the lungs
and the heart. Thus bicycling is both a muscular and aerobic exercise.

UNIT 2 WRITING A GOOD PARAGRAPH
SESSION 5
“Bicycling” is used in the first sentence. Its repetition in the third sentence establishes a
link between the two sentences and draws our attention to the fact that “bicycling” is the
subject the writer is dealing with. Its appearance in the last sentence reinforces the idea
and links the sentence to the other sentences in the paragraph. Thus, repetition
constantly reminds the reader of the idea being developed and links various parts of the
paragraph together.
5.2 Transition Words or Expressions

Use transition words or expressions to link the sentences in your paragraph together and
establish a logical and smooth transition from one sentence to another. When such
words are missing, your paragraph loses the smooth transition that we have been talking
about. In the paragraph that follows, words such as “And”, “But”, “Or”, “Then” and
“Nevertheless” have been used as transition markers to link the sentences together. Re-
write the paragraph leaving out such words and find out what kind of paragraph you
will be left with.
Many couples who want to adopt a child run into frustrating difficulties.
They may have a comfortable home and financial security. And they may
be loving and generous people. But they may be too old for the standards
set by the adoption agency. Or they may discover that no children are
available. Then, when a child is available, the couple may be charged an
exorbitant fee. Nevertheless, couples who want to adopt a child usually
persevere, and their determination usually pays off.
Transition words and expressions are very important in a paragraph. In addition to

showing connections between sentences, they draw the reader’s attention to the fact that
something new is going to be introduced, that the direction in which the discussion has
been moving is going to be changed and the reader is being prepared or warned to
expect the change. Here are examples of words that can be used to indicate transition:
(a) to show that another point, example etc is being added: in addition, also,
moreover, furthermore, in deed, in fact.
(b) to indicate cause or effect: consequently, as a result, thus, therefore etc.
(c) to show difference: yet, but, however, on the contrary, on the other hand, in
contrast, in spite of, although
(d) to show a return to a point just made: still, nevertheless, notwithstanding
(e) to indicate similarity: alike, in the same way, similarly
(f) to indicate relations in time: afterwards, at last, before, until, years ago
(g) to indicate relations in space: above, adjacent, against, next to, over
(h) to recognize a point just off your main point: of course, no doubt,
certainly, doubtless, granted.

UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH SESSION 5
5.3 N. B.
Remember that knowing these transition words or expressions is just not enough. The real
problem is knowing how to use them appropriately in your paragraph. You should use a
particular word of transition because you believe that it will establish a logical link between
your sentences.
5.4 Order
The next characteristic of a good paragraph that we have to talk about is order. Order refers to
the logical presentation of details, ideas, points etc in a paragraph. If the supporting details in
a paragraph are systematically arranged the reader can follow what the writer is saying
without difficulty. The reader should, for example, find it easy and convenient to move from
the first sentence of the paragraph to the second if the idea in the second sentence is closely
related to the idea in the first. Remember what we said about unity in a paragraph. If the
sentences are closely related because they deal with thoughts, ideas, supporting details that are
related, you would also have order in the paragraph. Remember that being able to present
your ideas in an orderly manner is not enough. The sentences must be linked by cohesive
devices. Use appropriate linking words to join your sentences which have been presented in a
logical manner and you will realise that you are writing a good paragraph. Order in a
paragraph can be achieved if you pay attention to some of the following:
(a) Time - move from one particular time to another, example, morning to evening,
season to season, etc. This is particularly relevant when you are telling a story or
talking about something that has happened.
(b) Space - describe things as they are seen, for example, buildings, objects, places
etc. You may move from left to right, top to bottom etc.
(c) Question and Answer - pose a question and give the expected answer as in a
debate, argument etc.
(d) General statement to particular details - make the general statement and
provide the supporting details later.
(e) Particular details to general statement - begin by giving the supporting details
and move to the general statement.
5.5 Acceptable Language

The four main characteristics of a good paragraph, as we have pointed out, are: unity,
completeness, coherence and order. If you satisfy the demands of all these your
paragraph could be described as good. However, since the English language is not our
first language, and since most of us do not use it with native speaker competence we
have to add a fifth characteristic – good language – to the four. If your language is not

UNIT 2 WRITING A GOOD PARAGRAPH
SESSION 5
acceptable, your paragraph is certainly not going to be accepted as good. We must

therefore pay attention to our language.
Note that you do not merely identify a controlling idea for your paragraph. You
must also be able to state it in a language that is grammatically acceptable and
that is clear and easy to follow. Your sentences must be well constructed and
appropriately punctuated. Your words must also be carefully chosen and correctly used
to convey your ideas. In short, you must, in your paragraph, pay attention not only to
unity, completeness, coherence and order, but also to the correct use of language.
In this session we have had further discussion on the characteristics of a

good paragraph. These have to do with the language use and structure of
the paragraph. It is hoped that you will remember these when you are composing a
paragraph.
Exercise 2.5
1. Describe two methods you would use to achieve order in a paragraph.
2. Give one reason why coherence is important. Write a short paragraph to illustrate
your answer.

UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH SESSION 6
SESSION 6: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT AND

ORGANISATION
As teachers of English we often ask our pupils to write a paragraph on a
given topic, and as students, we have been reading about writing a
paragraph. However, you have to realise, having followed the discussion in this unit up
to this point, that we do not merely write a parapgraph, we develop a paragraph. Let us
now find out more about developing a paragraph. In addition to this, we would also
have noticed by now that a paragraph has its own structure and that it is a well organised
piece of writing. We will therefore also say something about the organisation of a
paragraph.
Objectives
(a) describe, in detail, at least two ways of developing a paragraph; and
(b) comment on the organisation of any given paragraph.
Now read on …
Let us begin by looking at some of the methods adopted to develop a paragraph.
Development, as used here, refers to the use of details, examples and other methods to
support the controlling idea. The controlling idea is supported so that its meaning
becomes clearer, its topic is well explained and the purpose of the writer is realized.
Remember what we said about the relationship between the topic sentence, the major
support sentence and the minor support sentence. By saying something new about the
topic sentence the major support sentence is helping to develop the controlling idea. In
the same way the minor support sentence helps to develop the major support sentence.
Both the major and minor support sentences help to develop the controlling idea. Thus,
we can say that as the major and minor support sentences help to develop the controlling
idea the paragraph itself is being developed. To put it in another way, the major and
minor support sentences combine to develop the paragraph by saying something new
about the controlling idea or the topic sentence.
Each major or minor support sentence contributes to the development of the paragraph
by doing one of the following:
• giving factual or concrete details
• giving examples or illustrations
• defining
• telling a short story or an anecdote
• showing cause and effect
• comparing or contrasting

UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT AND
SESSION 6 ORGANISATION
We should be able to examine every major or minor support sentence and say that it is
supporting another sentence in the paragraph by giving an example or by showing
contrast, etc, etc.
Read the paragraph below carefully and explain how each of the sentences helps to
develop it.
Some American Indians advised young braves not to smoke too much
because tobacco would cut their wind in a hunt or in battle. King James I
of England called smoking “a branch of the sin of drunkenness, which is
the root of all sins”. Ben Jonson, the playwright, said smoking was
“good for nothing but to choke a man and fill him full of smoke and
embers.” Popular slang called cigarette “coffin nails” long before the
medical evidence on the harm from smoking was complete. Now every
package of cigarettes and every advertisement for cigarettes must carry a
warning from the Surgeon General that smoking is injurious of health.
Notice that the topic sentence or the controlling idea, if it is contained in a topic
sentence, makes a general statement and the other sentences provide supporting details.
The supporting details, we are saying, may give examples, show cause or effect, define
etc. That is, they help to develop the paragraph in various ways.
6.1 Different Ways to Developing a Paragraph

A paragraph, as a unit, follows a particular method of development. It can, for example,
be developed through the inductive or deductive method. It can also make use of
comparison, anecdote, concrete details or examples. Let us examine, very briefly, the
way some paragraphs are developed.
6.2 The Deductive Method

In this kind of paragraph the writer begins with a generalization or a general statement.
He could for example say, “All Ghanaians are kind”, and then follow with the
supporting details in the form of examples, factual details etc. which show that in deed,
all Ghanaians are kind. The details which follow the general statement may explain or
prove the assertion made.
6.3 The Inductive Method

The writer can, on the other hand, begin the paragraph with the details, which could
include examples, factual details, stories etc in the various sentences and lead the reader
on to the conclusion that he the writer has in mind, for example, that all Ghanaians are
kind. In this kind of paragraph therefore, the supporting details are mentioned first and
the general statement comes last.

UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH SESSION 6
6.4 Comparison, Contrast

The writer can also develop his paragraph by comparing and contrasting. This kind of
paragraph emphasizes similarities and differences. The writer can compare two people,
two ideas, two objects, etc in order to show how similar or how different they are. Note
that the comparison must be realistic.
6.5 Definition
In this kind of paragraph the writer defines terms, objects, concepts etc to help the reader
understand things much better. The definition should therefore not be so complex as to
make it difficult for the reader to understand what is being defined.
6.6 Classification
When you classify things, your intention is to make complex or complicated information
simpler for the reader to understand. You break down the complex information into
manageable units for the reader and this helps him to follow what you are saying.
Words, for example are classified into smaller units such as verbs, adjectives etc. A
paragraph that uses classification as a method of development should therefore make
complex information simpler for the reader.
6.7 Cause and Effect

This type of paragraph development enables the writer to explain why certain things
happen and the outcome of certain events, decisions, problems etc. It shows the
relationship between an action and what follows the action, a decision and what gives
rise to the decision, etc, etc. This paragraph development also helps the writer to resolve
problems he raises in his paragraph.
6.8 Factual Details

Some paragraphs make use of facts in the form of research findings, dates, figures,
quotations etc. The details help to provide evidence to support claims made by the
writer.
6.9 Examples
Apart from factual details, examples can also be used to develop a paragraph. The
writer cites examples from various sources in order to prove or illustrate a point he has
made.
6.10 Anecdote
A paragraph can also tell a short story which the writer can use to introduce his
controlling idea or to illustrate a point he has made. Such short stories should be
precise, exciting and illustrative. They should be able to capture the reader’s attention
and focus it on the topic he the writer intends to develop.

UNIT 2
6.11 A Combination of Methods

Some paragraphs combine two or more of the methods described in order to develop
their controlling idea. You should be able to point this out and show how effectively the
method has been used.
Finally, before we end this session, let us talk, very briefly, about the organisation of a
paragraph.
6.12 Paragraph Organisation

A paragraph is an organized unit. It has clearly defined parts - the introduction, the main
body or the sentences of development, and the conclusion.
6.13 The Introduction

This is usually made up of the topic sentence, and where there is no topic sentence, the
very first sentence which contains the main thought in the paragraph. The topic
sentence expresses the controlling idea and therefore introduces us to the topic to be
developed in the paragraph. The topic sentence or the introductory sentence is followed
by the sentences of development which constitute the main body.
6.14 The Main Body/Sentences of Development

The sentences, major and minor, which develop the controlling idea, or the sentences
which follow the first sentence, form the main body of the paragraph. These are the
sentences which the writer uses to develop his paragraph and are described as sentences
of development. Finally, we have the last sentence which is the summary sentence.
6.15 Summary Sentence

The summary sentence sums up what has been said in the paragraph. In a way, it is the
repetition of the first or the topic sentence. It is a restatement of the controlling idea and
the writer uses it to tell the reader that he has done just what he set out or promised to
do.
We can illustrate the pattern as follow:

Topic sentence
(a) Major support sentence
i Minor support sentence
(b) Major support sentence
ii Minor support sentence
iii Minor support sentence
(c) Summary sentence

UNIT 2
PARAGRAPH SESSION 6
The number of major or minor support sentences depends on the number of such
sentences found in the paragraph.
In this session we have focused on two things, the various methods of

developing a paragraph, and the organisation of a paragraph.
We hope that you now know what a good paragraph is and can compose one with ease.
Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 2.6
1. Discuss two methods of developing a paragraph.

UNIT 2


DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY
UNIT 3
UNIT 3: DEVELOPMING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY
Unit Outline
Session 1: Identifying and Limiting the Topic
Session 2: Writing the outline to an Essay
Session 3: Writing the Introduction to the Essay
Session 4: Ways of Developing the Essay
Session 5: Writing the Conclusion to an Essay
Session 6: Editing your Essay
Writing is a skill that needs to be developed. It thrives on good

choice and use of words, sentences and paragraphs. The
experienced writer composes his work in such a way that a vivid
picture is created in the minds of his readers.
In this unit, we shall identify some of the parts into which a good writer puts his work in
order to achieve his purpose.
Unit Objectives
i. identify a topic and limit it for an essay.
ii. develop an outline for an essay.
iii. write the introduction of an essay.
iv. describe how an essay is developed.
v. write the conclusion to an essay.
vi. edit and proofread an essay.
CoDEUCC/Post – Diploma in Education and Business Studies 55

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY
UNIT 3


DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY UNIT 3
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: IDENTIFYING AND LIMITING THE TOPIC
Hello, welcome to session one. In this session we shall begin to think

about what to write about in an essay – the topic. Sometimes we have to
decide what to write about. At other times this is determined for us, as in an
examination or an assignment on a specific topic. In this session however we assume
that we are determining what to write. How do we go about it?
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to do the following:
(a) identify or choose a topic for a research essay; and
(b) narrow your topic down to a manageable thesis.
Now read on …
1.1 Finding a Topic

Finding a suitable topic to research is not an easy undertaking. There are times you may
sit and stare at the ceiling expecting some kind of inspiration to come in through the
window. This does not often happen, and so you need to generate ideas for a topic. Let
us look at some of the strategies you can adopt to do this.
1.1.1 Published Sources

As you read journal and newspaper articles, essays and other publications, certain issues
are raised that you may find intriguing. You may question some of these issues. These
questions may help you to identify a researchable topic. For example, a literature
student reading Wole Sonynika’s The Interpreters and Ayi Kwsei Armah’s The
Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born observed the preponderance of descriptions of filth
and putrefaction in the novels. He proceeded to ask the following questions: “In what
ways do these writers describe putrefaction in the novels”. “Why do these writers give a
lot of space to describing putrefaction”? From these he developed the topic “The
significance of putrefaction in Wole Soyinka’s The Interpreters and Ayi Kwsei Armah’s
The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born”. Published sources may include journals,
newspapers, novels, etc.
1.1.2 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is another way of generating ideas for an essay. Brainstorming involves a
freewheeling of ideas which you list as you think of them. This kind of exercise is more
effective when it is done in a group. The group members collaborate in the generation
of the ideas. In this exercise, ensure that all ideas contributed are listed. Here is a list
generated by a group of students on the topic “Contemporary Ghanaian Music”

UNIT 3 IDENTIFYING AND LIMITING THE TOPIC
SESSION 1
Highlife Music
Hip-pop Music
Lyrics or original highlife moralistic
Message in hip-pop
Objections to lyrics in modern hip-hop
Sydney’s ‘Apuskeleke’
Social criticism in lyrics
Bugger highlife – a mixture of Western and Highlife
Gospel Music
Traditional Music
Ghanaian Reggae
Once such a list has been generated you can review it, reject some of the
items, expand on others, and put them into groups. Try doing this now.
Discuss your response with your tutor during the next face-to-face.
1.1.3 Our Community

The community is a wonderful source of researchable ideas. If we accept the saying that
the essence of knowledge is to improve society, then whatever we write about needs to
relate to our environment and community. In much the same way there is a lot of
researchable material around us. From the environment, through our political set up we
have issues that can form the basis of our research.
1.2 Limiting the Topic

Limiting or narrowing a topic involves focusing it to manageable bounds. If you
attempt to write on a topic that is too broad, there is the likelihood that you might never
finish writing your essay, as there will be too many aspects of your topic to deal with.
In university writing, you may probably be given one of the following to do. They are
arranged from the broadest to the narrowest in scope.
(a) a free choice of subject to write on;
(b) a broad subject area to deal with. Example “contemporary Ghanaian Music”
(c) a more focused or specific topic such as “the lyrics of Ghanaian Hip-pop music.
(d) a definite essay question to answer, such as “discuss the effects of the lyrics of
Ghanaian hip pop music on the youth”.
You need to maintain this continuum from broad to narrow in planning and writing your
essay. If you are given a free choice of subject, you need to find a broad subject area,
then narrow it to a specific aspect of the subject then to a focused topic or question.
Let us look at our ideas derived from the brainstorming on “Contemporary Ghanaian
Music”. We can move from broad to narrow topic in the following way.

SESSION 1
Contemporary Ghanaian Music – Broad subject area
Ghanaian hip-pop Music – Narrower
The Lyrics of hip-pop music – Still narrower
The effects of the lyrics of hip pop music – Specific topic which can be
on the youth framed as a question
Appears so easy, isn’t it? Now you have to try it yourself. Find a broad subject
area and then narrow it down to a specific topic.
To write a good essay, it is essential to find a manageable topic. There are

some strategies for finding a good topic. First of all you can find a researchable
topic from publications like journals, magazines, articles in newspapers etc. Some of the
issues raised in these publications can form the basis of your investigation. Brainstorming –
the freewheeling and listing of ideas on an issue is another means of finding a topic. Yet
another source is your own community. A topic needs to be narrowed down to manageable
bounds. Normally, you start from a broad subject area and then narrow it down to a specific
aspect, then an actual topic or question.
Exercise 3.1
Write down five possible topics on the following subject area “Environmental
Pollution”

UNIT 3 IDENTIFYING AND LIMITING THE TOPIC
SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: WRITING THE OUTLINE TO AN ESSAY
Welcome to session two. In this session we shall look at the plan of an essay
– The Outline. I shall take you through the processes involved in developing
an outline for a good essay.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to develop a good outline for an
essay.
Now read on …
2.1 What is an Outline?

In an essay you try to present information that you have gathered. To do this
systematically and effectively it is essential to organize the information you have
collected in a form that will help you write a well-organized essay. Such a form is the
outline, a plan of your essay. The outline is a step-by-step plan of your essay, and it
makes it easier for you to write a good essay. How do we write an outline?
2.1.1 Labeling
You have collected a great deal of information, all mixed up. What you want to do is to
start by labeling the information. There are main points and supporting points. You
need to identify each and label it accordingly. Main points are normally given big
Roman numbers, followed by big capital letters for major supporting points, then Arabic
numerals for minor supporting points, small letters for examples and so forth. Here is
the order.
I. Main Point
A. First major support
1. First minor support
a. example
b. example
B. Second major support

1. First minor support
a. example
b. example
2. Second minor support

a. Example

UNIT 3 WRITING THE OUTLINE TO AN ESSAY
SESSION 2
What do you observe about this arrangement? Check your answers against mine below:
1. There is indentation at each level. This is to ensure a graphic distinction between
the points.
2. We move from big numbers or capital letters to smaller ones.
As you can see, the outline is a graphic presentation of your ideas, so that just by looking
at it, you can say which is a major point and which is a minor one. Let us look at how
this works in practice.
Examine how the points are set out in the following outline on the topic “Becoming a
Better Basic School Teacher”
BECOMING A BETTER BASIC SCHOOL TEACHER
Introduction – becoming a better basic school teacher requires that the teacher acquires
attributes like knowing his subject and his pupils very well, devoting time to his work
and being a role model.
I. Teacher needs to know his subject very well.

A. He should always research his subject.
1. New knowledge is evolving everyday.
II. Teacher needs to know his pupils very well.

A. He should know the strengths and weaknesses of his pupils.
1. Some pupils have peculiar problems.
III. Teacher should devote time to his work.
IV. Teacher should be a role model.

A. He should lead a life worthy of emulation.
1. He should not drink and smoke in school.
2. He should dress and act in an exemplary manner.
What are some of the things you observe in this outline? Let us identify them together.
First we observe that there is some kind of indentation. The main points are closer to the
left margin than the sub-points. We can say that the farther a point is from the margin,
the farther it is from being a main point. Secondly we observe that the sentences are as
parallel as possible. Observe for instance that each main point begins with “Teacher”.
Similarly each of the sub-points has the construction “He should”. It is not always that
the points should be written as complete sentences. We could have written the points in
short phrases. This is called a topic outline.
I. needs to know his subject

SESSION 2
A. Always to research his subject.

1. New knowledge added everyday.
etc.
I would like to warn that the outline should contain the real information that will go into your
essay, not a mere statement of the approach. For example, the following is an example of a
bad outline and you should avoid writing like this.
MILITARY DICTATORSHIP IN AFRICA
Provide an Introduction
I. Definition of military dictatorship.
II. Military dictators in Africa

A. The personalities
B. The countries they ruled
III. Problems caused by military dictators

etc.
What would go into the introduction? How would you define military dictatorship? Who are
some of the dictators? You should specify these.
The outline is a graphic presentation of the ideas that go into your essay. It helps you to write
a well-organized essay. Practise writing outlines and you will be able to present very good
essays.
The outline is a step-by-step plan of the essay, and it is intended to help you
write a well organize essay. In writing an outline, you start by labeling your
points, by giving different forms of numbers and letters to the different categories of points –
main points, sub-points, examples etc. Ensure that the outline is easy to read by maintaining
as much as possible, parallel sentence structures. You can also write the outline using
phrases. In your outline, avoid the approach to your essay rather than the points that will go
into your essay.
Exercise 3.2
Write an outline for an essay on the following topic: “Three advantages of distance learning”.

UNIT 3 WRITING THE OUTLINE TO AN ESSAY
SESSION 2


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION TO THE ESSAY
Hello, In this session we will discuss the introduction to your essay. You
have gathered so much information on your topic, and written an outline.
The next thing is to begin, so let us begin.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to write an effective introduction
to an essay.
Now read on …
3.1 What is the Introduction?

Imagine you are having fun at the beach one fine afternoon and a young man comes to
you and says “All politicians should be sent to court and tried for misleading people”.
What would be your reaction? Shock! You would ask him where this is coming from.
You might think him crazy. This is because he has provided no lead into his statement.
He did not introduce his opinion – you are suddenly confronted with a bizarre idea. An
introduction leads the reader into your thesis and provides an interesting context for it.
3.2 Requirements of a Good Introduction

A good introduction should not re-state the topic. Nothing is more irritating than a
paragraph that merely restates the obvious. You need to do two things in your
introduction.
1. Interest your reader and
2. State your thesis
First, you should catch the attention of your reader by presenting him with something
interesting, something that will make him want to read on. A few of the ways in which
you can do this are presented later. But for the moment let us turn to the thesis.
3.2.1 Thesis Statement

The thesis is normally presented in what is called a thesis statement. The thesis
statement is like a topic sentence for the whole essay (refer to unit 5 session one). The
thesis statement can be written in many forms. Certain very sophisticated essays may
only have an implied thesis statement. The thesis may not be explicitly stated. In some
essays it may be stated briefly in a single sentence after an introduction that may be
quite simple or very elaborate. In other essays the main idea may be so complicated that
several sentences are required for the thesis statement.
Most writers suggest that you be explicit in your thesis statement. They prefer that you
outline the main points in your thesis statement. Here are some examples:

UNIT 3 WRITING THE INTRODUCTION TO AN ESSAY
SESSION 3
Looking back now, I can see the advantages of growing up in a small

town: first, you get to know the people – know them very well;
secondly, you have a great deal of freedom; and thirdly – odd as it may
seem – you are never bored, simply because there is so such to do.
To survive in the desert, a person has to know where to find three

things; food, water and shelter.
Jazz musician Charlie “Yard bird” Parker’s life can be summed up by

its three main crucial periods; his childhood in Kansas City; his
successful years as a recording artist; and the years of his decline.
The important factors in flower arranging are materials, containers,

water and techniques.
3.3 Types of Introduction

Below are some types of introduction. But keep in mind, however, that the best type of
introduction for a beginner writer is the one-sentence type, listing the main points to be
discussed in the essay.
3.3.1 Narrative Introduction

It normally begins with a brief story, a relevant anecdote that sets the stage for the thesis
statement at the end of the paragraph. The following introduction presents an anecdote
that leads smoothly into the thesis statement. The idea here is one paragraph. The break
occurs because of the dialogue.
The scene was a shopping centre near Baltimore, Maryland.

George Wallace had just finished making a campaign speech.
As he stepped from behind his bulletproof podium and walked across the
platform to the stairs, he removed his coat and for a moment he stood there,
a short, heavily built man with a blunt face and dark, balding hair. His
supporters still cheered. Surrounded by Secret Service Agents and
Alabama State Troopers in plain clothes, he went down the stairs, smiling
and into the crowed. He touched outstretched hands as the people surged
around him. ‘Hey, George!
George! He turned toward the cry, to his right, reached out… And a gun
exploded at his stomach. “My God! Oh my God!” But it was far too late.
Another American politician had been shot down – not killed, but
permanently crippled. And again it was time to bring out the arguments for
stricter gun control laws.

SESSION 3
3.3.2 The Expository Introduction

The expository introduction comes in various forms. It could be a CATCHY PHRASE as in
the following.
Robert Havemann, the scientist could never be compared to Galileo, but

Robert Havemann the heretic is more remarkable. He has refused to recant.
(THESIS STATEMENT)
Wells Hangen, “Stirrings behind the wall: East

Germany’s Muted Revolution”.11
It could also be a DESCRIPTION as in the following
On vacation in rural New England, the President of an Eastern University

woke up one night with sharp abdominal pains. He got to the nearest
hospital, where a local technician took a sample of his blood and confirmed
the doctor’s verdict; appendicitis. Everything was being readied for the
operator, when the surgeon learned that his patient, like himself, was a
Rotarian. At this news he paused.
“Better do that blood test again”, he said thoughtfully. “The lab girl isn’t
very good”. A fresh sample was taken, and this time the white count
proved normal. His appendix in fine shape – he had nothing more than
indigestion – the educator left the hospital with his faith in Rotarians
unshaken. But he vowed never again to place blind trust in a medical
laboratory (THESIS STATEMENT).
Haya Pines, Danger in or Medical Labs 12
An expository introduction can also be a direct quotation. Such a quotation can be from either
a literary source or from a recognized figure.
“It’s not my fault! Nothing in this lousy world is my fault, don’t you
see that? I don’t want it to be and it can’t be and it won’t be. This
outcry comes from Kerouze’s Sal Paradise, but it expresses the deep
conviction of multitudes of the irresponsible in the age of self-pity. It is
curious paradox that, while the self is2 in the centre of all things, the
self is never to blame for anything (THESIS STATEMENT).
Robert Elliot Pitch, The Irresponsible 13
Another type of expository introduction is the type that PRESENTS SURPRISING

statistics as we find in the extract below.

UNIT 3 WRITING THE INTRODUCTION TO AN ESSAY
SESSION 3
Over one million Americans have already been slaughtered in highway accidents. A
million more will be killed over the next 15 years. Irate safety experts say that fully
two-thirds of all traffic victims could be spared their lives if auto manufacturers could
place less emphasis on styling and more on crash-worthiness.14
Ralph Ginzburg, S.O. B. Detroit
It is essential to write a good introduction to your essay, that will interest

your reader and state your thesis. The thesis statement states the main
idea (s) that your essay will be concerned with. The thesis essay may be a short precise
statement or it may run into paragraphs depending on whether you are writing a simple
essay or a more complex one. There are different types of introduction. These include
the narrative and expository introductions. The expository introduction can present
either a catchy phrase, a description, a direct quotation or surprising statistics.
Exercise 3.3
Write the introduction to an essay on the following Topic:
What interests me most about the Distance Learning DBE Programme”. You may use
any of the types of introduction you find convenient.
Discuss your introduction with your tutor during your next face-to-face session.

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: WAYS OF DEVELOPING THE ESSAY
Welcome. We now enter the area of the body of the essay itself. We will
look at the various methods you can use to develop your essay.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to use any one of seven
methods to develop your essay.
Now read on …
4.1 Choosing the Method

When you write an essay, you want to present your ideas in an organized convincing
manner. You try to show your reader that your opinion is well founded and is supported
by experience, knowledge, logical arguments, examples etc. You need a method that
will help you to do this. This session will show you how to do this.
4.2 Methods
4.2.1 Description
In this type of essay, you can use vivid concrete details to make your point. Remember
you are not describing merely for the sake of description but to make a point. For
example, a student begins an essay on “Accra the Capital” in the following way:
To a casual visitor, the ceremonial streets of Accra and the plush residential
areas might give the impression of a neat and well-planned city. However,
a ride through the by-streets and the crowded business centre of the city
reveals filth and disorder. The offensive stench of the Korle Lagoon and
the little choked gutters that struggle to feed it with their brakish waters is
likely to put off the most well-meaning visitor.
Can you guess what the rest of the essay will say?
4.2.2 Narration
Narration recounts an incident, a series of incidents or the steps in a process. It is the
method of writing you would find for instance in essays based on personal experience.
The narrative detail in an essay is used to make a point. You would also find a good
deal of narration in essays in history, literature, description of processes etc.
Ekow is linguistically versatile because he grew up in different parts of the

country. Born in Koforidua in 1971, he was taken to Wa five months later
where he mastered Wali, the language of the Wala boys with whom he

UNIT 3 WAYS OF DEVELOPING THE ESSAY
SESSION 4
attended school. Later, he found himself in secondary school in Tamale

where he learned Dagbani and Hausa. During vacations, he stayed with his
uncle in Kumasi…
4.2.3 Example
The use of illustration is the commonest method of development. You are however
advised to develop your examples fully so that they can serve their proper purpose.
Every conceivable item that has been used elsewhere appears to find itself
in Ghana to be re-used, and our laws do not prevent these items from being
brought into the country… from old newspapers, handkerchiefs, socks,
panties, brassieres, singlets, face towels, bed sheets, …engines, car parts,
batteries, tyres, tail lights, … they are all allowed into the country. Is
Ghana not secondhand?
“Is Ghana secondhand?” Daily Graphic July 13, 2004.
4.2.4 Comparison and Contrast

When you make a comparison and contrast between two people or things, you examine
similarities and differences. There are two possible ways of doing this.
(a) you can deal with each subject one at a time in a block style of organization,
perhaps summarizing the similarities and differences at the end; or
(b) you can select and organize the important points of similarity or difference in a
point-by-point style of organization, referring within each point to both subjects.
For example in comparing large cars with small cars, you may describe all the features
of a large car and all the features of a small car showing where they are similar and
where they are different, or you may take the features one after the other and state the
difference and similarity. For instance you may consider points like maneuverability,
maintenance, fuel consumption etc.
4.2.5 Definition
You can effectively classify and develop a topic by defining the terms used.
By faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a
majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some
common impulse or passion or of interest adverse to the right of other
citizens, or the permanent and aggregate interest of the community.
James Madison, The Federalist No 10.

SESSION 4
4.2.6 Cause and Effect

You do make cause and effect connections constantly in your speech and writing. They
are signaled by such common transitional expressions as “because,” “therefore,”
“consequently,” “as a result of” etc. Cause and effect connections make a narrative or
an essay coherent.
The real causes of the spread of HIV lie deeper than sexual promiscuity.
They can be found in the kind of poverty that drives a family to push its
daughter into the beds of men, they can be found in the traditions that
make a woman subservient and docile, so she has no say in whether a
man uses a condom or not.
4.2.7 Analysis (Division and Classification)

Analysis is the process of breaking a subject into its component parts. Analysis is an
effective way of organization complex topics or subjects. In analysis the writer splits
the subject into smaller parts in the topic sentence and then develops each part in turn,
using any suitable method of development. In the example below the writer uses both
definition and example to support his subordinate points.
Students of language generally recognize two levels of usage of English:

standard and substandard. Standard English is the type typically found in
books, magazines, newspapers, or in the conversation of educated
persons. Substandard English, as its name suggests is used by persons of
limited education. It is mainly spoken, for those who use it to do not
generally have occasion to write other than personal letters; and it is
usually confined to small geographical areas. Such constructions as
“Him and me was read scairt”, “she ain’t given to do it”, and “He did it
hisself,” marked by localisms and double negatives, are representative of
the kinds of words and phrases classified as substandard English usage.
In writing an essay, you need to choose a method that will help you present
your ideas logically and coherently. There are various methods for doing
this. These include description, narration, example, comparison and contrast, definition
and cause and effect.

UNIT 3 WAYS OF DEVELOPING THE ESSAY
SESSION 4
Exercise 3.4
Say what method has been used to develop each of the following:
1. Jonathan is an articulate, intelligent, thirty-five-year-old man who has used a
wheelchair since he became a paraplegic when he was twenty years old. He
recalls taking an able bodied woman out to dinner in a nice restaurant. When the
waitress came to take their order, she patronizingly asked his date, “And what
would he like to eat for dinner?” At the end of the meal, the waitress presented
Jonathan’s date with the check and thanked her for her patronage. Although it
may be hard to believe the insensitivity of the waitress, this incident is not an
isolated one. Rather such an experience is a common one for persons with
disabilities.
Dawn O Braithwaits, “Viewing Persons with Disabilities as a Culture”
2. If you want your hard-cooked eggs to taste good, don’t boil them. If you do, the
whites will be leathery. Put the eggs in a saucepan, cover them with water, and
add a pinch of salt to keep the shells from cracking. Bring the water rapidly to a
simmer, reduce the heat and continue to simmer for 15 minutes. Immediately after
removing the eggs from the heat, drop them into cold water to make them easier to
shell and to reduce darkening of the yolks.

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: WRITING THE CONCLUSION TO AN ESSAY
Welcome dear student. In this session we shall learn how to effectively

conclude our essay.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to write an effective conclusion to
an essay.
Now read on …
5.1 What is the Conclusion?

It is a formal signal that you have finished saying what you set out to say in your essay.
A good conclusion should provide a sense of finality to the essay. The conclusion
provides an exit for both the writer and the reader.
5.2 Requirements of a Good Conclusion

5.2.1 It should summarize your points
The last paragraph should drive home your main points by summarizing or restating
your thesis. Do not introduce a new idea here, as it will have to be developed.
5.2.2 You should use appropriate transitional markers

To lead smoothly into your final paragraph, use the appropriate transitional markers:
“then”, “finally”, “in short”, “therefore”. (Not in conclusion which is normally reserved
for longer works).
Thus the idea of festival for development is worth pursuing, as festivals
provide the for the return of natives, a convivial atmosphere for informal
deliberations and a sense of belonging which is essential for commitment to
the development of one’s homeland.
It is not always that you find transitional markers at the beginnings of essays. In
particular, professional writers tend to dispense with such markers. They are often
implied in some of the subtler devices they use.
5.2.3 It should end on a strong note

End your essay on a strong note: a quotation, a question, a suggestion, a humorous
comment, a call to action etc.

UNIT 3 WRITING THE CONCLUSION TO AN ESSAY
SESSION 5
5.3 Pitfalls to Avoid

(a) Do not apologize for the inadequacy of your argument, or for holding
your opinions.
(b) Do not use the identical wording you used in your introduction.
(c) Be careful you don’t contradict what you have said earlier.
The conclusion provides a sense of finality and an exit for both writer and
reader. A good conclusion requires that you summarize your points and
restate your thesis, use appropriate transitional markers and end on a strong note. There
are a number of pitfalls you need to avoid in your conclusion
Exercise 3.5
1. Write the conclusion to an essay on the topic “Juvenile delinquency is on the rise
in Ghana”.
2. State what is wrong with the following conclusion, considering that the writer
developed the points in the introduction in his essay.
Introduction: “Growing up in Cape Coast is the best thing that has happened to
me, as it afforded me the opportunity to experience the serenity of a small town,
contact with the international society and the pursuit of a good education”.
Conclusion: Thus it has been a wonderful experience growing up in Cape Coast

because it gave me the serenity of a small town, contact with the international
world and also it helped me to pursue a good education. One should not forget the
proximity of the town to the sea, which made me have a lot of fun as a child.
74 CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Education and Business Studies

SESSION 6
SESSION 6: EDITING YOUR ESSAY
This is the final session of our unit on writing the essay. You have finished
writing. What next? Your essay may contain errors. This session deals
with editing the essay.
Objective
By the end of the session, it is envisaged that you will be able to edit your essay
and those of others.
Now read on …
6.1 Editing – What is it?

Editing does not only involve correcting grammatical, punctuation and spelling errors.
It also has to do with examining your draft for stylistic changes and sentence structure.
Editing is important in that errors in a text are distracting; they shift the reader’s
attention away from your ideas and towards you as a writer.
6.2 The Process of Editing

(a) Sometimes reading your essay aloud will help you find badly constructed
sentences. Re-write these sentences correctly.
(b) You should also read more slowly – do not rush through as you are most
likely to miss some of your mistakes.
(c) Learn to use editing symbols, as for example:
(٨) for omission
( ) link up the two paragraphs or sentences
(/ /) New paragraph
These are only a few of the conventional editing symbols. Learn to use them
sometimes. You can develop a few of your own.
Ask yourself the following questions:
(a) What is my thesis? Where is it expressed?
(b) What evidence and specific supporting detail are offered for the opinions
expressed?
(c) Are the points clear, convincing and logical?
(d) Is each paragraph unified, developed and coherent?
(e) Do connections and transitions give the paragraphs and the overall essay
a logical flow?
(f) Does the essay have a strong conclusion and an engaging title that fits the
subject matter?
(g) Is the essay free of errors in spelling, punctuation, mechanics and grammar?

UNIT 3 EDITING YOUR ESSAY
SESSION 6
Editing involves correcting errors of grammar, punctuation and mechanics

as well as revising a sentence for stylistic effect. In editing you are advised
to read aloud, not to rush through, and to learn and use the conventional editing symbols.
There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself as you edit. These will guide
you to effectively edit your work.
Exercise 3.6
Edit the following paragraph using the appropriate symbol:
When my grandmother visited us last week after four years, she exempted to see young
children in the house. To her surprise, we had all grown so big.
“What do you feed them?” She asked my father? “Nothing”, Dad replied, “but the kind
of food you fed me as a baby”. We could not help laughing at this grandma joined in
the laughter, and soon we had a happy house.

LETTER WRITING
UNIT 4
UNIT 4: LETTER WRITING
Unit Outline
Session 1: Informal Letters 1 – Features
Session 2: Informal Letters 2 - Introduction
Session 3: Informal Letters – Expression
Session 4: Formal Letters - Features
Session 5: Formal Letters – Introduction
Session 6: Formal Letters 3: Language
Communication may be face-to-face or distant. If communication is

face-to-face, a few things may be taken for granted because certain
gestures, tone of voice, body language etc. add meaning to what we wish to say.
However, it communication involves people at a distance, then it is necessary to express
every idea and feelings clearly. Therefore, writing a letter to a friend involves a lot of
skill. This unit is structured to guide readers to acquire the skills of writing letters.
Unit Objectives
i. Identify and describe the major features of an informal letter.
ii. Describe and compose the introduction of an informal letter.
iii. Describe the nature of the expression in the informal letter.
iv. Describe the features of a formal letter.
v. Describe and compose the introduction of a formal letter.
vi. Identify and describe the language of a formal letter.
CoDEUCC/Post – Diploma in Education and Business Studies 77

LETTER WRITING
UNIT 4


LETTER WRITING UNIT 4
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: INFORMAL LETTERS 1 – FEATURES
Letters are generally divided into two main groups: personal/informal

letters and formal correspondence. The former is normally between
individuals while the latter is between an individual and an institution or between two or
more institutions. In this first session of the unit, we will examine the features of
informal letters.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to
a) identify the main features of a personal letter, and
b) produce a personal letter with appropriate features.
Now read on…
1.1 Types of Personal Letters

It is useful to identify, for the purpose of choosing appropriate tone for a personal letter,
three kinds of informal letters, namely,
a) letters written to our contemporaries, for example, personal friends, brothers
and sisters, school and work-place mates, etc.
b) letters meant for older persons such as parents, uncles and aunts, etc, and
c) letters for younger relatives such as nephews and nieces, etc.
1.2 Features of Informal Letters

Letters, unlike other types of writing, are characterized by the unique features below:
1.2.1 The Writer’s Address

An address deals with the details of where a person may be found and where letters and
parcels may be delivered. An address, therefore, does not include the writer’s name.
The writer’s address, where a reply may he directed, is written on the top right corner of
the writing sheet. It may be set out blocked as follows:
Tropical School of Agriculture,
Post Office Box 17,
Talefa.
or slanted as follows:
Tropical School of Agriculture

Post Office Box 17
Talefa

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS 1 – FEATURES
SESSION 1
The address may be punctuated as in the blocked example, or not punctuated as in the
slanted example above. Now write down an example of an address.
1.2.2 The Date

A letter must always be dated. To make the date stand out, it is written on the second
line below the address. The date may either be written, for example, as 4th May, 2011 or
May 4, 2011.
Note that the comma after 4 in the latter is obligatory. Why?

Which of these two do you often use?
Now write down an address and a date. Remember that the date is not
part of the address.
1.2.3 The Salutation

The salutation is the introductory phrase such as Dear Tom. For contemporaries, we
may have such phrases as: Dearest Lizzy, Dear Kofi, (that is dear + the first name) or
Dear Fatty (that is dear + a nickname). For older relations we may have: My dear father,
Dear Uncle Ben, Dear Aunt Betty or Dear Grandpa, etc. For younger relations, we may
have: My dear Nephew, Dearest Niece, (that is dear + relation marker – nephew/niece +
or – first name or nickname, e.g. My dear niece Tinny,). Salutations often set the tone
for the letter.
Now write down an example of salutation for each of the three categories of persons in
personal letters.
1.2.4 The Body of the Letter

The body of a personal letter may begin with opening greetings or personal remarks
followed by several points we intend to explore with each main point presented in a
separate paragraph. It generally ends with closing greetings or remarks.
1.2.5 The Conclusion or Subscription

There is always a close correspondence between the Salutation and the Subscription. A
salutation such as Dear Nicky or Dearest Floy, etc. is usually followed by such a
subscription as Yours sincerely, Yours ever, Sincerely yours,
plus a first name or a nick-name. My dear son, My dearest daughter etc may be
followed by Your affectionate father, mother usually with no name added since
everyone has only one biological father and mother. But ‘My dear Aunt’ will take Your
nephew/niece plus first name, Kwame or Ama. A letter originating from, for example,
your aunt or uncle may begin with Dear Kofi, Dearest Ama, and end with Your uncle,
80 CoDEUCC/Post–Di pl oma in Education and Business Studies

SESSION 1
aunt followed by the surname, Boateng. For women, the first name is usually used such
as Your aunt Mercy.
The punctuation in this part of the letter depends on whether we use an adjectival or
adverbial construction. An adjectival construction requires no comma. For example:
Your sincere
Tom/Jane
A comma is required in an adverbial construction. For example;

Yours sincerely,
Nicky/Fatty.
An informal or personal letter is usually between two persons. This

kind of letter is characterised by an address, a date, a salutation, the
body of the letter and the subscription. In the next session, we will examine the
introduction of personal letters.
Exercise 4.1
1. a) List the features of Informal Letters.
b) For each feature write down an example.
2. Why is it improper to use our father’s first name or nickname in the salutation?
3. When would you use the comma (,) in the subscription?

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS 1 – FEATURES
SESSION 1
This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics, if any.

SESSION 2
SESSION 2: INFORMAL LETTERS 2 - INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Session 2 of the first Unit. In the first session, we

identified two types of letters, personal and formal letters. How do we
distinguish an informal letter from a formal one? List the features of a personal letter.
In this session, we shall look at the INTRODUCTION of a personal letter.
Objectives
a. state the important functions of introductions; and
b. write appropriate introductions to personal letters.
Now read on…
2.1 What is an Introduction?

In written communication, an introduction generally helps the writer to plan the content
of his/her message and how to present it so that it reads as a clear, organised and orderly
piece. A good introduction also helps the reader to anticipate what is to come. If a writer
intimates in his introduction three reasons why a local festival should be encouraged,
this guides the reader as to the number of reasons he/she should expect at the end of the
write up.
2.2 Introduction in Informal Letters

One central distinguishing feature of personal letters is the establishment of rapport
between the writer and the reader. This is done through the opening greetings. An
introduction in an informal letter has dual functions: to establish rapport and to convey
the points in the message. In the rest of the session, we shall illustrate how these dual
functions are performed in the three types of personal letters we identified in the
previous session. Can you list these three types of informal letters?
2.3 Introduction of Letters to Contemporaries

You remember a person’s contemporaries are people who are approximately the same
age as he or she is, for example, your brothers and sisters, your school and classmates,
or your work-place mates. Can you suggest any other group of your contemporaries?
Now write down two examples of salutations for one’s contemporaries.
The salutation and the introduction of letters meant for contemporaries may take the
following form:

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS 2 - INTRODUCTION
SESSION 2
Hi! Nicky,
I bet you’re dying to hear I’ve arrived safely back in school. How’s your
broken arm you suffered during our adventure into miserly Mr. Adam’s
mango farm? I hope it’s mending fast and the truth of your broken limb
remains an impenetrable secret. I can still hear your dear mum’s wailing
voice, poor soul, while you sat grumpy as if you were going to give up the
ghost the next minute. It was so ridiculous. But how’s Lucy? And your old
man’s not yet returned? My love to all at home. The purpose of my present
letter is to tell you about the adventures of my truck ride to school.
What is the relationship between Nicky and the writer? How do you know?
How does the writer establish rapport with Nicky? Do you think he has been
successful? Quote the sentence that performs the general introductory function.
Now write an introduction for a letter to your friend about how you
intend to spend the Christmas.
2.4 Introduction of Letters to Older Relatives

Which people would you regard as older relatives?
Here is an example of an introduction for a letter to an older relative:
My dear Uncle Gake,

I was most excited when Miss Janet Odoom brought me a big parcel of
provisions and a generous amount of pocket money. How can I thank you
and Aunt Dorothy enough for your generosity to me since I have entered
Adiseco Senior High School? I am certain you always say a prayer or two
for me as you retire to bed. I pray to God everyday that He should give you
a good bill of true health and pay you back one thousand times for all the
good things you have been doing in my life. Uncle and Aunt, accept my
sincerest thanks. My purpose for writing this letter now is to seek your
advice on the choice of my future career.
What are the qualities in the paragraph above that make it a good example of personal
letters? Examine (1) the salutation; (2) the abundant supply of opening pleasantries; (3)
the passion of the writer; (4) the clear indication of what the body of the letter is going
to deal with.
Now draft a letter to an older relative abroad and indicate in your

introduction to him/her how you intend to spend your coming holidays.

SESSION 2
2.5 Introduction of Letters to Younger Relatives

A letter originating from a father, a mother, an uncle, and aunt or a father’s/mother’s
friend or similar relations can now be considered. Here is an example.
My dear young Kwesi,

When I picked your first term school report I couldn’t help exclaiming,
‘Wow! What a junior mathematician we have in our midst! You made
yourself and all of us proud by topping your maths class. Congratulations!
Your father caught the excitement the moment he set eyes on the report.
Poor man, I should be sharing the glory with him and not him with me but
for his long ill-health that virtually has made him penniless. But be assured
that as long as it pleases God to keep me alive, I shall bear all the
responsibilities that will see you through school. My main reason for
writing to you now is to draw your attention to your not so pleasant English
language grade, or should I say your poor English score.
What is the relationship between Kwesi and the writer of the letter? Yes, Kwesi is the
writer’s nephew. What constitutes the opening pleasantries! And what is the
introduction of the letter?
Now write down the subscription of the sample letter above.
Exercise 4.2
1. Write the salutation, opening pleasantries and an introduction to your course

mate whose wife has had a baby girl.
2. How are the pleasantries in the three examples above differ from one
another? And why?

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS 2 - INTRODUCTION
SESSION 2


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: INFORMAL LETTERS – EXPRESSION
Welcome to the third session of the unit. In the previous session, we

examined the importance of the functions of opening pleasantries and the
role of introduction in the opening paragraph of informal letters. Why do
you need an introduction? Yes, while the opening pleasantries help establish rapport
between the writer and the addressee, the introduction helps the writer to plan his/her
message in advance and assists the reader as to preview what to anticipate.
In the current session, we will examine the function of Expression in informal letters.
Objectives
a. state the subject of your letter and the register it calls forth;
b. identify the purpose of your communication;
c. tell the best linguistic forms available to achieve your goal;
d. use language grammatically, figuratively and idiomatically.
Now read on…
3.1 What is Expression?

The term expression is difficult to define. But for our working definition, we can say
Expression has to do with communicating one’s thoughts and feelings through words,
gestures, touches, looks etc. In written communication, however, expression goes on
without the aid of gestures, looks and other forms. The choice of words and their
effective use to achieve a communicative purpose constitute Expression.
3.2 Components of Expression: Subject Matter

Every subject has words that are appropriate in discussing it. In other words, every
subject matter has its register, i.e. vocabulary and grammar used by speakers in
particular circumstances or contexts. The register for a political discourse is certainly
different from that of a religious sermon. This shows that there is a register for reporting
an athletic event as distinct from that of a game of football, netball from hockey,
History from Geography, English from teaching a subject in English.
3.3 Purpose of Discourse

Besides register differentiation on the basis of subject matter, there is the component of
choice on the account of purpose or goal of discourse. It is possible to have a lively
lecture on the origin of human rights. But a human-rights lecture that seeks to make
good citizens of the democratic state is bound to make choices some of which may be at
variance with the origin of human rights. For example, the latter will both highlight
rights along with responsibilities. For rights without corresponding responsibilities can

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS – EXPRESSION
SESSION 3
only lead to stagnation or even chaos. Nearer home, a lecture on tense in English may
be conducted differently from a lesson that seeks to teach learners of English as a
second language how to use the simple present tense to express instantaneous present.
This implies also that the component of the purpose of discourse incorporates in itself
the distinction between the speaker and the listener. When this distinction is confused, it
reveals itself in a student’s answer that includes a lecturer’s jokes. A lesson that is
appropriate for the aged or experienced may be inappropriate for the young and the
novice. “Hi! Nicky” may be a right expression for a contemporary but most
inappropriate for one’s father.
3.4 The Component of Grammatical Accuracy

These days of the radio and the television, one is subjected to a lot of gibberish in the
name of radio and television talk shows. Often such a talk is very fast and full of
meaningless sounds. Some of the gibberish is appropriate when noise, not matter, is the
essence of the event. Different language forms are appropriate for different
communicative events. For example, sentence fragments and elliptical constructions are
often effective in face-to-face interactions or dialogues but inappropriate in other kinds
of discourse. It is true that informal letters permit varied forms in order to attain
appropriate tone and rapport. Even here, we should spare our older relatives some of the
most current slang and pidgin English. It is sensible to avoid exaggerated expressions
and rather allow oneself to err on grammatical accuracy, and idiomatic and figurative
usage. It should be noted that a new domain of language use, The Text Message, is
quite effective for the experts in the field, but when it is removed from its special field,
it breeds chaos. What is the meaning, for example, of such a text as “Love 4 Love”? Is
there any attraction in the meaning lessness of the text? This is a true instance where it
makes much sense to err on the side of grammatical accuracy. Remember that ‘love’ is
a mass noun so one cannot ordinarily in English have “four love”, ‘Love for love’ is
grammatical and meaningful.
3.5 Expression includes Mechanical Accuracy

According to Ferdinard de Saussure, the correct linguistic forms reside in the
community not in the individual. In other words, an individual cannot invent his/her
own orthography, grammatical forms, punctuation and capitalization. Standard
reference texts like dictionaries, grammar books and encyclopedia are available for
ensuring mechanical accuracy.
Now what comments can you make about the sentences below:
1a. Accra is the Capital of Ghana.
2a. Tom is twenty years of old.
3a. I hear your beloved mother kicked the bucket.
4b. Invited guests are to lead the procession.
5c. Kofi said that his mother will arrive tomorrow.
6d. How old is your daughter.
SESSION 3
Have you got comments such as these:

1b. The word ‘capital’ should be written with lower-case ‘c’
2b . Tom is twenty years old or ‘twenty years of age’
3b. A beloved mother may “pass away” or “die”
4b. A guest is always invited. We may say “distinguished guest”
“Invited guest” is an instance of tautology like “can be able”
5b. Kofi said that his mother would arrive the next/following day.
(This is a case of sequence of tenses).
6b. How old is your daughter? This is a question requiring proper
punctuation.
In this session, we see Expression in informal letters as influenced by

factors such as the topic of discourse, the purpose of the
communication, the role relationship between the writer and the addressee. It is
common in informal letters to use contracted forms such as ‘can’t’, ‘don’t’ ‘I’ll’, etc and
employ conversational tone as if one were in face-to-face interactions. Even slang and
catchy phrases are permitted, particularly in letters to contemporaries. In addition, loose
sentence forms predominate. Although inter-personal communication requires informal
language use, it is helpful to make our message clear, simple and concise. Whenever
there is a doubt about competing forms, it is advisable to err on correct usage in terms
of grammatical, idiomatic and figurative language, being aware that one’s expression
mirrors one’s own image.
Exercise 4.3
1. Identify three major components you would consider in informal
communication under Expression.
2. When does exaggeration enhance interpersonal communication?
3. Comment on the sentences below:
a. Arriving late, the train left John behind.
b. We found the abandoned car driving to Tema.
c. The students voice out their displeasure.
d. Kofi was laying ill in bed.
e. He shouted that what I am doing is wrong.

UNIT 4 INFORMAL LETTERS – EXPRESSION
SESSION 3


SESSION 4
SESSION 4: FORMAL LETTERS - FEATURES
In the first three sessions of the unit, we concentrated on the informal

letter, otherwise called interpersonal communication. In particular, we
said informal letters deal with not only communicating ideas but also establishing
relationships through rapport, tone of expressing feelings, emotions, and sentiments.
Being informal, such letters sound as if they were a face-to-face communication with
sentence fragments, very personal tone to move the listener or reader.
In the rest of the unit, we shall consider formal letters whose main goal is problem
solving. They do not deal with personal sentiments, feelings or emotions; they seek to
identify as clearly as possible what the problem or task is and the right way to solve the
problem or tackle the task. In this fourth session, we shall consider the features of
formal letters that make them distinct from informal letters.
Objectives
a. identify the major features of formal letters’
b. write formal letters with appropriate features.
Now read on…
4.1 What a Formal Letter Is

Formal letters are communications between an individual and an institution. An
example is when you write to Centre for Continuing Education, University of Cape
Coast, a letter asking for your transcript to be sent to the University College of London
where you are seeking admission for further studies. Can you find two other examples?
A formal letter may originate from one institution to another. For example, the Registrar
of the University of Ghana may write to the National Accreditation Board etc.. Find
three other examples where formal letters begin from one institution to another. Other
examples include letters from the Police Service to the Ghana Armed Forces, from the
Judicial Service to the Attorney General’s Department, from a District Assembly to the
Traditional Council, etc. You’ve done well.
4.2 Formal Letters between Individuals Tend to Deal with Formal

Matters
Such letters may be written by a lawyer on behalf of an individual or individuals.
Let’s look at some of these
CoDEUCC/Post–Di pl oma in Education and Business Studies 91

UNIT 4 FORMAL LETTERS - FEATURES
SESSION 4
4.3 Formal Letters have some Distinctive Features

Let’s look at some of these:
a) There are two addresses clearly separated.
The writer’s address is located at the top right corner of the paper while the
addressee’s address is at the top left corner. Care must be taken to separate very
clearly the two addresses. The date, which is not part of the writer’s address, is
written on a line or two below the address.
b) Formal letters bear references
References are helpful in filing letters and where to locate them. The formal
letter carries the writer’s reference and the receiver normally quotes the writer’s
reference for the ease of locating the letter and the receiver may also, cite his/her
own reference.
c) Impersonal Salutations
Unlike informal letters, formal letters have impersonal salutations such as Dear
Sir/Madam, Sir/Madam, Dear Rev Timothy, Dear Prof Kofi or Dear Mrs. Galic.
Although names are mentioned, they are always surnames and or official titles.
d) There is always a Heading
The heading clearly indicates the subject of the letter. In most cases, formal
letters address a single issue at a time.
e) The Body of the Letter
The body of a formal letter is written in simple clear paragraphs. There is no
tolerance for irrelevance or digression.
f) There is a Subscription
Like informal letters, formal letters also bear subscriptions, but these are always
impersonal. The commonest type is: Yours faithfully. This is followed by a
signature (along with printed surname) and or designation or both.
g) Copies of Formal Letters
Formal letters generally are often related to several sections of an organization.
The writer of a formal letter sends copies of the decision taken to the other
relevant units of the organization both for their information and
where necessary for their relevant action(s). Here are two samples of formal
letters.

SESSION 4
A. An Offer of Appointment
Holy Family University,

Accra.
2nd August, 2000.
Mr. Nyamekye,
Department of English,
Faculty of Arts,
Accra.
Dear Mr. Nyamekye,
EXTENSION OF POST - RETIREMENT CONTRACT APPOINTMENT
I write on behalf of the Council of the Holy Family University to extend your contract
appointment as Senior Lecturer in the Department of English for a further term of two
academic years with effect from 1st October, 2000 ending 30th September, 2002.
The extension of the post-retirement contract appointment will, among other factors,
depend on your medical fitness. I shall be grateful, therefore, if you will arrange to
obtain the appropriate medical clearance from the Acting Director of Health Services of
this University.
Yours sincerely,
(PROF. S. K. REAGAN)
VICE CHANCELLOR
cc: Pro Vice Chancellor

Dean, Faculty of Arts
Head, Department of English
Acting Finance Officer

Acting Internal Auditor
Snr. Assistant Registrar, (Publications)
Director of Planning
Estate Officer
P/4397

SESSION 4
B. Acceptance of an Offer
Department of English,
Accra.
18th August, 2000.
The Vice-Chancellor,
Cape Coast.
Dear Sir,
EXTENSION OF POST-RETIREMENT CONTRACT APPOINTMENT
I refer to your letter No. P/Conf. 4397 of 2nd August, 2000, on the subject above. I
accept the extension granted me for a term of two academic years with effect from
October 1, 2000 to September 30, 2002.
As you required, I have submitted myself to the Acting Director of Health Services of
the University for Medical Examination, the result of which, I trust, will be submitted to
you soon, if not already sent.
Thank you for the extension.
Yours faithfully,
(F. K. Nyamekye)
cc: Pro Vice Chancellor

Dean, Faculty of Arts
Head, Department of English
Acting Finance Officer
Acting Internal Auditor
Snr. Assistant Registrar (Publications)
Director of Planning
Estate Officer

SESSION 4
In this session, we have looked at Formal Letters. In particular, we

distinguish them from personal letters which deal with interpersonal
communication. Formal letters are impersonal and are problem solving oriented. They
bear quite distinctive features. In the next session, we shall examine the introduction to
formal letters.
Exercise 4.4
1. List all the main features of formal letters.
2. Write a formal letter to your District Director of Education and ask for a transfer
from your current station to another one. Give two reasons in support of your
request.

SESSION 4

• difficult topics, if any.

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: FORMAL LETTERS – INTRODUCTION
You’re welcome to session 5 of the unit. In the previous session, we

began looking at formal letters, quite distinct from inter-personal letters.
In that session, we considered the distinctive features that characterize formal letters.
Can you list these in the sequence they occur in such letters? Can you identify these
features in the sample letters?
In this session, we wish to consider the introduction to formal letters.
Objectives
a. tell the distinction between an introduction to an informal and a formal letter;
b. tell where the heading of a formal letter functions as an introduction to the letter,
there being no formal introduction;
c. identify the acknowledgement as a form of introduction to a reply of a formal
letter,
d. write a formal letter with an appropriate introduction.
Now read on…
5.1 No Opening Greeting in Formal Letters

Refer to session 2 of the unit above. You realise that one feature of an inter-personal
communication is the opening greeting. What did we say is the function of the opening
greeting? Yes, it is to convey pleasantries as a form of establishing rapport between the
interlocutors. These pleasantries are followed by an introduction to the actual
communication.
On the other hand, a formal letter may be seen to be addressed to a very important and
busy person who has so much to do that any statement or time that does not directly
have anything to do with the problem to be solved is regarded irrelevant and time
wasting. Now refer back to the opening of the Sample A letter in session 4 above. You
find the heading functioning as a kind of introducing the topic of the letter. This follows
the salutation, which is itself formal. The very busy and important writer, The Vice-
Chancellor, plunged straight into the task in hand, that is, writing on behalf of the high
authority of The University Council, to offer a contract appointment to the addressee.
5.2 Statement of Acknowledgement as an Introduction

Sometimes, particularly in response to a formal letter, it is the statement about the letter
received that functions as introduction. As an example, let’s look at the reply to the
Sample letter B in session 4 above.

UNIT 4 FORMAL LETTERS – INTRODUCTION
SESSION 5
Now, would you say this is an example of a formal letter? What features of a formal
letter can you identify? What is the function of the opening sentence? Yes, it serves
both as acknowledgement of the receipt of the Vice-Chancellor’s letter replete with a
reference number, date and also as an introduction linking the first sentence to the
second which is about the acceptance of the offer made in the letter referred to.
5.3 The Type of Formal Letter Determines the Type of Introduction

In general, it is the type of formal letter that determines the kind of introduction
provided. Assuming a Principal writes to the District Director of Education why his
institution has been closed down. Such a letter might begin:
Dear Sir/Madam,
THE CLOSURE OF AKITILO COLLEGE

I write to inform you about the closure of the above college for three preventive
and life-saving reasons…….
Why would you say this is an apt introduction? Yes, it is apt because it goes direct to
the problem being addressed. It also prepares the recipient as to the number of points to
anticipate. We may be sure each reason is going to be developed in a separate
paragraph, etc.
In this session, we looked at the introduction to formal letters. We found

out that pleasantries are out of place in formal communication. In general,
it is the kind of formal writing that determines the type of introduction. Sometimes,
particularly in response to an earlier letter, we may use the acknowledgement of a
previous letter to introduce a formal letter. In some cases, there may be no introduction
at all. In such cases, the heading provides a guide to the content of the letter.
In the next session, we shall examine the use of language in formal letters.
Exercise 4.5
1. Give three reasons why opening pleasantries are out of place in formal letters.
2. Assuming you were the recipient of the letter in session 4, write a reply to it, not
accepting the offer.

SESSION 6
SESSION 6: FORMAL LETTERS 3: LANGUAGE
You’re welcome to the last session of the unit. You’ve done well so far.
In the last session, we looked at the introduction to formal letters. What
three points did we make about such an introduction? Yes, that introductions are
influenced by the heading of the letter; that there may be no introduction at all, and that
the acknowledgement of a previous letter may serve as an introduction.
In this last session, we will look at the language in formal letters.
Objectives
a. distinguish between formal written communication and interpersonal written
letter;
b. identify politeness as a major feature of all formal written communication;
c. write a formal letter using appropriate and correct language
Now read on…
6.1 Types of Formal Letters

There are several types of formal letters. For example, letters offering and accepting
employment, letters offering and accepting entry admissions; query letters and response
to query letters, letters of complaint and replies to such letters, letters of protest and
replies to them. Can you add two other types of formal letters? One common
characteristic of all formal letters is that they are oriented towards solving a problem.
6.2 The Four Content Features of Formal Letters

Arising from the once common characteristic of formal letters as problem solving
oriented, the following for points are required to meet this goal.
a. Simplicity – The problem to be solved must be simple in the sense that it is
straight forward. This is one reason why formal letters bear headings of
single issues.
b. Brevity – This means the simple problem must be stated briefly. When one
word will do, let us not use two words. For example, it is enough to write
“Guests must be seated by half-past nine” Not “Invited guests”. Apart from
the expression being tautological (because a guest is always an invited
person) the expression does not make one’s meaning clearer or more
forceful. Brevity demands that needless repetitions be avoided. Note that
guests may be ‘distinguished’ but not ‘invited’. Find one other common
tautology often heard or written in less careful speech or writing.

UNIT 4 FORMAL LETTERS 3: LANGUAGE
SESSION 6
c. Clarity – Unless we understand clearly what a problem is, solution may be

difficult. The solution of a problem requires that the problem must be
explained simply, briefly and clearly. Ambiguity is the antithesis of clarity.
d. Conciseness – Has to do with the style of communication which conveys all
that ought to be stated, that is the information required is complete but
giving much information in a few words. Conciseness contrasts with
verbosity.
6.3 Language of Formal Letters

(You may refresh your memory by browsing through Unit 3 Session 4 of your Variety
of English module in the CoDEUCC series).
A formal letter is a type of formal written communication. The components of formal

written language include
a. appropriate vocabulary – the vocabulary that best expresses the topic and the
idea being expressed. It may or may not be latinate but never familiar.
b. appropriate syntax – since formal written communication requires careful
planning, sentence structures must be formal and correct. Correct grammar,
idiomatic and figurative usage are the hallmarks of appropriate syntax for
formal written letters. Periodic sentences tend to occur often.
c. politeness as the appropriate tone. Since there are different types and
circumstances of writing formal letters, we must not allow our emotions to
influence or blur our vision that the tone for all formal written
communication is politeness. Under normal circumstances, politeness
receives prompt response.
Examine the sentences below:

i) Tell me why my salary has not been paid.
ii) Why has my salary not been paid?
ii) Could you tell me why my salary has not been paid?
iv) I would be grateful if you could explain why my salary has not been paid.
All the four sentences are responses to a common problem; the writer’s salary has not
been paid. The sentences capture the problem but with varying modes of tone.
Sentence (i) is a direct command and is likely to irritate the reader (who is likely be in a
higher authority). The irritation caused may delay the solution of the problem, i.e.
getting paid. The sentence is therefore inappropriate for a formal letter.
Sentence (ii) is a direct question. Obviously the answer to the question is not the
solution to the writer’s problem. For example: “The accountant inadvertently omitted
your name” is a good answer, but does not get the salary paid.

SESSION 6
Sentence (iii) is a polite request and more likely to surprise the superior officer who
might act to find a solution to the writer’s problem.
Sentence (iv) is certainly a much more polite letter and would more likely elicit a
sympathetic response. If you were the superior officer, what would your response be to
each of the four letters?
6.4 Mechanical Accuracy in Formal Letters

Mechanical errors occur in grammar, spelling and punctuation. These errors may cause
vagueness, e.g. Love 4 Love.
Others create ambiguity, e.g. I’ve seen Kofi going to Accra.

The girls were given aids.
Thanking you for your co-operation, etc
These mechanical errors irritate the reader and this tends to delay the solution of the
problem being solved.
In this last session, we reconsider the language of formal letters. Being

formal written communication, it needs careful planning which should
lead to a language that is simple, brief, clear and concise. Formal vocabulary and syntax
are the required features with periodic sentences judiciously used. The tone is always
polite and the execution must be error free.
Exercise 4.6
Either 1. You have just received your last semester’s transcript and discovered several
errors in it. Write a letter asking for correction to the Provost, CoDE, UCC.
Or 2. You made a full payment for the academic year but you have discovered to your
dismay that you are credited with half payment. Write a letter demanding
correction to the Provost, CoDE, UCC.
3. Comment on the following sentences.

a) Hoping to hear from you soon.
b) Could you give me your mobile number?
c) If I were you, I will visit him.
d) I cannot be able to attend next face-to-face meeting.
e) He declared that the meeting is successful.

UNIT 4 FORMAL LETTERS 3: LANGUAGE
SESSION 6


WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA
UNIT 5
UNIT 5: WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA
Unit Outline
Session 1: Writing Reports: Routine Reports
Session 2: Writing Reports: Special Report: Terms of Reference
Session 3: Writing Reports: Sources of Information
Session 4: Writing Reports: The Letter Format
Session 5: Writing Reports: The Tabular Form
Session 6: Writing Memoranda: Features and Language
Most often in our everyday life, we are faced with the task of making
a report i.e. providing.
Information, even if it is an errand we have run for someone; only an assignment we

have accomplished; a workshop or a meeting we have attended. These types of report
are generally short and straight forward statements calling for orderly arrangement of
facts that are presented clearly. Most of these reports are often presented verbally.
But in formal contexts and in much of business, reports are written documents. They are
often lengthy investigation and research and may run into many or even hundreds of
pages. However, no matter the nature of the report, they perform the same function, i.e.
to provide sufficient relevant information, and often with conclusions and
recommendation, as a guide to taking a decision or an action. Although reports may
vary depending on subject matter and length, there are certain basic principles that are
common to all and it is these that this unit will address.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to
1. distinguish between Routine and Special reports;
2. identify different types of special reports;
3. tell the components of special report;
4. tell the functions of reports;
5. differentiate between a report and a memorandum;
6. write reports and memoranda correctly.

WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA
UNIT 5

104 CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Education and Business Studies

WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA UNIT 5
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: WRITING REPORTS: ROUTINE REPORTS
Most of our everyday interaction involves accounts of and statements

about things we have heard, seen, done, etc. These are often informed
and verbal. In formal contexts and business transactions, accounts and statements
become official documents and therefore, written. Sometimes, the information sought is
fairly simple and straight forward and so forms are designed to collect it. Can you recall
any such designed documents? Yes. There is the School Pupils Attendance Register.
There are also Pupils’ Terminal Reports. These tend to be periodical and are called
Routine Reports. In this first session of the unit, we will consider Routine Reports and
show how they are different from Special Reports.
Objectives
a) identify at least five different types of routine reports;
b) tell the nature of routine reports;
c) state the uses of routine reports;
d) write routine reports correctly.
Now read on…
1.1 What are Written Routine Reports?

A report generally examines the past or the current state of affairs so that a person or
persons can make a decision for the future. It intervenes between the current or present
and the future. Routine reports are regular accounts for or statements of the past or
present situation to enable an informed decision or action to be taken for the future.
1.2 Nature of Routine Reports

Routine reports are designed in such a way that information sought is obtained by filling
in appropriate columns of the pre-designed form or format. The reporter’s task is to fill
in the appropriate columns with correct information. Writing routine reports is,
therefore, much simpler for the writer and easier to interpret by the user.
1.3 Content of Routine Reports

Since information provided is to enable an appropriate decision or action to be made or
taken, the information given must be factual and objective. Why do you think the
content of routine reports must be factual? In subsequent sessions, we shall look at
sources of information for all types of reports.

UNIT 4 WRITING REPORTS: ROUTINE REPORTS
SESSION 1
1.4 Examples of Routine Reports

Routine Reports are designed to ease collection of essential information. Such essential
information will vary from institution to institution. A good example is the educational
institution. We have School Attendance Register for pupils. This report takes less than
five minutes to compile and the information contained therein is important for
immediate and much later decisions. For the immediate purpose, it tells us whether a
child has come to school. How relevant is this information for the class-teacher and the
school? Cumulatively, the daily attendances will determine whether the pupil has made
the required attendance for him/her to be promoted to the next class.
Now describe the design of this Register.

Another important Routine Report in an educational institution is The School Terminal
Report issued at the end of a school term. Who is the main recipient of this report? Of
course, the parents. This report has different components and may be full of different
pieces of information.
Below is a sample of a Routine Senior High School Terminal Report:
106 CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma Programme in Education

SESSION 1
ADIDOME SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

(GHANA EDUCATION SERVICE)
P.O. BOX 8, ADIDOME
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TERMINAL REPORT
Name of Student:……………………… Class/Level………..…………...
Next Term Begins:……………. Term:…………………. House:……………
Programme:…………………… Year:…………………… Date:……………
Grade: A = 75% B = 65% - 74% C = 55% - 64% D = 50% - 54% E = 40% - 49%
F = 0% - 39%
Class Exam Total Position Subje ct Subje ct
CO RE SUBJECTS Score Score Score In Grade Maste r’s Maste r’s
30% 70% 100% Subje ct Re marks Signature
English Language
Mathematics
Integrated Science
Social Studies
Physical Education
Moral And Religious Education
ELECTIVES
Ghanaian Language (Ewe)
French
Literature In English
Government
Geography
Economics
Elective Mathematics
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Management In Living
Foods And Nutrition
Clothing And T extiles
General Knowledge In Art
Picture Making
T extiles
Graphic Design
I.B.M
Accountancy
Business Maths And Costing
GDP = POSITION IN CLASS

Attendance…………… Out of…………… Promoted To/To Repeat Form:…………….
Conduct:…………………………………………………………………………………..
Attitude:……………………………………………………………………………………
Form Master’s Remarks:…………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
Housemaster’s/Mistress’s Report:…………………………………………………………
Headmaster’s/Mistress’s Report:…………………………………………………………..
You observe that the report is about an individual but the inputs come from different
persons. Who is usually the report writer? Yes, the Form Master/Mistress.

UNIT 4 WRITING REPORTS: ROUTINE REPORTS
SESSION 1
A school or other establishments may also have Attendance Register for

Staff. What information will such a register seek to collect? Who is the
recipient of such a Routine Report? What information may be gleaned from such a
report? What decision or action can be taken on this type of report?
Now design a format for staff attendance.
Report
What other areas of school life can you design a Routine Report format? You can
consider Workshop Report, School Cultural Festival, Inter-House Games, etc.
It is important that Routine Reports be signed and dated.
The unit introduces us to report writing. In particular, we look at

Routine Reports which are normally designed in such a way that the
reporter fills in appropriate information in columns provided on the report format. The
information provided enables the recipient to take a relevant decision or action. Routine
Reports are always signed and dated.
In the next session, we will begin to consider Special Reports.
Exercise 5.1
1. Why is Pupil’s Attendance Register regarded as a Routine Report?
2. State one advantage of a Routine Report for

a) the reporter
b) the recipient
3. Design a Routine Report format for assessing your head of institution.

SESSION 2
SESSION 2: WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS - TERMS OF

REFERENCE
Welcome to Session 2. In the previous session, we realized that

Routine Reports are regular sources of information that enable
someone to take an informed decision or action. Routine Reports vary greatly in terms
of the design and the kind of information sought. But they all serve a common purpose:
providing factual accounts or statements for decision making.
In the current session, we will be looking at Special Reports which are distinct from
Routine Reports.
Objectives
a) distinguish between Routine and Special Reports;
b) tell the features of Special Reports;
c) identify and interpret the feature of Terms of Reference in Special Reports.
No read on…
2.1 What is a Special Report?

A Special Report is sometimes referred to as Enquiry or a Commission Report. It is
occasional or ad hoc as distinct from a routine report. Being occasional, it is always
requested by a higher authority normally through the medium of formal written
communication. The completed report must be submitted to the authority. Depending
on the complexity of issues to be investigated, a Special Report may be assigned to an
individual or a panel or committee of investigators. Generally, a Special Report has a
period for the report to be submitted. It may be a matter of days, weeks, months or a
whole year. It may be as short as a page or as long as hundreds of pages. Special
Reports requested by governments tend to be written by a group or committee often of
experts. For example, a government “Report on the USE of ENGLISH as the medium
of Instruction in Gold Coast School, 1956” was written by a committee of four
educational experts. This last type of Special Report is often written in not in first
person ‘I’ or ‘We’ but in the impersonal third person – the Committee, the Board, the
Council, etc. This type is normally signed by all members with the Chairman signing
first, the Secretary last while the remaining members sign in alphabetical order of
surnames.
Long or short, special reports have five (5) structural components, namely, Terms of
Reference, Investigation Procedure, Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations.

UNIT 5
WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS -
SESSION 2 TERMS OF REFERENCE
In the rest of this session, we will begin to look at the first of these components: Terms
of Reference.
2.2 Definition of Terms of Reference

Whenever a person or a group of persons is engaged to perform a task, he/she or they
must be given quite clearly what his/her or their job description is. We can only say the
task is well done when the job to be done is given in no ambiguous terms. It is only
when you know what is required of you that you can even find a method of
investigation or identify sources of information. Terms of reference constitute the job
description.
Terms of reference are generally couched in infinitive clauses. For example, a

hypothetical students’ riots that have occurred in Achia Senior High School and that
have led to the closure of the institution may have terms of reference as follows:
1. To investigate and report to the Director, Senior High School Division of the
G.E.S, the immediate and remote causes of the students’ riot.
2. To determine the cost of damage,
3. To identify the direct and indirect leaders of the riot,
4. To investigate any other issues relating to the riot, and
5. To make appropriate recommendations that will help forestall any future
occurrences.
This may be followed by the time for the submission of the report.
Important though terms of reference are, there are occasions where these are not so
clearly stated. For example “the Report on the Use of English (as the medium of
instruction) in Gold Coast Schools” 1956 the committee wrote, “It should here be
pointed out that at this juncture, no official terms of reference had been obtained from
Ministry of Education”. Based on the correspondence between the Minister and the
Department of Education, the following was formulated as the basis of the
investigation:-
“You are required to consider -
i) whether the use of English as the Medium of Instruction
throughout the primary stage is feasible, intrinsically sound and
educationally desirable.
ii) if so, what procedures to this end be adopted and from what date
should any change be made?

SESSION 2
What this quotation confirms is that terms of reference are so important that where there
are no clearly stated terms, ways must be found to formulate them.
In this second session, we have looked at what Special Reports are, their
ad hoc nature and the authorizing authority. They may be short or long,
written by an individual or a team of experts. They are often written in impersonal third
person language. When written by a team, the report is submitted signed first by the
Chairman, and last by the Secretary with other members signing according to the
alphabetical order of their surnames.
We have also found that Special Reports contain Terms of Reference which may be
regarded as the job description for the Reporter or Reporters.
Exercise 5.2
1. What do Routine Reports and Special Reports have in common?
2. In what major ways are they different?

UNIT 5
WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS -
SESSION 2 TERMS OF REFERENCE


SESSION 3
SESSION 3: WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS – SOURCES OF

INFORMATION
You’re welcome to the third session of the Unit. The value of any report
depends on sources of information that provide facts that are used for
taking appropriate decisions and actions. In the previous session, we looked at the
description of the task to be performed. To perform that task, we have to look for useful
and relevant facts. In this session, therefore, we will concern ourselves with sources of
information that are available for both the routine and the special report writer(s).
Objectives
a) identify the three major sources of information;
b) use proper procedure(s) to access the information; and
c) interpret and evaluate the information collected.
Now read on…
3.1 Sources of Information

Collecting and assembling appropriate information is basic to all good report writing. In
spite of the fact that every report has its own peculiar assumptions and requirements,
three sources of information are available to all. These are information
a. which is written
b. which is investigated, and
c. which is direct
Let’s look at these in turn.
3.3.1 That which is written or recorded

This type of source involves reading books, magazines, articles in journals, earlier
similar reports of others, letters on files of correspondence and any other relevant
documents including information from the internet.
3.3.2 That which is investigated

Collecting information through this method involves using questionnaires, interviewing
the right persons, entering conversations with people with special or expert knowledge
or persons who have had first-hand experience of the event under investigation, in other
words, collecting information from eye-witnesses.

UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS –
SESSION 3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION
3.3.3 That which is direct

This generally includes information obtained through personal or the group’s own
observations and tests or experiments conducted by yourself or under your close
supervision. Why do you think tests and/or experiments must be conducted by yourself
or under your close supervision? Yes, if this is not done then the information collected
is not based on your direct experience.
It must be noted that in preparing a report, information obtained direct and at first hand
is more reliable than information acquired through reading written materials and from
questionnaires and interviews. Since information from written sources may not always
be accurate, this means that information taken from them must not be taken hook, line
and sinker, but must always be checked. There is also the danger of presenting opinions
in questionnaires and interviews as if they were facts. A good report is based on facts
and not opinions or untruths.
3.3.4 Organization of the information collected

While it is not important the order you collect your information and how much of it, it is
important that your information is sufficient enough for the purpose of your task.
Two steps are involved in the organization of your collected facts:

a) In the first place, you bring all related facts and ideas together and put them
into sections with defining headings. At this initial stage, it is helpful to use
separate sheets of paper, each headed with its appropriate headings. For
example, our example in the previous session on Achia Senior High School
students’ riots could have these
i. Remote causes
a) mistrust among members of staff based on tribal grounds
b) complaints against poor food
ii. Immediate cause
seizure of cell phones
iii. Cost of damage
a) Buildings
b) School vehicles
c) Private vehicles, etc
d) Injury to persons
b) In the second place you arrange the sections in the order you intend to present
them in the report. For example, while (a) i) ii) and iii)
would appear fair, you may regard (d) under iii) as more important and bring
it top of the sub-heading.

SESSION 3
3.3.5 Reviewing your Organization

Taking a whole view of your information and its organization, you decide whether you
have included all the important facts and only relevant facts, thus unnecessary facts are
dropped. Where sections are inadequately supported by facts, you supplement these
with new facts.
In this session, we have looked at the three main sources of information

for report writing. We also find that some sources of these are more
reliable than others for some obvious reasons. Information collected need to be
organized in a logical order and sections are properly balanced. In the next session, we
shall look at the submission of the report in a letter form.
Exercise 5.3
1. List the sources of information in the order of reliability.
2. Identity the advantages of facts obtained by investigation.
3. Why would you review facts you have collated?

UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS: SPECIAL REPORTS –
SESSION 3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION


SESSION 4
SESSION 4: WRITING REPORTS: THE LETTER FORMAT
You’re welcome to the fourth session of the Unit. We have already

noted that Special Reports are, by nature, ad hoc and always requested
by someone in a higher position whose job is to take a fair and appropriate and well-
informed decision. Since reports are requested assignments, whenever they are
completed, they must be submitted to the authorizing body. In this session, we will
consider one of the forms of presenting a report, that is Reports in Letter Form.
Objectives
a) identify the kind of report submitted in a letter format;
b) state the structure of a report in a letter form;
c) be able to write and submit a report in a letter form
Now read on…
4.1 Reports in Letter Form

Generally, it is short special reports that are written and submitted in a letter form. The
letter or report is a formal kind of writing and addressed to the person or persons on
whose request the report is prepared. The structure of the report will be similar to a
formal letter bearing all the features of such letters.
Now list the features of a formal letter. Have you got two addresses, a date, salutation, a
heading, the body, subscription and a signature? Good. It is in the matter of the body or
subject matter that a report is different from ordinary formal letter. Ordinarily, the body
is arranged in the order below:
a) a reference to the request for the report (i.e terms of reference);
b) the methods of research or investigation used;
c) findings
d) conclusions drawn and
e) recommendations made (if requested).
Such letters generally open with a paragraph mentioning the terms of reference
including a formal statement that the report is now being submitted. There follows a
statement of sources of information used including sources of consultation made,
enquiries and investigations conducted and other methods employed to collect facts.
You arrange these in order and the conclusions drawn. Recommendations then follow.

UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS: THE LETTER FORMAT
SESSION 4
Below is a hypothetical report in a letter form. For purposes of anonymity pseudonyms

are used
Department of Botany,
University of Cape Coast,
Cape Coast.
10th August, 2011.

The Chairman
Academic Board
University of Cape Coast
Cape Coast
Dear Sir,
REPORT ON STUDENTS OF SCHOOL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES

PARTICIPATING IN THE COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS PROGRAMME
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
On the 12th March, 2011, you appointed a three-man committee to investigate and
report to you
a) whether fresh students of the School of Medical Sciences should participate in
the inter-faculty service programme, the Communicate Skills, and
b) if so, whether any part of the University’s statutes is violated, and the
procedures to achieve this end, and what date this should take effect.
Our enquiries have included:

a) an examination of the relevant parts of the Statutes of the University;
b) a study of the Course Objectives, Content and Structure of the Communicative
Skills Programme;
c) a consultation with the Co-ordinator of the Programme;
d) interview with a few lecturers and a cross-section of past and present students on
the programme; and
e) a scrutiny of examination questions and the grading process.
Arising from these, we are able to report that

a) no part of the statutes will be violated;
b) the programme is not only relevant but will be very useful to all medical
students not only in improving their immediate study skills but also, by giving
them life-long communication skills;
c) the current practice of putting together students from different faculties into a
class be continued but we would recommend that class sizes be reduced for

SESSION 4
effective interaction between students and their lecturers, on one hand, and
among the students on the other;
d) finally, we recommend that medical students’ participation in the programme
should begin as soon as the next academic session.
We trust you will find the report helpful.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Signed ……………….. (Prof. V. Mamude) Chairman

Signed ……………….. (Dr. M.K Mawuli) Member
Signed ……………….. (Dr. C.N Atongo) Secretary
In this session, we have looked at one of the ways Special Reports are
submitted, i.e the letter form. A report in a letter form bears all the
formal features of a formal letter. The body of the letter contains all the five
components of the report. As a letter, it must be signed but if the report is written by
several persons, it is signed first by the Chairman, and the Secretary last with the other
members signing in the alphabetical order of their surnames.
Exercise 5.4
1. From the hypothetical report above, list all the features of a formal letter
2. Justify whether the content of the report satisfies the terms of reference given.
3. Tabulate the terms of reference.

UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS: THE LETTER FORMAT
SESSION 4


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: WRITING REPORTS – REPORTS IN TABULAR FORM
You’re welcome to the penultimate session of the Unit. Since reports

are written on the instruction of someone else, they must be submitted
to the person requesting them. In the last session, we looked at one form of submission,
that is, Reports in Letter Form.
In this session, we will examine one other form of submitting a report, viz Reports in
Tabular Form.
Objectives
a) state forms of presenting reports;
b) state the conditions for Reports in Tabular Form;
c) identify the advantages of presenting Reports in Tabular Form;
d) prepare reports in a tabular form.
Now read on…
5.1 Forms of Presenting Reports

In the last session, we examine one form of writing reports. What is that form? Yes, it is
the letter form. When normally do we adopt the letter form? That is normally when the
report is relatively a short one.
5.2 Other Forms of Presenting Reports

One other way of presenting reports is in a Paragraph form. This is often done to follow
arrangement of numbered paragraphs grouped under section headings.
5.3 Reports in Tabular Form

A long report presented in a letter form is often difficult for the reader for the three
reasons.
a) He may find it difficult to grasp the essential facts on a first reading.
b) The relationships between different parts may be difficult to perceive.
c) It is difficult to select parts of the report the reader may have a special
interest in. For these reasons, long reports are presented in either a paragraph
or tabular form. The tabular form of presentation is a schematic arrangement
in which the material is put together under headings and sub-headings. This
makes the reader’s task much easier. He/she may see at a glance what the
different sections are about, omitting what he/she regards as unimportant and
concentrating on sections he/she sees as very important. The outline below is
often followed in preparing reports on the tabular form. As usual with all
reports, the tabular form begins with a heading and this is followed by a
UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS – REPORTS IN TABULAR
SESSION 5 FORM
paragraph which sets out the terms of reference. Here is an example:

REPORT ON PROPOSED CONFERENCE MARKING OF
COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS EXAMINATION SCRIPTS AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST.
1. Terms of Reference
a) On the instruction of the Dean, Faculty of Arts, dated 10th April, 2001, we are to
report on the proposal of conference marking of Communicative Skills
Examination scripts, and to make appropriate recommendations. We submit as
follows:
b) The Team of investigators

Team of Investigators are: Prof. J. T. Laryea, Chairman
Mr. Joseph Baah, Member
Dr. T. K. Nuworzah, Member/Secretary
2. Investigation Procedure
a) Read reports on conference marking
b) Visit the West African Examinations Council and observe for three days the
procedure and practice of conference marking
c) Interview the Co-ordinator of the Communicative Skills Programme
d) Administer questionnaires to some C.S. lecturers and a cross section of past and
current students of the Communicative Skills Programme.
e) Examine some marked scripts done on non-conference basis.
3. Findings
An overwhelming majority of lecturers and students endorse the proposal if
a) the marking session would be preceded by a general co-ordination of examiner,
b) lecturers would not mark their own students’ scripts,
c) the examiners would mark under Team Leaders who would review the
examiners’ marking
4. Conclusions
We conclude that the conference marking proposed be adopted because conference
marking
a) reduces examiner differences in grading
b) the fear of unfair grading is eliminated
c) both lecturers and students are challenged to work harder
d) time is saved so that C.S results can be released on time
5. Recommendations
We recommend the proposal be adopted, and recommend further that
a) the details of setting and selecting questions and the processes for security of
question be left with the Co-ordinator and a team of his/her senior lecturers

SESSION 5
b) the Team Leaders be selected from the most experienced and conscientious
senior lecturers
c) money be made available for snack to be served during the morning break
during the co-ordination meetings.
d) fees be paid to the Chief Examiner, who must be the Co-ordinator, the Team
Leaders and the Examiners. The details of this should be discussed with the
Dean, Vice Dean and the Faculty Accountant.
Date: June, 4, 2001 Signed:…………………….. Chairman
…………………….. Member
…………………….. Member/Secretary
It must be noted that very lengthy reports require a separate letter on the submission of
the report. Such long reports have a Preface and an Introduction in addition to the five
essential components. Appendices and Bibliography may be attached at the end.
We have examined, in some details, the Tabular form of presenting

reports. This covers the five essential components of a report. Each
of these components may have sub-headings. The tabular form has the advantage of the
reader finding what he/she is interested in and paying less attention to what he/she
intends to ignore. Tabular Reports are also signed and dated. In the last session, we shall
examine the memorandum as distinct from the report.
Exercise 5.5
1. Identity the three ways of presenting special reports and briefly state the
peculiar features of each.
2. When would you normally adopt the tabular form of presenting reports?
3. List the stages of a report in a tabular form.

UNIT 5 WRITING REPORTS – REPORTS IN TABULAR
SESSION 5 FORM


SESSION 6
SESSION 6: THE MEMORANDUM
You’re welcome to the last session of this unit. The first five sessions
deal with writing Reports, Routine or Special. In this last session, we
shall consider the Memorandum as another kind of formal writing.
Objectives
By the end of the session you should be able to:
a) tell what a memorandum is;
b) state the features and format of a memorandum;
c) distinguish a memorandum from a report; and
d) write a memorandum in its proper format.
Now read on…
6.1 What is a Memorandum?

The word memorandum has more than one meaning. In one sense, a memorandum is a
written report that is prepared for a person or a committee to provide him or them with
information about a particular subject matter. For example, a government may submit a
memorandum to Parliament’s Ancillary Legislation Committee on the Abolition of the
Death Penalty. In this official context, a memorandum may be demanded from the
general public as is often the case in making ministerial appointments.
In another sense, a memorandum can be an informal diplomatic communication

between governments, which generally summarises a particular point of view as basis
of building mutual trust, hence two Ministries of Trade of different countries may sign a
memorandum of understanding about certain trade protocols.
Our concern here is what we may call an Office Memorandum. This is a written note
sent to a person or persons or a department or departments within a company about
information relating to some aspect of the work. The Office Memorandum is just like a
report. It is normally a voluntary submission.
6.2 Office Memorandum

An Office Memorandum is however, unlike a report because it is generally a
submission made without a request or on the instructions of others. Departments often
design their “Memo Pads” with the following features:

UNIT 5 THE MEMORANDUM
SESSION 6
From:………………………………………………………….
To:…………………………………………………………….
Date:………………………………………………………….
Subject:……………………………………………………….
Unlike formal letters, a memorandum has no salutation nor complimentary close but has
a heading to define the subject matter. Besides, since memoranda have no terms of
reference, the opening statement tries to explain the purpose of the submission.
Like a report, a memorandum makes use of the same sources of information, that is, that
which is written, that which is investigated and that which is direct. It must also be
signed. In style, it is less formal so uses the personal pronouns, ‘I’ and ‘We’
Below is a sample memorandum

From: M.K. Agbeful, The Senior House Master
To: The Headmaster, Burger Senior High School
Date: 12th July, 2011
Subject: Provision of Phone Booths on Campus.
Of late, riots in Senior High Schools are caused by the seizure of students’ cell phones.
Besides, there are several cell phone-related problems such as pilfering of money to buy
credits, stealing away either to make calls or to buy credit cards to make night calls etc.
I have taken time to read some reports of committees of Enquiries to such riots; I have
also observed students spending hours on their cell phones instead of making friends
with their textbooks. Further, I interviewed some members of staff, students and
parents. Finally, I consulted some Phone Booth Service Providers.
I find that almost all persons interviewed agreed that it is essential that students
maintain contact with their parents, the easiest way being the use of phones as the risks
of travelling home with or without exeats are reduced considerably. Students therefore
have enough time to spend on their books. Phone Booths provided on campus will help
meet the needs of students and some other workers in the school.
a) I wish to suggest, therefore, that Phone Booth Facilities be established in the
school.
b) The modalities of operating these facilities may be discussed and a
Memorandum of Understanding signed between the school and the selected
Phone Booth Operator(s).

SESSION 6
I strongly believe that when this facility is provided, we surely will nib in the bud cell
phone related misdemeanours and riots in the school.
Thank you.
Signed:…………………
6.3 Features of Reports and Memoranda
a) Completeness Whatever is reported as a report or memorandum must be

complete. In a report, everything covered by the term of
reference must be investigated. Facts must be collected
objectively; distinguish facts from opinions so that what
comes out is reliable.
b) Clarity The write up must be clear, the result of clear thinking. The
feature of clarity requires that we write in flawless
grammatical English, devoid of clichés and worn-out
jargons.
c) Readability The third feature is readability. Unless what you write is

readable, your efforts will not get the attention they deserves.
d) Conciseness Your report or memorandum must be concise. Conciseness

demands brevity that conveys what you intend to convey.
Conciseness is the antithesis of verbosity and ambiguity, the
latter being often the result of extreme brevity.
In this last session of the Unit, we looked at the memorandum. We

examined the distinguishing features of a memorandum and what
features it shares with a report. Whether a report or a memorandum, whatever we put
together must be complete, clear, concise and readable.
Exercise 5.6
1. Distinguish between a report and a memorandum.
2. Submit a memorandum to your Senior House Master about how to improve
the exeat system of your school.
3. How is memorandum different from a formal letter?

UNIT 5 THE MEMORANDUM
SESSION 6


WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
UNIT 6
UNIT 6: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
Unit Outline
Session 1: Planning Your Research Paper
Session 2: Doing the Research
Session 3: Making a Working Bibliography
Session 4: Organizing Your Information
Session 5: Drafting and Documenting Your Paper
Session 6: Revising and Finishing Your Paper
A research paper is a formal written presentation in two thousand to

three thousand words, of information gathered and conclusion
reached through your research either in the library or outside. In
your introductory paragraph, include a thesis statement, a statement that points out what
you intend to prove in your paper. The body of your paper must be coherent, well-
organized with evidence that supports your thesis statement.
In this unit, you will follow the development of a research paper from selecting and
limiting the topic, through research and note taking, to preparation of the final paper. In
addition, you will work through the steps of researching, planning, and writing your
own paper, following the three steps of prewriting, writing, and revising.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. explain the major steps in conducting a research; and
2. describe the major steps in writing a research paper
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma Programme in Education 129

UNIT 6


WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER UNIT 6
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH PAPER
Dear Student, you’re welcome to the first session of Unit 6. How did you
find the previous unit 5. I hope you answered all the self-assessment
questions easily. Well done! In this session, we shall be studying how to plan a research
paper. Planning a research paper is very important to every student. Therefore, it is
essential that we study how it is done.
Objectives
By the end of this session, the student should be able to
(a) identify ways of selecting a topic for research
(b) limit selected topics for a research paper
(c) write a rough outline for a research paper
(d) write a good thesis statement for a research paper
Now read on…
1.1 Selecting and Limiting a Topic

Your first task in writing a research paper is selecting and limiting a topic. Choose a
topic that interests you and that you can research on using the facilities available to you.
Make sure also that your topic is one that you can adequately explore in a research
paper. A general topic, such as the practice of medicine in the twentieth century, is too
broad, but it can be limited to a variety of narrower topics. Look at the following
examples:
Drugs Drug abuse Causes of drug abuse Some effects of

drug abuse etc.
Education Formal Education The Benefits of Formal
Education etc.
Marriage Christian Problems in Christian
marriage marriage etc.
These subjects are still too broad to be used as topics for a research paper. They can be
narrowed even further, however, as the following examples show.
SUBJECT: Pregnancy
TOPICS: The Causes of Teenage Pregnancy in the Central Region.

UNIT 6 PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH PAPER
SESSION 1
SUBJECT: Drug Abuse

TOPICS: The Effects of Drug abuse on the youth of Kokrobite in Ghana
SUBJECT: Sports
TOPICS: The Benefits of sports to the citizens of Ghana
Write three possible research-paper topics for five of the following subjects.
SAMPLE: Tourism
ANSWER: The Economic Advantages of Tourism to the people of the
Eastern Region of Ghana.
Art Electricity Mythology

Environment Nutrition Furniture Photography
Industry
Childhood
Money
Communication Television
Music Voting
1.2 Writing a Preliminary Thesis Statement

After you have selected a topic for your research paper, you must write a thesis
statement. Refer back to unit three session three (3:2:1) on the thesis statement for
essay. The thesis statement summarizes what you intend to prove in your research
paper. It will serve as a guide for selecting the most useful information for supporting
your argument. As your research progresses, you will probably change your thesis
statement to reflect additional information.
The following list demonstrates how to move from a general subject to thesis statement.
Subject: Accidents
Topic: Road accidents
Thesis statement: Road accidents have robbed our nation of many geniuses
and steps must be taken to curb it.
Subject: Games
Topic: Hockey
Thesis statement: Hockey will soon become an important aspect of our

daily lives.
Subject: Out-patient clinics
Topic: Cost factors

SESSION 1
Thesis statement: Wider use of out-patient clinics can dramatically reduce

the costs of health care in Ghana.
1.3 The Procedure for Developing a Thesis Statement
Use the following procedure to develop a preliminary thesis statement for your research
paper.
a. Read a few articles on your topic. Skim several books, or try to discuss
the topic with someone who is knowledgeable about it.
b. Write down ideas, questions, suggestions, or comparisons that you find
or that come to mind as you investigate the topic.
c. Use the ideas to develop a position that you can support through your
research. Write a preliminary thesis statement that summarizes your
position.
1.4 Things to Note about Thesis Statements

Keep the following points in mind as you develop your preliminary thesis statement.
1. The thesis statement establishes your position on the topic.
2. The position in your thesis statement must be one that can be supported
by research. Because the evidence in your research paper must support
your position, your thesis statement cannot be one of the following:
i. A generally known fact that is unarguable and is known to be true,
such as “Mosquitoes cause malaria and this kills a lot of people.
ii. A biographical statement, such as “Abedi Pele and Michael Essien
have made history in Ghanaian football.”
iii. A biased opinion that can have no proof, such as “There will never be
a more popular sport than football.”
iv. A personal statement that can be supported only from your own
knowledge, such as “Of all my neighbours, only Mr. Odoom is a good
gentleman.”
Explain why each of the following sentences is not a satisfactory thesis statement.
Revise five of them to make them good thesis statements. For example:
Although Benjamin Franklin is best known as a printer and an inventor, his most
significant contributions to the world were his political and diplomatic accomplishments
in America. (This is a good thesis statement)
1. The last eclipse occurred three years ago.
2. I have found an interesting old book in our farm house.
3. The Industrial Revolution was an important event.
4. Kwaku Ananse is a trickster in Ghanaian folktales
5. Julius Caesar was a famous Roman.
6. There is too much violence and nudity on our television these days.
7. My father runs a successful small business.

SESSION 1
8. Water pollution is a serious problem.
1.5 Making a Rough Outline

As you do your research, prepare a rough outline to guide you. This outline will be
your research plan and will help you to identify the research findings that you can use to
support your thesis statement.
Prepare your rough outline from the main ideas that you have gathered from your
research. These main ideas will serve as the main headings in your outline. Later,
when you have completed all of your research, you may change the order or contents of
your rough outline, as well as your preliminary thesis statement. You will also develop
a complete outline later, before you begin to write your paper.
The rough outline that follows is the research plan for the paper developed in this unit
on the growing use of biomechanics in our daily lives.
i. Biomechanics in athletic training
ii. Technology involved
iii. Medical uses
iv. Business and industrial uses
On your paper, copy the following three thesis statements, allowing space for several
headings under each. Under each, list the headings that belong with it. Then arrange
the headings so that they form a rough outline for each topic.
1. To safeguard life on Earth, we must observe ecological principles.
2. Although the science of ecology is relatively new, some basic laws of ecology
have been discovered.
3. Ecologists are often asked to help solve environmental problems.
Ecologists suggested preventing flooding in Ohio with dams and planting.

Climate should not be changed accidentally
Vegetation patterns are influenced by soil and climate
Rangeland must be preserved
Members of ecological communities sometimes cooperate
Ecologists stopped building of airport in Everglades
Natural communities of wildlife must be preserved
Plants and animals live only where certain environmental conditions prevail
Wastes from technology should not be allowed to destroy environment
Ecologists restored Dust Bowl by stabilizing dunes
Ecologists move endangered animals to new environments
Land should be classified and used appropriately
Plants and animals live in communities

SESSION 1
Ponds and lakes must be protected from silt build-up

Competition is part of life in all communities
Communities change over time
Ecologists suggest laws for hunting
Overused land should be restored
An ecosystem is a system of living and nonliving things
Ecologists suggest changes in land use to control pests
Make a list of five subjects that interest you and that are suitable for research. Limit
three of them to manageable topics, and write preliminary thesis statements for those
three.
Check your assignments for the following points:

a. Did you select topics that you can research?
b. Did you limit the topics so that you can cover them thoroughly in
twenty-five to three thousand words?
c. Did you write preliminary thesis statements in which you established
your position on the topics?
d. Did you make a rough outline of the ideas that you think you will use to
support your thesis statement?
In this session, we studied how to plan a research paper. First, we

studied how to choose a topic for the paper. Secondly, we looked at
how to shape or limit the topic to make it suitable for our writing. After we have
selected a topic for our research paper, we must write a thesis statement. The thesis
statement summarizes what we intend to prove in our research paper. It will serve as a
guide for selecting the most useful information for supporting our argument. These are
the initial steps to a good research paper.
Exercise 6.1
Do the following:
Step 1: Select and limit a topic for your research paper.

Step 2: Write a preliminary thesis statement that tells what you plan to prove.
Step 3: Make a rough outline of the major points that you plan to cover.
Step 4: Write your preliminary thesis statement and your rough outline.

SESSION 1


SESSION 2
SESSION 2: DOING THE RESEARCH
Dear Student, you’re welcome to the second session of Unit 6. How

did you find the previous session on identifying a topic for a research
paper?. Were you able to write the rough outline and thesis statement? I hope you
answered all the self-assessment questions easily. Well done! In this session, we shall
be studying how to conduct a research in the library. Doing a library research is very
important. Therefore, it is essential that we study how it is done.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to
(a) describe the steps involved in researching in the library;
(b) describe how to use the card catalogue;
(c) describe the Dewey Decimal System;
(d) describe the general reference items/books; and
(e) describe the periodical indexes
Now read on …
2.1 Using a Library

You will do most of the research for your paper in a library. Because libraries differ in
the resources that they have available, it is important for you to use the best library to
which you have access.
Now that you have a rough outline to direct your research, your task is to find the
books, magazines and newspaper articles, and other materials that will provide support
for your thesis statement. How do you get such materials? You will need to follow some
simple steps. The first step is to consider the Card Catalogue. Have you heard of this
before? Let’s look at it here.
2.2 The Card Catalog

Start your search for information by consulting the card catalog. Books are
alphabetically indexed in the card catalog in three ways:
i. by author
ii. by title, and
iii. by subject.
Each card records the name(s) of the author(s), the complete title, the subject, the
publisher. The publication date, the number of pages, and the call number. That is the
number that tells you where to find the book on the library shelves. Illustrations, maps,
bibliographies, and any special features are also listed on the card.
The following are examples of catalog cards:

UNIT 6 DOING THE RESEARCH
SESSION 2
551. 5 METEOROLOGY
B68 Bowditch, Nathaniel.
Waves, wind and weather: selected from American practical navigator / Nathaniel
Bowditch. New York: McKay. 1977.
185 p. ill : 2cm
551.5 WAVES, WIND AND WEATHER
B68 Bowditch, Nathaniel.
Waves, winds and weather: selected from American practical navigator / Nathaniel
Bowditch. New York: McKay. 1977
185 p. ill: 2cm
551.5
B68 Bowditch, Nathaniel
Card Waves, winds and weather: selected from
American practical navigator/Nathaniel Bowditch.
Author New York: McKay. 1977
Card 185 p. ill: 2cm
1. Meteorology. I. Title.
If you know the author or the title of a book, you can easily find out if the library has
that book by looking up the author or title card. In doing research on your topic,
however, you will probably find subject cards more useful. For common subjects such
as television, mining, railroads, and medicine, you will find subject cards when you
look in the card catalog. For other subjects, you may find a cross-reference card
directing you to another subject heading in the catalog. For example, the cross-
reference for “Timber” directs you to “See Forestry.” Sometimes you will see a “See
also” reference directing you to other subject headings for additional books related to
the topic. Have you seen such a direction before? You may need to try several key
words in your topic before you find references in the card catalog. Can you do this?
You may also use call numbers. How is this done? Let’s try this.
To find books on a library shelf, you need the call numbers. Nonfiction books (that is
books meant for facts) are arranged on the shelves according to their call numbers. The
call numbers follow the classification system used by the library, either the Dewey
Decimal System or the Library of Congress Classification. The Dewey Decimal
System divides all branches of knowledge into ten parts numbered 000 through 999.
Look at these:
2.3 The Dewey Decimal System
000 – 099 General Works 500 – 599 Science

SESSION 2
100 – 199 Philosophy 600 – 699 Technology

200 – 299 Religion 700 – 799 Fine Arts
300 – 399 Social Sciences 800 – 899 Literature
400 – 499 Language 900 – 999 History
The Library of Congress System divides all branches of knowledge into twenty lettered
groups.
2.4 The Library of Congress Classification

A General Works M Music
B Philosophy, Psychology, N Fine Arts
and Religion P Language and
Literature
C History – Auxiliary Science Q Science
D History (except American) R Medicine
E, F American History S Agriculture
G Geography, Anthropology, and T Technology
Sports U Military Science
H Social Sciences V Naval Science
J Political Science Z Bibliography
K Law
L Education
Can you now describe the Dewey Decimal system? Look at the above arrangement
again.
2.5 General Reference Works

Your research will be easier and more efficient if you know how to use general
reference works. Some reference works give you information, while others direct you
to other sources. Can you give some examples of each of these?
For a general overview of your topic, consult an encyclopedia. Within a given article or
in the index volume, you may find useful cross-references to related topics; some
articles will also provide short bibliographies. Most libraries have general
encyclopedias such as: The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Encyclopedia
Americana, and The World Book Encyclopedia.
Specialized encyclopedias may also be useful to you. Most large libraries will have
several specialized encyclopedias including the Encyclopedia of World Art, Van
Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia, and Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia.

SESSION 2
Other references that you should be aware of are: almanacs and yearbooks, atlases, and
gazettes. When you need biographical information, consult biographical references,
such as: Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in the World, and Current Biography.
2.6 Periodical Indexes

Periodical indexes list articles in magazines, newspapers, journals, and other
publications. You will often find the most current ideas and research about a subject in
a periodical rather than in reference books. If your paper requires up-to-date
information, begin your research by using periodical indexes. Most indexes are issued
monthly or quarterly, with cumulative volumes published each year. At the front of
each index is a list of abbreviations for the periodicals listed in that index. Authors and
subjects are arranged in one alphabetical listing.
The most commonly used periodical index is the Readers’ Guide to Periodical
Literature, an index of popular and non-technical magazines. There are other indexes
that list articles in scholarly publications and specialized magazines. Other periodical
indexes found in most large libraries include: The New York Times Index, General
Science Index, and Art Index.
All periodical index entries are similar to the following one from the Readers’ Guide.
JEROME J.
The biomechanical effect. il Esquire 93:116-117
Ap 80
This entry contains the following information:

TITLE: “The Biomechanical Effect”
AUTHOR: J. Jerome
PERIODICAL: Esquire, volume 93
PAGES: 116 – 117
DATE: April, 1980
In this session, we studied how to research in a library. First, we noted

that there are some steps involved in library research. One of these is
that we know how to use the card catalogue in a library. Secondly, we examined the
Dewey Decimal System as a system of cataloguing materials in library. Finally, we
learnt how to identify sections in the library. These sections are the general reference
items/books and the periodical indexes.

SESSION 2
Exercise 6.2
List which of the following sources you could use to find general information on each
topic that follows the list.
Sources
a. The New York Times Index
b. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
c. Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia
d. Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature
e. Information Please Almanac
f. General Science Index
g. Encyclopedia of World Art
Topics
1. Causes of malaria
2. Marco Polo’s travels
3. Diabetes research
4. Mothers’ day celebration
5. Kwame Nkrumah’s political life

6. Co-existence of languages
7. Exploration of the Nile in the nineteenth century
8. Irrigation techniques
9. Oral African literature

SESSION 2


UNIT 6
SESSION 3
SESSION 3: MAKING A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dear Student, You’re welcome to the third session of Unit 5. I hope

you are enjoying the procedures that can be used in researching and
writing a research paper. So far, we have studied how to choose a topic and limit it to
become suitable for our research. We’ve also looked at how to develop an outline for
the paper and how to look for information in the library. One important thing in
research is to have a working bibliography. What is a working bibliography? We shall
get to know it very soon.
Objective
By the end of this session, you should be able to
(a) describe a working bibliography; and
(b) make a working bibliography.
Now read on…
It is useful to begin your research by preparing a working bibliography. A

bibliography is a list of books, magazines, and other sources used in preparing a
research paper. A working bibliography is the list you make at the beginning of your
research of the sources that you intend to use. A working bibliography will help you to
determine whether the library that you plan to use has sufficient information on your
topic. Prepare your working bibliography by consulting the card catalog, indexes to
periodical literature, and other references. If you find insufficient information on your
topic, you will need to choose another topic.
3.1 Bibliography Cards

Use three-by-five-inch index cards to record information about books, articles,
pamphlets, and other sources that you select. These cards will help you in two ways.
First, when you are ready to take notes, you will be able to locate the source more
easily. Second, when you prepare the footnotes and the bibliography for your research
paper, you will have all the necessary information already recorded on the cards. On
each card, include the call number of the source and the library where you found it, if
you are using more than one library. Record the author, title, and publication
information, using the following forms:
BOOK WITH ONE AUTHOR
Thompson, Clean W. Manual of Structural Kinesiology.
8th ed. St. Loius: C.V. Mosby Company, 1977.
BOOK WITH TWO AUTHORS

Logan, Gene A., and Wayne, McKinney C.. Kinesiology

UNIT 6 MAKING A WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY
SESSION 3
Illus. Philip J. Van Voorst. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.

Brown Company Publishers, 1970.
BOOK COMPILED BY AN EDITOR

Burke, Edmund J., ed. Toward an Understanding of Human Performance.
Ithaca,
N.Y.: Mouvement Publication, 1977.
ARTICLE IN A COLLECTION
Lockhart, Aileene S. “The Motor Learning of Children.”
In A Textbook of Motor Development. Ed. Charles B. Corbin. Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm C. Brown Company Publishers, 1973, pp. 151-157.
ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE
Stuller, Jay. “Sports Scientists Train athletes to Defy Old Limits.” Smithsonian,
July 1980, pp. 66-70.
UNATTRIBUTED NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

“Bill Rodgers Wins 10-Kilometer Atlanta Regional Race.” New York Times, 3
May 1981, Sec. 5, p. 16, col. 4.
INTERVIEW
Humez, Alex. Personal interview. 9 April, 1982.
TELEVISION TRANSCRIPT
“Race for Gold.” Narr. Hal Douglas. Writ., prod., and dir. Paula S. Apsell.
Nova. 1979.
ARTICLE IN AN ENCYCLOPEDIA
“Biomechanics.” McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 1977
ed.
PAMPHLET
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. Current Population
Reports: Demographic Aspects of Aging and the Older Population in the

United States. (Special Studies, Series P 22, No. 59) Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 1976.
The following is a sample bibliography card

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
Bibliography Card
Author ……………………………………………..
Title ..…………………………………………….
Place of Publication .……………………………………………..
Publishing Company ………………………………………………
Date of Publication ………………………………………………
Call number ……………………………………………....
Library ………………………………………………
Now do the following:

Prepare a working bibliography of at least five sources for research on one of the
following topics:
Meteorology History of flight

Cable television Computers in medicine
Let’s check the exercise for the following points:

1. Did you use the card catalog, reference works, and periodical indexes to
prepare your working bibliographies?
2. Did you make a separate card for each source?
3. Does each card contain complete bibliographical information as well as
the call number, if the source is a book, and the name of the library
where you found the source?
4. Did you write the bibliographical information in the correct form?
Taking Notes
You are now ready to locate the sources on your working bibliography, to evaluate each
source, and to take notes that will help you to support your thesis statement. Evaluate
each source carefully. Sometimes a source is not as helpful in providing useful
information as you would expect it to be. Follow the strategies listed on the next page
to evaluate a source before deciding whether to read it.
1. Examine the table of contents and the index of each book to see whether
it contains information directly related to your topic.
2. Check the publication dates of books and articles. If you plan to discuss
recent developments, your sources should be up to date.
3. Skim chapters or articles for information that supports your preliminary
thesis statement. Examine headings, subheadings, illustrations, charts,
and tables as well as the text.
4. Choose sources by authors who are well known and highly regarded in
their fields. If you do not know enough about an author to make such a
decision, ask your teacher or librarian.

SESSION 3
Once you have decided that a source contains useful information, you are ready to take
notes on its contents. Record your notes on three-by-five inch or four-by-six inch index
cards. The following strategies are useful for your note taking. They will make it easier
for you to record the information that you need as you are writing your paper.
1. Refer to your preliminary thesis statement and your rough outline as you
work. Read each source all the way through for understanding. Then
read it a second time, taking notes on the ideas, facts, statistics,
quotations, or other information that will help to support your thesis
statement.
2. Write a subject heading on the top line of each card, as a way of
identifying the subject of the note. Refer to headings of your rough
outline. Some of the subject headings on your note cards will be the
same as your outline headings; others will be more specific. These
subject headings will be useful when you prepare a detailed outline for
your paper. You will use many of them as the headings and
subheadings.
3. Write only on the front of the card. It is easy to overlook information
that is written on the back. If necessary, use a second card to complete
your record.
5. Write only one idea on each card. This strategy will allow you to
arrange the cards later so that you can organize ideas and information
that belong together into useful groups in preparation for outlining and
writing your paper.
6. Write on the bottom of the card the numbers of the pages from which you
took the information. You will need to record these page numbers in
your footnotes.
There are several methods of taking notes: recording direct quotations, writing a
paraphrase, writing a summary, or using a combination of these methods. Choose the
method that is best suited to the source from which you are taking notes.
Direct Quotation
A direct quotation is the exact words of source. Record a direct quotation when the
author has made a point in an unusual or significant way and when the exact wording
gives the best support to your thesis statement. When you want to record a direct
quotation, copy the exact words from the source and enclose the passage in quotation
marks. You may leave out some words from a quoted passage, if you wish. In that
case, use ellipsis points (three spaced periods) to show that words have been omitted.

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
Direct Quotation
Subject heading …………………………………….

Author and abbreviated title …………………………………….
Note ……………………………………
Page reference …………………………………….
Paraphrase
A paraphrase restates in your own words the ideas in a passage. Write a paraphrase
note when you want to use material from a source but do not need to quote the exact
words of the author. When you write a paraphrase, be careful to retain the author’s
intended meaning even though you are not quoting his or her words directly.
One method for writing a paraphrase note is to read the material carefully and then
write the information or ideas in your own words without looking at the source. Check
the source again to make sure that your paraphrase is accurate and that it still retains the
author’s meaning.
The following passage from a magazine article is the basis of the paraphrase note on the
following page.
Muscles are composed of two kinds of fibers – sprint and endurance fibers. No
individual is all one or the other but rather a combination of types. The greater the
percentage of the sprint fibers, the better you are at stop-and-start sports.
The greater the percentage of endurance fibers, the better you are at sports requiring a
sustained level of activity.
Use the Vertical Jump Test to determine your predominant muscle-fiber type. The
higher you can jump, the more sprint fibers you have.
“Does Your Sport Suit Your Body?” Glamour, p. 94

Paraphrase
Subject heading …………………………………….
Source and abbreviated title ……………………………………..
Notes ……………………………………..
Page reference ……………………………………..
Summary
A summary is a condensed form of a passage. Write a summary in your own words,
including only the main points and the most important supporting details. Writing a
summary is a good way of taking notes when you are doing research for a paper. A

SESSION 3
summary is especially useful when you are recording ideas, facts, statistics, and other
information from long passages. When you write a summary, look for key words in the
passage and include them in your summary.
Summary
Subject heading ……………………………………
Source ……………………………………
Title …………………………………….
Note ……………………………………
Page reference …………………………………….
In this session, we studied how to draw a working bibliography. A

working bibliography is the list you make at the beginning of your
research of the sources that you intend to use. A working bibliography will help you to
determine whether the library that you plan to use has sufficient information on your
topic. You prepare a working bibliography by consulting the card catalog, indexes to
periodical literature, and other references. If you find insufficient information on your
topic, you will need to choose another topic. We also studied some methods of making
notes. These are direct quotation, indirect quotation, paraphrase and summary.
Exercise 6.3
Prepare a working bibliography of at least five sources for research on one of the
following topics.
a. The Benefits of Distance Education
b. Anti-social Behaviour in Ghana.
c. The causes of Streetism in the Western Region
Let’s check the exercise for the following points:

1. Did you use the card catalog, reference works, and periodical indexes to
prepare your working bibliographies?
2. Did you make a separate card for each source?
3. Does each card contain complete bibliographical information as well as
the call number, if the source is a book, and the name of the library
where you found the source?
4. Did you write the bibliographical information in the correct form?

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: ORGANIZING YOUR INFORMATION
Dear Student, you’re welcome to the fourth session of Unit 6. How did
you find the previous unit. I hope you answered all the self-assessment
questions easily. Well done! In this session we shall be studying how to plan a research
paper. Planning a research paper is very important to every student. Therefore, we study
how it is done.
Objectives
(a) put various pieces of information together
(b) arrange various pieces of information in the order of importance
(c) arrange pieces of information in a chronological order.
Now read on…
4.1 Revising Your Preliminary Thesis Statement

Now that you have gathered information from your sources, you may need to revise
your preliminary thesis statement so that it accurately reflects the information and the
conclusions that you are about to present. Review your notes carefully and compare
your preliminary thesis statement with your research findings.
Your thesis statement must be expressed precisely because your entire paper will be
developed from it. The following example shows the revision of the preliminary thesis
statement for the research paper on biomechanics.
Preliminary thesis statement: Biomechanics will soon become an important

aspect of our daily lives.
Revised thesis statement: Because of the rapid advances make in this science,
biomechanics will someday affect the lives of everyone, athletes and nonathletes
alike.
4.2 Making a Detailed Outline

The next step in preparing to write your research paper is to organize your ideas into a
detailed outline such as the one on page 503. Use the following procedure in preparing
your detailed outline:
1. Sort your cards according to their subject headings. Keep together the
cards having the same or similar subject headings.
2. Use the subject headings on your groups of note cards to determine the
main headings of your outline. Review your rough outline. If some of
the headings on your rough outline do not support your revised thesis
statement, eliminate them. Using your note-card headings, add new

UNIT 6 ORGANIZING YOUR INFORMATION
SESSION 4
main headings that support your thesis statement. Then arrange your
headings in chronological order, in order of importance, or by cause and
effect. Choose the arrangement that is best suited to your topic and your
thesis statement.
3. Add subheadings under each main heading, using the information on
your note cards. Note that you may not be able to use all the notes that
you have taken. Use only the ones that support your thesis statement,
and eliminate the others.
4. Assign a Roman numeral to each main heading. Use I for the
introduction, and number the conclusion as well. Assign a capital letter
to each subheading. If the outline contains further details under the
subheading, assign Arabic numerals to those details. If the details in
Arabic numerals require subheadings, assign small letters to them.
5. Write all corresponding headings in parallel grammatical form. For
example, in a topic outline, such as the one on the facing page, if the
heading for A is a phrase, the headings for B, C, and D should be the
same kind of phrase. If you are preparing a sentence outline, write each
heading as a complete sentence.
6. Subdivide a topic into at least two sections, or else eliminate it or make it
part of another group. Do not have an A without a B, or a 1 without a 2.
After you have organized your research findings, you should have a thesis statement
and a detailed outline similar to those on the facing page. The outline is a plan for the
model research paper on pages 521-534.
Thesis statement: Because of the rapid advances made in this science, biomechanics
will someday affect the lives of everyone, athletes and non-athletes alike.
I. Introduction
II. Uses of biomechanics in sports training
A. Traditional approach to training
1. Exercises for long jumpers
2. Training for baseball players
B. Biomechanical discoveries about training
C. Implications for training
III. Technology involved in biomechanics
A. Tests that measure performance and efficiency
1. Oxygen consumption
2. Weight distribution
3. Traits for running
B. Photography and light technology
C. Computers for diagnosis and prediction
1. Mac Wilkins’s improved performance
2. Terry Albritton’s improved performance
SESSION 4
IV. Medical uses of biomechanics

A. Recreational counseling
B. Rehabilitative programs
1. Surgery
2. Medical products
V. Business and industrial uses
A. Sports equipment and clothing
B. Industrial robots
VI. Conclusion
4.3 Taking Additional Notes

Your outline enables you to check the sequence of your ideas and to rearrange the order,
if necessary. Your outline also shows you the amount of support that you have for each
major point. It is not necessary to give equal support to each heading, but if some
topics need additional development, continue your research until you have enough
information. It will be easier for you to write your paper once you have adequate
support and a clear outline of your ideas.
In this session, we studied how to organize our research materials for

writing. We learnt that we should put the various materials collected
under separate headings. Then, we should write an outline putting the materials under
headings and subheadings. This will help us write a well organized research paper.
Exercise 6.4
Prepare a topic outline that develops a thesis statement of your own. Use the sample
provided below.
Check your assignment for the following points:

1. Arrange the headings in a logical order.
2. Fully consider causes, effects, and other elements that could be listed as
subheadings on your outline.
3. Write a thesis statement and place it at the beginning of your outline.
4. Revise your thesis statement if your new information helped you to focus
it.
5. Separate your note cards by subject headings.
6. Write a topic outline that is well organized and includes all major and
supporting points.
7. Take additional notes if you did not have enough supporting information
for a point.

UNIT 6 ORGANIZING YOUR INFORMATION
SESSION 4
The Problem of Streetism in Ghana
I. Introduction
II. ……?..............
A. ………?..........
1. …….?.........
2. …….?............
B. ………?................
1. ………?..........
2. ………..?...........
C. ……………?..............
1. ………..?........
2. ……….?..........
3. ………….?.............
III. …………?.......................
A. …………?.......................
1. ……….?................
2. …………?...............
B. ………………?........................
IV. ………………..?.......................
A. ……..?.....................
B. ……………?.................
1. …………..?..................
2. …………?....................
V Conclusion

SESSION 5
SESSION 5: DRAFTING AND DOCUMENTING YOUR PAPER
Dear Student, you’re welcome to the fifth session of Unit 6. How did
you find the previous unit? I hope you answered all the self-assessment
questions easily. Well done! We are pleased that you are progressing so much in your
studies. In this session, we shall be studying how to draft and document our research
paper. Drafting and documenting a research paper is very important to every student.
Therefore, it is essential that we study how it is done.
Objectives
(a) draft a research paper on a given topic
(b) acknowledge and document all source of information
Now read on …
5.1 Writing Your First Draft

Once you have prepared the detailed outline and have arranged your note cards in an
order corresponding to your outline. You are ready to write the first draft of your paper.
Plan to write the paragraphs for each Roman numeral section in one sitting. Doing so
will help you to focus on the topic of that section.
Your main purpose in your first draft is to write down all of your major points and
supporting information in a logical order. Write the first draft carefully, but remember
that it is only a first draft. You can improve your word choice and sentence structure
when you revise the paper.
Write your draft on every other line and only on one side of the paper. This procedure
will make it easier for you to revise. Number each page.
The Introduction: Write one or two paragraphs of introduction to explain the purpose
and the scope of the paper. Include the thesis statement and enough background
information to make it clear. Use the introduction also to capture your reader’s interest,
to explain the significance of the topic, to define terms, and to tell how the paper is
organized
The Body: In the body of the paper, develop each heading on the outline, using the
information on your note cards. Keep in mind that your objective is to support or
prove your thesis statement by setting out in a logical way the information that you have
gathered.

UNIT 6 DRAFTING AND DOCUMENTING YOUR PAPER
SESSION 5
Where direct words from a source are important in making a point, use direct
quotations, being careful to copy the words exactly. Use transitional words to
incorporate the quotations into your paper.
The Conclusion: Write a concluding paragraph that reviews all of your main points and
shows that you have proved your thesis statement.
5.2 Documentation
You have included in your first draft the ideas and direct quotations that you recorded
on your note cards. You must now document this information. Documentation is the
process by which you acknowledge the sources of the information used in your
research. Document includes footnotes and a bibliography.
5.3 Footnotes
A footnote gives the author and publication from which you have taken information.
Whenever you use information that is not your own, footnote it. To do so, place a
superscript, or raised number, in the text above the line at the end of the information.
In the corresponding footnote, give the author and publication information. The
following rules will help you to know when to use footnotes.
Rule 1: Footnote your source when you quote an author’s exact words. Use direct
quotations only when the author’s wording is important or when the exact
phrasing strengthens the point that you are making.
“Before the model, we really had no way to determine what kinds of stresses
were put on an injured joint,” explains Dr. Murray. “Now we’ll be able to
develop rehabilitative exercise.”1
Rule 2: Footnote your source when you use an author’s idea even though you have
not used the author’s exact words.
Ariel also showed that, for baseball pitchers, training the wrist is useless since
the speed of the writs movement is a result of a whip action of the legs, back,
and shoulders, not a muscle contraction of the forearm.2
Rule 3: Footnote your source when you give figures or statistics.
By following Ariel’s advice, Wilkins increased his throw from 219 feet 1 inch to
232 feet 6 inches, broke the world record in discus throwing, and won an
Olympic gold medal.3

SESSION 5
You do not need to footnote information that is commonly known even though you did
not previously know that information yourself. Information is considered to be
commonly known if it appears in several sources. Try to avoid having too many
footnotes in your paper. Remember to document all of our sources in order to avoid
plagiarism, which is using someone else’s words or ideas as if they were your own.
Footnote Forms: Use the following forms to footnote various types of sources, unless
your teacher suggests other styles of acknowledgement. Notice that you do not include
the word The at the beginning of the title of a magazine, a newspaper, or an
encyclopedia. Notice also that subtitles are not included in footnotes
BOOK WITH ONE AUTHOR

1 C. W. Thompson, Manual of Structural Kinesiology, 8th ed. (St. Louis: C. V.
Mosby Company, 1977), p. 87.
BOOK WITH TWO AUTHORS

2. John Piscopo and James A. Baley, Kinesiology (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1981), p. 274.
BOOK COMPILED BY AN EDITOR

3. Edmund J. Burke, ed., Toward an Understanding of Human Performance
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Mouvement Publications, 1977), p. 17.
ARTICLE IN A COLLECTION
4. Aileene S. Lockhart, “The Motor Learning of Children,” in A Textbook of Motor
Development, ed. Charles B. Corgin (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1973),
pp. 96-97.
UNATTRIBUTED NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

5. K. B. Asante, The Mirror, 3 May 1981, Sec. 5, p. 16, col. 4.
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
6. Personal interview with Opoo Nyamekye, 9 April, 1982.
You may have to refer to a particular source more than once in your paper. Give
complete information in the footnote for the first reference. In later references, called
subsequent references, you need to only identify the author (or the tile if no author is
given) and the page number, as shown here:
5 Thompson, p. 106

SESSION 5
If you refer to more than one work by the same author, use a shortened form of the title
to identify the particular work.
10 Piscopo, Clues to Safety, p. 52
Footnote Placement: You may place your footnotes in either of the following
positions. First, you may place the footnotes that go with the material on a particular
page at the bottom of that page. Leave three blank lines between the text and the
footnotes and single-space the footnotes. Second, you may place all the footnotes for
the paper on a separate page at the end. Put Notes at the top of the page, and place the
page before the bibliography. Double-space the footnotes and indent the first line of
each one. Your teacher will tell you which placement to use.
Bibliography
The last page of your paper is the bibliography. It includes all the works listed in the
footnotes. It may include the works that you read as general background before the
writing but did not use as sources of specific ideas, facts, or direct quotations. Check
with your teacher to see if you are to include such works in your bibliography. Arrange
in alphabetical order the bibliography cards that you prepared when you were planning
and researching and researching your paper. (See page 490) Make an entry for each
card, using the following procedure:
1. Alphabetize bibliography entries by the authors’ last names.
If a source does not have an author, alphabetize the entry by the first
word in the title, omitting A, An, and The.
2. Begin the first line of each entry at the left margin. Indent the
succeeding lines five spaces.
3. Separate the parts of the entry with periods.
4. Include the subtitle if a source has one.
5. Give the author’s name only in the first entry if there are two or more
works by the same author. In subsequent entries, use ten hyphens
instead of the author’s name, put a period after the last hyphen, and
continue with the rest of the entry.
Fulmer, Robert M. Management and Organization.

New York: Harper and Row, 1980.
----------. The New Management. New York:
Macmillan, 1982.
6. Do not number the entries.

7. Alphabetize the entries by book titles when you are using more than one
book by an author.

SESSION 5
In this session we studied how to make a first draft of a research paper.

Then, we also learnt how to make a footnote and a bibliography. We
identified the following as very good steps:
1. Write an introduction that includes your thesis statement.

2. Follow your outline, presenting your ideas in a logical way.
3. Write accurate footnotes for all of the quotations and ideas that you
borrowed from sources.
4. Write a conclusion that summarizes the main points in the body of your
paper.
5. Prepare the bibliography correctly.
Exercise 6.5
a. Write an introduction that includes your thesis statement.
b. Then write one section of your paper at a time.
c. Write a conclusion that summarizes your main points.
d. Write your footnotes on a separate page, unless your teacher tells you to do
otherwise.

SESSION 5


SESSION 6
SESSION 6: REVISING AND FINISHING YOUR PAPER
Dear Student, you’re welcome to the last session of Unit 6. How did
you find the previous unit. I hope you answered all the self-
assessment questions easily. In this session, we shall be studying how to revise a
research paper. Revising a research paper is very important to every student. It is the
last stage of the writing process. Therefore, it is necessary that we study how it is done.
Objectives
(a) state how to revise a research paper;
(b) describe how to revise a research paper; and
(c) identify the qualities of a finished research paper
Now read on…
6.1 Beginning the Revision

After you have finished the first draft of your paper, put it aside for a while before
beginning your revision. Doing so will make it easier for you to see where you need to
improve organization, word choice, and sentence structure; to correct errors; and, in
general, to make your paper more convincing and readable.
6.2 Guide to Revising

Read through your draft carefully several times. Concentrate on one of the following
points each time that you read, and make the necessary changes.
1. Organization Refer to your outline and check to see that you have all of its points in
correct order. It is not too late to reorganize or change sequence if doing so would
improve your paper. If you do move a section, check to see that you have also
moved any footnotes for that section. You must also change your outline to reflect
the change in the paper.
2. Unity and Completeness Check each section for unity. Each supporting detail
should clearly relate to the point being made in the section. In turn, each point being
made should support or prove the thesis statement. Delete or rewrite any section that
does not clearly relate to the point being made.
Be sure that there is enough information in each section to support each point. Use
facts, examples, and quotations to show the reader what you mean.
3. Transitions: Make your paper coherent by using transitional words and phrases.
When you wrote the first draft, you concentrated on writing one section at a time. As

UNIT 6 REVISING AND FINISHING YOUR PAPER
SESSION 6
you revise the paper, add appropriate transitions to lead the reader from one idea to
the next. Use the following strategies to make smooth transitions.
Strategies
a. Use transitional words and phrases.
TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIPS

after, at the same time, finally, meanwhile, next, soon, then, until
TO PRESENT EXAMPLES
for example, for instance, one, another, to illustrate
TO SHOW RESULTS
as a result, consequently, for this reason, therefore
TO SHOW LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

accordingly, also, because, however, in addition to, in fact,
nevertheless, yet
b. Use a pronoun that refer to a person or an idea just mentioned in the preceding
sentence or paragraph.
Long jumpers appear to rise on their toes as they push off from the
board. Traditionally they have trained by carrying heavy weights while
rising on their toes.
c. Repeat a key word or an idea from the last sentence of a paragraph in the first
sentence of the next paragraph.
Indeed, the more we know about biomechanics and the more
sophisticated the technology, the more possibilities for its application
occur to us.
Perhaps the application most closely allied to sports is in the field of recreational
counseling.
4. Words and Sentences: Check to see that you have chosen the best words to express
your ideas. Define any specialized terms that you have used.
To make your sentences effective, avoid wordiness. Combine short, choppy sentences
into a single clear sentence. Separate long, confusing sentences into shorter, clearer
ones. Use a variety of sentences structures and lengths to make your writing interesting.
Check to see that you are consistent in point of view and in use of verb tense.

SESSION 6
5. Proofreading: Read your paper once more to correct any errors in grammar,
spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Make sure that your footnotes and
bibliography are correct.
When you have completed all of the revisions and corrections, you will have a final
draft. Choose a title that reflects the topic of your paper and will attract your readers’
interest. Now you are ready to write or type your finished paper. The next section tells
you how to do that.
Exercise 1 Revising Sentences The following excerpt from a research paper needs
revision. On your paper, write the letter of the suggested revision for the numbered
sentence that you think would best improve the draft. If you think that a sentence is
effective as it stands, write the letter that indicates Make no change.
6.3 The Finished Paper

Your finished paper should include the following parts arranged in this order, unless
your lecturer has suggested an alternate format:
1. Title
2. Outline
3. The written or typed paper
4. Notes (if you put your footnotes on a separate page)
5. Bibliography
To prepare a title page, center the title halfway down the page. Capitalize the first word
and all other words except articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of fewer than five
letters. Do not underline the title or put quotation marks around it. Center the word by
under the title and center your name under that. In the lower
right section of the page, write your teacher’s name, the name of the course, and the
date.
In this session, we looked at the revision of a research paper to make it a

finished paper. We examined the major areas to consider in revising the
paper. These areas are the organization, unity and completeness,
transitions, words and sentences and proofreading.
We also identified some features of a finished research paper. These are the Title,
Outline, Notes (if you put your footnotes on a separate page) and Bibliography.

UNIT 6 REVISING AND FINISHING YOUR PAPER
SESSION 6
Exercise 5.6
1. State the five important areas to consider in revising a research paper.
2. What are the indicators of a finished research paper?

REFERENCES
Afolayan, A. and H.E. Newsum (1983), The Use of English. Longman, London.
Gartside, L. (1973), English for Business Studies. Fletcher and Sons Ltd. Norwich.
Gborsong, P.A. (2001), A Comprehensive Guide to Communicative Skills. CTA Press

Kumasi.
Gborsong, P.A. (2011), Fundamentals of Communicative Skills for undergraduate

Students. University Press, Cape Coast.
Oluikpe, Benson Omenihuu, Use of English for Higher Education. Africana Publishers,
Onitsha
Opoku Agyemang, Naana J. (1998), A Handbook for Writing Skills. Ghana Universities
Press, Accra
Parry, Helen (1979), Use of English Course. Macmillan, London
Sekyi-Baidoo, Yaw (2000), Learning and Communicating. Wilas Press Ltd, Kumasi
Yankson, K.E. (2002), Better English Throng Concord. Nyakod Printing Press, Cape
Coast.
CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Educati on and Business Studies 163

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First printed in 2017 by Brenya Distributions Ltd.

Second printing in 2019 by Paramount Paper Works, Accra

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC),

First Publication, 2017

Cover page illustrated by William Jacobs

Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

This Course Book “Communicative Skills 2” has been exclusively written by

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Rev. (Dr.) P.A. Gborsong

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business S tudies i

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Busienss S tudies vii

viii CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Education and Business S tudies

Session 1: The Communication Process

Session 2: Personal Business Communication

Session 3: Communication at the Workplace

Session 4: Using Communication Technology

Session 5: Principles of Communication Psychology I

Session 6: Principles of Communication Psychology II

UNIT 2: DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS (I) –

Session 1: The Paragraph and the Controlling Idea

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies i

Session 2: The Topic Sentence

UNIT 3: DEVELOPMING WRITING SKILLS (II) – THE ESSAY

ii CoDEUCC/Di pl oma in Maths & Science Education

Session 4: Ways of Developing the Essay

UNIT 4: LETTER WRITING

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies iii

6.4 Mechanical Accuracy in Formal Letters

UNIT 5: WRITING REPORTS AND MEMORANDA

UNIT 6: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

iv CoDEUCC/Di pl oma in Maths & Science Education

4.3 Taking Additional Notes

Session 5: Drafting and Documenting Your Paper

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies v

Communication is a very essential part of life. Its importance is based

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies 1

This is blank sheet for your short note on:

2 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies

SESSION 1: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Dear students, you’re welcome to the first session of Unit 1. In this

Now read on…

The exchange of information between and among individuals is referred to as

“OK,” replied Kofi, “inform me when you are going.”

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies 3

Miscommunication can take place effortlessly in any environment–especially in the

1.1 Personal Communication

As our stock of vocabulary develops, our ability to communicate also develops. To a

1.2 Verbal Skills for Everyday Life

4 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Educati on and Business Studies

1.3 Skills for Preventing Misunderstanding

In this session, we have studied the meaning of communication. We also

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies 5

This is blank sheet for your short note on:

6 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Educati on and Business Studies

SESSION 2: PERSONAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

You’re welcome to the second session of Unit 1. I hope you enjoyed

Now read on…

2.1 Satisfying Needs as a Consumer

CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Education and Business Studies 7

Communicating with Government