Physics Material 1

PHY1509 PHYSICS SECTION: WHAT TO EXPECT
Study Material 1
Study Unit 1 What to expect from this
module
Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures

Study Unit 3 Single variables
Study Unit 4 A case study
Topic 1
Study Unit 5 Precision and accuracy
Measurements Study Unit 6 Repeated measurements
and errors
Study Unit 7 Evaluating the precision of
a measurement
Study Unit 8 Normal distribution
STUDY UNIT 1
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THIS MODULE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
We will be covering how one goes about doing an experiment and interpreting
results. This will give you an idea of the way in which a physicist thinks when
conducting research.
Physics is in essence a study of nature and the laws that govern it. Great pioneers
like Newton, Pascal, Boyle, Edison, Bell, Curie and Einstein made their
contribution to physics by observation, investigation, data analysis, interpretation
and finally drawing conclusions from their experiments. This enabled them to
formulate new theories or to apply their findings in practice. We need only mention
Edison’s invention of the light bulb as an example of how far-reaching the effect of
experimental work in physics has been on society.
It is our firm belief that any student who shows an interest in our subject should
also be given the opportunity of getting to know a physics laboratory. It goes
without saying that we do not expect you to make major discoveries in physics in
an introductory laboratory course. What we would like to do, is to introduce you to
the practice of physics. In the process you will acquire certain laboratory skills
which include:
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▪ observing physical phenomena

▪ taking measurements
▪ collecting experimental data
▪ analysing experimental data
▪ interpreting experimental data
▪ applying elementary statistics
▪ writing a scientific report
The experiments you are going to conduct will be based on topics from mechanics,
electricity and magnetism, optics and modern physics. This module will give you
the opportunity to “see for yourself” how the theory that you have been studying in
the other first year physics modules is applied. You will be able to investigate for
yourself principles like the conservation of momentum, electric and magnetic
forces. After completing the practical, you will not only have acquired certain
experimental skills, but you will also have a better understanding of the areas of the
theory that we have covered in the theory modules.
In some of the experiments you may be asked to find experimental values for the
gravitational acceleration g, the charge of an electron e and the spring constant k of
a spiral spring to name but a few. Other experiments are, however, designed to
investigate the relationship between two or more quantities. By doing this, you will
be testing the validity of a physical theory. You will investigate the relationship
between the length of a simple pendulum and the period of its motion, for example.
For both these types of experiments, one needs to make accurate and methodical
observations, while at the same time realising the limitations of the apparatus that
is being used. How are we going to go about this whole process? To start off, we
would like you to conduct a very simple experiment as an illustration of what you
will be doing in this module. Let us call it the soft drink experiment.
1.2 THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT
Formulating an aim for the experiment
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Before one conducts an experiment, there has to be a certain question to which one
wants to find the answer. In scientific language we would call that the aim of the
experiment. An experiment in physics is a question about something we have
observed in nature to which we want to obtain a unique answer by means of a
suitable experimental procedure. “So what could a soft drink possibly have to do
with all this?”, you may ask. Let us consider a can of soft drink, like the one shown
in Figure 1.1. On the outside of the can it is stated that it contains 340 ml of soft
drink — have you ever checked? What about the volume of the can itself — is it
exactly 340 ml, or is it slightly greater than 340 ml? How would you go about
determining the volume of the can?
Before we formulate an aim for our experiment, let us consider some statements
about the volume of the can and the volume of its contents. Any of the following
statements could be true:
➢ The volume of soft drink in the can is less than 340 ml.
➢ The volume of soft drink in the can is more than 340 ml.
➢ The volume of soft drink in the can is exactly 340 ml.
➢ The volume of the can is exactly 340 ml.
➢ The volume of the can is greater than 340 ml.
➢ The volume of the can is less than 340 ml.
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FIGURE 1.1: A can containing soft drink
Each of these statements can be called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement HYPOTHESIS

which is made before its validity has been determined. By doing an experiment or
an investigation, the hypothesis can be tested and a conclusion can then be reached
about its validity. The aim of an experiment is therefore often to test the validity of
a hypothesis. Testing only one of the hypotheses stated above would amount to the
type of experiment in which the main objective is the quantitative determination of
a physical quantity (the volume of either the can or its contents in this case). This
would not make for a very meaningful experiment, however. We can obtain much
more interesting information by either:
➢ investigating the relationship between the volume of the soft drink and some
other physical quantity
OR
➢ combining all the statements into a general aim that would enable us to
determine the volume of both the can and its contents and to find the
relationship between them.
Consider the list of statements given below. Each statement is the formulation of a

possible aim of an experiment about the volume of soft drink in a 340 ml can.
Choose the statement that you think would provide you with an aim for an
experiment that you can do at home. Base your choice on the apparatus you have
available to perform the experiment.
STATEMENTS:
The aim of the experiment is to determine the relationship between:
1. the temperature of the soft drink and its volume
2. the capacity of the can and the volume of the soft drink it contains
3. the pressure inside the can and the volume of soft drink it contains
4. the height of the can and the volume of soft drink it contains
5. the circumference of the can and the volume of soft drink it contains.
………………………………..................................... FEEDBACK .......................

Any of the formulations are feasible provided you have the necessary apparatus
available. For any of the formulations you need a way of determining the volume
of the soft drink (something like a measuring cup with a volume of more than 340
ml). Let us consider them one by one:
1. To determine the relationship between the volume of the soft drink and its
temperature you need a thermometer and a way to heat or cool the soft drink.
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2. To be able to determine the pressure inside the can without opening it, you need
quite sophisticated apparatus, which makes this experiment unsuitable for doing
at home.
3. To find the relation between the capacity of the can and the volume of its
contents, you need a reliable way of determining both the capacity of the can
and the volume of the soft drink.
4. and 5. To determine the dimensions of the can, you need an accurate way of
determining both the height and the circumference of the can. Remember that
the new cans have indents at the top and at the bottom (see Figure 1.1) and the
volume of the can is dependent on its height and its circumference
simultaneously!
Based on these considerations, statement 2 seems to be the least problematic for a
home experiment.
....................................................................................................................................
Now that we have established the possibility of performing an experiment on a can
of soft drink, let us have a look at the way in which we will be going about doing
experiments in the laboratory. For each experiment which forms part of the
laboratory course, you will be given a set of instructions to guide you in carrying INSTRUCTIONS
out the experiment. As an example of this procedure, you can follow the instructions
below to perform your first experiment.
1.3 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT
Aim
The aim of this experiment is to determine the relation between the capacity of a
can of soft drink and the volume of soft drink it contains.
Apparatus
For this experiment you will need:
➢ one 340 ml can of soft drink
➢ a measuring cup with a capacity of at least 500 ml.
Method
1. Buy a 340 ml can of soft drink (any brand will do).
2. Open the can, pour the contents into the measuring cup and record the volume
of the soft drink. (The contents can now be consumed if preferred!)
3. Determine the capacity of the can by filling it to capacity with water, pouring
the water into the measuring cup and recording the volume of the water. Make
sure that you drain the can completely.
4. Repeat this measurement five times.
5. DO NOT THROW AWAY THE CAN — WE WILL BE USING IT AGAIN!
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6. Draw conclusions from your results.
Having completed an experiment, the usual procedure is to summarise the results

and the findings in a scientific report. You will be required to write such a report
after completing each experiment during the laboratory session. As a trial you can 
use the space provided below to report on the soft drink experiment. A model report SCIENTIFIC
for this experiment is provided below in section 1.5. Write out your own before REPORT
looking at the model report!
1.4 YOUR REPORT ON THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aim
Write down, in your own words, an aim for an experiment about the capacity of a
340 ml can of soft drink and the volume of its contents. (Note that 1 ml = 1 𝑐𝑚3 .)
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1.2 Background theory

This section of the report gives background information about the subject matter of
the experiment. This includes relevant information about the experiment as
background to the experiment. Importantly, also give reasons for doing the
experiment.
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
2.1 Apparatus
Briefly specify the apparatus that you used to perform the experiment (a labelled
sketch of the apparatus is always a good idea).
2.2 Procedure
Give a step-by-step account of the procedure you followed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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3 RESULTS
Record the results of your measurements in Table 1.1. In Table 1.1 there are some
symbols with which you may not be familiar. The symbol 𝛿 (delta) in the first row
is generally used to indicate a difference between two values. In this case delta
indicates the difference between the volume of water recorded for each
measurement and the average value of these readings. This means that for reading
1
𝛿 = volume of water recorded in reading 1 – average volume of water
and so on. The symbol 𝛿 2 indicates the square of this difference. The symbol ∑
(sigma) in the first column of the second last row in Table 1.1 refers to the sum of
the values in each column of the table.
Take careful note of the UNITS of all the quantities in the columns of Table 1.1!
Reading Volume of water 𝛿 𝛿2
no. (cm3 ) (cm3) (cm6)
1
2
3
4
5
∑
TABLE 1.1: Your results of the soft drink experiment
Volume of soft drink: ...........................

3.1 Calculations
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1. Calculate
(a) the average capacity of the can
(b) the difference between the capacity of the can and the volume of the soft
drink
(c) the ratio of the volume of the soft drink to the capacity of the can.
2. Try to make an estimate of the error in the results.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discuss the results you obtained and draw conclusions about the relationship
between the capacity of the can and the volume of its contents. See if you can express
the relationship in mathematical form.
………………………………..................................... FEEDBACK .......................
1.5 MODEL REPORT ON THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aim
The aim of this experiment was to determine the relationship between the capacity
of a 340 ml can of soft drink and the volume of its contents.
1.2 Background theory
The soft drink used contains carbonated water, sucrose, caramel, phosphoric acid,
flavourants and caffeine. It is available in various forms of packaging, including 2
litre and 1.5 litre plastic bottles, 1 litre glass bottles, 340 ml and 450 ml cans. In this
experiment the relationship between the capacity of the 340 ml can and its contents
is investigated. Although the experiment serves mainly to demonstrate laboratory
procedure and data processing, at the same time it poses an interesting question
from real life. From the results of the investigation, information could be gained
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about the allowance made by the manufacturers of the soft drink for expansion and
pressure increases of the contents of their 340 ml can.
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
2.1 Apparatus
A 340 ml can of soft drink was used for the investigation. A measuring cup with a
maximum capacity of 500 ml calibrated in 20 ml divisions (see Fig 1.2) was used
to determine the volume of the soft drink in the can.
FIGURE 1.2: Measuring cup and soft drink can used in the experiment
2.2 Procedure
1. A 340 ml can of soft drink was purchased for the purpose of the experiment.
2. The can was opened and the contents were poured into the measuring cup. The
volume was recorded and the contents was consumed.
3. The capacity of the can was determined by filling the can to capacity with water
and then pouring the water into the measuring cup. The volume of the water
was read from the scale on the measuring cup and recorded in Table 1.2.
4. This measurement was repeated five times, and the results were recorded in
Table 1.2.
5. The average volume of the water and the adjusted standard error in the result
were calculated and compared with the volume of the soft drink.
6. The calculations and conclusions are given below.
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3 RESULTS
The measurements obtained for the capacity of a 340 ml can of soft drink are shown
in Table 1.2. (Remember that 1 ml = 1 cm3 .)
Reading Volume of water 𝛿 𝛿2
no. (cm3) (cm3) (cm6)
1 360 –2 4
2 370 8 64
3 370 8 64
4 360 –2 4
5 350 –12 144
∑ 1810 280
TABLE 1.2: Results of the soft drink experiment
The volume of the soft drink contained in the can was found to be (340 ± 10) cm3 .
The error in the reading was recorded as 10 cm3 , because the measuring cup was
calibrated in 20 ml divisions but an estimate of 10 ml could be made if the meniscus
lay exactly between two scale divisions.
3.1 Calculations
The average volume of the water, and therefore the capacity of the can, was
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 + 𝑉5
𝑉̅can =
𝑛
1810 cm3
=
5
= 362 cm3 . (1.1)
The adjusted standard error in the capacity was given by
1
𝛿12 + 𝛿22 + 𝛿32 + 𝛿42 + 𝛿52 2
Δ𝑉can =[ ]
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
1
280 cm6 2
=[ ]
5(4)
= 3.7 cm3
̃ 4 cm3 .
− (1.2)
The capacity of the can is therefore
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𝑉can = (360 ± 4)cm3 . (1.3)

The difference between the capacity of the can and the volume of the soft drink is
𝑉 = 𝑉can − 𝑉soft drink
= 360 cm3 − 340 cm3
= 20 cm3 (1.4)
and the error in the difference is given by
1
Δ𝑉 = [(𝛥𝑉can )2 + (𝛥𝑉soft drink )2 ]2
1
= [(3.7 cm3 )2 + (10 cm3 )2 ]2
= 10 cm3 . (1.5)
so the difference between the capacity of the can and the volume of the soft drink
is (20 ± 10) cm3 .
The ratio of the volume of the soft drink to the capacity of the can is
𝑉soft drink 340 cm3

=
𝑉can 362 cm3
= 0.94 (1.6)
and the error in the ratio is given by
1
𝑉soft drink 𝑉soft drink 𝛥𝑉soft drink 2 𝛥𝑉can 2 2
Δ( )=( ) [( ) +( ) ]
𝑉can 𝑉can 𝑉soft drink 𝑉can
1
2 2
10 2 3.7 cm3
= (0.94) [( ) +( ) ]
340 362 cm3
= 0.03. (1.7)
The can was found to be filled to (94 ± 3)% of its capacity.
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4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The capacity of the can was found to be (360 ± 4) cm3 . The measurement of the
volume of the water was accurate to 20 ml, because that was the smallest division
in the calibration on the measuring cup. An estimate of 10 cm3 was made when the
meniscus lay exactly between two scale divisions. Because the measurement was
repeated only five times, the standard error could not be given to more than one
significant figure. The percentage error in the measurement of the capacity of the
can was therefore 1%.
The volume of the soft drink contained in the can was found to be (340 ± 10) cm3 .
Because only one can of soft drink was used, the volume of the soft drink could
only be determined once. Like the volume of the can, this volume could be read
accurately to 10 ml. The percentage error in the volume of the soft drink is therefore
3%. The capacity of the can was found to be (20 ± 10) cm3 larger than the volume
of its contents. This result has a percentage error of 50%, which is extremely
inaccurate. The can was found to be filled to (94 ± 3)% of its full capacity, which
reflects a percentage error of 3%. The relationship between the volume of a can of
soft drink and its contents can be expressed mathematically as
𝑉can = 𝑉soft drink + (20 ± 10)cm3 (1.8)

or
𝑉soft drink
= 0.94 ± 0.03.
𝑉can
(1.9)
The level of inaccuracy could mainly be contributed to the limited capability of the
apparatus and personal errors like incorrect reading of the meniscus. Repeatedly
filling the can to capacity with water also gave rise to inaccuracy because some
drops always remained on the upper surface of the can when it was emptied. The
experiment could be improved by using a more accurate way of determining the
volume of the soft drink and the capacity of the can. Using a measuring cup
calibrated in 1 ml divisions would make a considerable difference. Trying to
improve the measurement of the volume of the soft drink by filling and emptying
the measuring cup repeatedly with the contents from the same can of soft drink
would not necessarily improve the accuracy of the experiment, because small
droplets of the liquid would remain in the measuring cup as well as in the can at
each pouring. Determining the volume of the contents of five or more cans of soft
drink would, however, provide a means of improving the reliability of this
measurement.
However, the experiment did show that the manufacturers of the soft drink fill the
can to roughly 20 cm3 less than its capacity to allow for expansion of the liquid,
and to lessen the possibility of spills on opening the can.
....................................................................................................................................
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1.6 WHAT WAS THAT ALL ABOUT?
You probably have a lot of questions about what was written and calculated in the
feedback on the report on the soft drink experiment. Your questions probably
include the following:
➢ Why was the volume of the can determined five times?
➢ Why was cm3 and not ml used as the unit for volume?
➢ What is meant by the “standard error”?
➢ What is meant by accuracy?
➢ How does this differ from precision?
➢ Why was the report on the experiment written in a specific format?
➢ How was the number of significant figures determined in the results?
➢ What is the meaning of the errors in the measurements?
➢ How were the errors estimated?
As you can see, there are a number of things that you have to know before walking
into a laboratory and performing an experiment. These questions will be answered
in the course of this module. As you progress through the module, you will be able
to fit all the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle into their correct places. We will refer you
back to each question as we reach its answer. As you can see, taking measurements
is an extremely important activity in any experiment.
When you get to the result of a measurement you should be able to tell whether or
not it is a good result. This means that one has to acknowledge the fact that one’s
results will contain errors and one should know how to deal with them. This
involves statistical processing of the results, which often includes presenting the
results of an experiment in the form of a graph. Having processed the results, the
experiment has to be recorded in the form of a scientific report that can be read and
understood by anybody without prior knowledge of the experiment. In the
laboratory you will also get to know a variety of apparatus.
In the four topics of this module included in Study Guide 1, we intend to prepare
you for the procedures that you will be required to follow when you do experiments
at home and when you get to the laboratory session. The first part of the module is
therefore called Data processing and Laboratory procedure and will cover:
1. Measurement and errors
2. Interpretation of results
3. Graphs
4. Planning an experiment and writing a report
The home experiments are aimed at giving you an opportunity to get familiar with
these concepts and some practice in performing experiments.
The second part of the module consists of eight experiments. In the same way that
we have just conducted the experiment about the capacity of a can of soft drink, we
will be investigating various interesting physical phenomena. At the same time you
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will gain expertise in experimental skills like processing data and drawing
conclusions from the results. In the experiments a number of topics from the first
year curriculum will be covered. The experiments that will be carried out under
each topic can include any from the ones listed below.
1. Mechanics
(a) The linear air track
(b) Uniform circular motion
(c) Simple harmonic motion
2. Electricity and magnetism

(a) Electrical measurements
(b) A charged particle in a magnetic field
(c) The magnetic force on a current carrying conductor
Once you get to the laboratory, you will get the opportunity to handle the apparatus
and to gather your own data. We hope that you will find the practical module a
worthwhile experience, and that you will enjoy the time you spend with us in the
Physics Department.
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Topic 1
MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures
Study Unit 3 Single variables
Study Unit 4 A case study
Study Unit 5 Precision and accuracy
Study Unit 6 Repeated measurements
Study Unit 7 Evaluating the precision of a measurement
Study Unit 8 Normal distribution
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TOPIC 1
Experimental confirmation of a prediction is merely a measurement. An

experiment disproving a prediction is a discovery.
Enrico Fermi
Accurate and minute measurement seems to the non-scientific imagination, a less
lofty and dignified work than looking for something new. But nearly all the
grandest discoveries of science have been but the rewards of accurate
measurement and patient long-continued labour in the minute sifting of numerical
results.
Baron William Thomson Kelvin
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important activities carried out in experimental work in physics is
taking measurements. When a physical quantity is measured, the value obtained
from the measurement is not necessarily exactly equal to the true value of the
quantity. Human error is often the cause of most of the uncertainty in
measurements, but it can be reduced by means of fully mechanised measuring
equipment. As an example, think of the way in which time is measured in athletics.
Suppose someone were to time an athlete in the 100 m sprinting event using a
stopwatch, and the athlete’s time is simultaneously registered by an electronic
device using a light sensor. The person taking the time by stop watch may press the
button slightly before the athlete crosses the finishing line, which would be in the
athlete’s favour. On the other hand, the person handling the stop watch could have
slow reflexes and may push the button slightly too late, which the athlete would
not like at all. Because the electronic time excludes a large part of possible human
error, it rules out most possible causes for dispute. We say that the electronic time
is more reliable than the time taken by hand, or differently put, the electronic time
is closer to the true value of the athlete’s time over the 100 m.
In the same way, any experimental measurement contains a certain amount of error.
Even when the human factor is absent, the inevitable irregularities in the
phenomenon under examination give rise to fluctuations in the measurements. For
this reason taking a measurement is not enough. If the result of an experiment is
to be used, we need to give an indication of the accuracy or the reliability of
the measurements. This is done by including an estimate of the error with the
result. The uncertainty which is always present in physical measurements is usually
called error of observation. Using the word “error” in this sense can lead to ERROR OF
confusion because we use it every day to mean the same as “mistake”. These OBSERVATION
considerations have nothing to do with mistakes, however. As you will soon see,
we also have to distinguish between different types of errors.
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Think back to the soft drink experiment. We gave the volume of the soft drink as
𝑉soft drink = (340 ± 10)cm3 .
This means that we expect the volume to be somewhere between 330 cm3 and
350 cm3 . We are not certain that the value lies between these limits, but our
measurements show that there is a certain probability of its doing so.
The results you obtain in the experiments you will be conducting will also contain
errors, which you will have to take into account. In this topic we are going to look
at the way in which measurements are made, and how the errors they contain should
be dealt with.
We will answer four of the questions that stemmed from the soft drink experiment,
namely:
➢ Why was the volume of the can determined five times?

➢ What is meant by accuracy?
➢ How does this differ from precision?
➢ How were the number of significant figures in the results determined?
FIRST THINGS FIRST

Before we go any further, there are two very important issues to get out of the way.
The one is units and the other is significant figures. As you saw from the soft drink
experiment, we will be doing a lot of measuring and calculating. To be able to do
this correctly, one has to be aware of the importance of units and the correct way to
deal with significant figures.
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UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
STUDY UNIT 2
Learning Objectives
After having completed this study unit, you should be able to:
1. explain what is meant by SI units

2. use SI units correctly in measurements and calculations
3. convert units to SI units and vice versa
4. explain the difference between base units and derived units
5. indicate the meanings of the prefixes that denote multiples of ten of a unit
6. recognise the number of significant figures in any number
7. round off a number to contain the required number of significant digits
8. determine the correct number of significant figures in the answer to a calculation
involving:
(a) multiplication and division
(b) addition and subtraction.
2.1 UNITS
When we make a quantitative physical measurement, it has to be expressed in terms
of some standardised unit. Measurement is actually nothing but comparing two
magnitudes with each other. (The word “magnitude” refers to the size of a quantity;
it tells us how big something is.) When we say we measure the length of a pencil
with a ruler and find it to be 135 mm, it means that the length of the pencil is the
same as the length of 135 divisions of 1 mm each on the ruler we used. The quantity
that we measured had the dimensions of length and the unit we used for the DIMENSION
measurement was the millimetre. Any physical quantity is specified by both its
dimension and the unit of that dimension.
Denoting a physical quantity by a number without units is meaningless. We cannot
say the length of the pencil is 135. It would mean nothing! We have to say its length
is 135 mm or 13.5 cm. Now it is immediately clear that we are referring to
something with the dimension of length, whereas 135 was just a number which
could equally well have referred to the number of seeds in a packet or the number
of leaves on a plant.
The three fundamental dimensions in physics are length, mass and time along with
the quantities temperature, electric current and amount of a substance. All
quantities that are derived in physics can be expressed in terms of these fundamental
dimensions. Speed for instance, has the dimensions of distance divided by time.
The units for length, mass, time, temperature, electric current and the amount of a
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substance are regarded as base units. All other units are defined in terms of these BASE UNITS
base units; they are called derived units because they are combinations of base units. DERIVED UNITS
The unit of force, for example, is the newton, which is defined in terms of the units
for mass, length and time because
1 newton = 1 kg m s −2 . (2.1)
In scientific work, metric units are used worldwide, and the most widely used METRIC UNITS
system of units is officially known as the International System or SI (the
abbreviation for the French equivalent “Système International d’Unités”). This
system uses the metre (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of
mass and the second (s) as the unit of time. (The International System is sometimes
also referred to as the mks system.) In this module we will be working in SI units,
although you may also encounter the cgs system of units. The cgs system utilises SI UNITS
the centimetre (cm) as the unit for length, the gram (g) as the unit for mass and the
second (s) as the unit for time. Table 2.1 gives a summary of the units used in the
two systems.
SI cgs system
Length metre (m) centimetre (cm)
Mass kilogram (kg) gram (g)
Time second (s) second (s)
TABLE 2.1: The units of length, mass and time in the SI and the cgs systems
At the end of the soft drink experiment, one of the questions we asked, was:
“Why was cm3 and not ml used as the unit for volume?”. The answer is that we
used cm3 because we were conducting a scientific experiment. Although 1 ml is
equivalent to 1 cm3 , it is used mainly as a commercial unit, while cm3 is used in
scientific context. As you can see, cm3 is a derived unit because volume has the
dimensions of (length)3. Please note that we were working in the cgs system —
the SI unit for volume is m3 . Strictly speaking we should have used SI units, but
cm3 was the more practical unit to use because we were measuring a relatively
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small volume (compare this to using 3.40 × 10−4 m to report the volume of soft
drink in the can). In the model report in Study Unit 18 you can see an example of
using SI units for volume.
DEFINITION OF STANDARD UNITS
Time
The definition of the unit of time is based on an atomic clock which uses the
vibrational motion of caesium atoms. One second is defined as the time needed for
9 192 631 770 vibrations of an atom of caesium-133 to occur.
Length
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The metre is defined as the distance that light travels in vacuum in 1/299 792 458
seconds. This definition arises from the fact that the speed of light is defined as 299
792 458 m s −1 .
Mass
One kilogram is defined as the mass of a particular cylinder in platinum-iridium alloy
that is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres near
Paris.

In Table 2.2 the base SI units and the derived units for a number of physical
quantities are listed, but some of the spaces have not been filled in. Try to fill in the
blanks. For derived units, try recalling the definitions of the derived quantities. A
dash indicates that the unit does not have a unique name or abbreviation — it is
always expressed in terms of base units.
Expression in terms of
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
other SI units
Length m Base unit
Mass kilogram
Time Base unit
Electric current ampere A Base unit
Temperature kelvin K Base unit
Amount of substance mole mol Base unit
Velocity — —
Acceleration — —
Force N
Work, energy joule Nm
Power W
Electric charge coulomb As
Electric field strength — —
Electric potential J C −1
Resistance Ω
Capacitance farad C V −1
Inductance H
Magnetic field strength N s C−1 m−1
Magnetic flux Wb
Table 2.2: Examples of base and derived SI units
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
21
Expression in terms of
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
other SI units
Length metre m Base unit
Mass kilogram kg Base unit
Time second s Base unit
Electric current ampere A Base unit
Temperature kelvin K Base unit
Amount of substance mole mol Base unit
Velocity — — m s −1
Acceleration — — m s −2
Force newton N kg m s −2
Work, energy joule J Nm
Power watt W J s −1
Electric charge coulomb C As
Electric field strength — — N C −1
Electric potential volt V J C −1
Resistance ohm Ω V A−1
Capacitance farad F C V −1
Inductance henry H V s A−1
Magnetic field strength tesla T N s C−1 m−1
Magnetic flux weber Wb T m2
Table 2.3: Feedback: Examples of base and derived SI units

....................................................................................................................................
Sometimes when we measure very small or very big quantities, it is useful to use
smaller or larger units that are related to the fundamental units by multiples of ten.
There are certain standard prefixes which denote these multiples of ten which are
summarised in Table 2.4. Note that the prefixes denoting factors of ten greater than
zero are indicated with upper case letters and the prefixes denoting factors of ten
smaller than zero, with lower case letters.
22
Prefix Abbreviation Factor

Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Hecto H 102
Deka D 101
deci d 10−1
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3
micro μ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
femto f 10−15
Table 2.4: Standard prefixes that denote multiples of 10
In summary, you should keep the following very important guidelines in mind when
working with units:
➢ Units are important — do not omit them when recording the results of your
experiments or when processing the results. Remember, a physical quantity
is described by its magnitude plus the unit in which it was measured.
➢ Use either SI units or cgs units — never mix the units from the two systems.
You cannot use kg as unit for mass in a calculation in which the length is
given in cm.
➢ You can record your readings in the units indicated on the apparatus you use
in an experiment (e.g. mm when measuring length using a ruler calibrated
in 1 mm divisions) but you have to convert them to SI units before you start
processing the results. The table in which you give the results of your
measurements should contain the measurements in SI units.
➢ Take careful note of the abbreviations for each unit. It is important that you
use the correct abbreviation for each unit. For example, do not use “sec”
for seconds, use “s”.
23

Complete Table 2.5 by converting the units of the given measurements to SI units.
Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

Length of a pencil 13.5 cm 1.35 × 10−1 m
Volume of a table spoon 15 cm3
Area of a table 5 × 103 cm2
Current through a circuit element 25 mA
Resistance of a resistor 30 kΩ
Distance of a marathon 42 km
TABLE 2.5: Activity: Conversion to SI units
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

Length of a pencil 13.5 cm 1.35 × 10−1 m
Volume of a table spoon 15 cm3 1.5 × 10−5 m3
Area of a table 5 × 103 cm2 5 × 10−1 m2
Current through a circuit element 25 mA 2.5 × 10−2 A
Resistance of a resistor 30 kΩ 3 × 104 Ω
Distance of a marathon 42 km 4.2 × 104 m
TABLE 2.6: Feedback: Conversion to SI units

....................................................................................................................................
2.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Experiments in physics involve the measurement of a variety of quantities and a

great deal of effort goes into making these measurements as reliable as possible.
The first step toward ensuring the reliability of a result, is to define the units in RELIABILITY
which the measurements are made. Having done this, we have to bear in mind that
the accuracy of any measurement is limited by errors of various types. It is ERRORS
important to keep track of these errors in experimentally obtained numbers when
processing results. The best way to do this is to take into account the rules that apply We will discuss
to significant figures. The accuracy of an experimental measurement is indicated the various types
by the way in which the result is recorded. To indicate the accuracy, a number is of errors in Study
written with as many digits as are meaningful. This is determined to a great extent Unit 5.
by the accuracy of the measuring instrument that was used. When we said that we
measured the length of a pencil as 135 mm using a ruler with mm divisions, all three
digits were known with certainty, because we could read the scale accurately to 1
mm.
24
The number of significant figures in any number is the number of digits whose
values are known with certainty. The number of significant figures (or digits) in a
number is determined as follows:
1. The leftmost nonzero digit is always the most significant digit.

2. If a number is written without a decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is
the least significant digit.
3. If a number is written with a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least
significant digit, even if it is 0.
4. All digits between the least and most significant digits are counted as significant
digits.
In the number 1 678 the significance of the digits differs as shown below.
1 6
⏟ 7 8
most significant significant least significant

digit digits digit
Should the number, say 233.40, contain a decimal point, the significance of the
digits is shown below.
2 33.4
⏟ 0
most significant significant least significant

digit digits digit
The following numbers all have four significant digits:
1 234, 123 400, 123.4, 1 001, 101.0, 0.001010.
Scientific notation is particularly useful in ruling out ambiguity when it comes to SCIENTIFIC
significant digits. In scientific notation one uses powers of ten to express the NOTATION
magnitude of a quantity. The quantity is written as a number between 1 and 10 and
multiplied by the appropriate power of ten. Instead of writing 149 000 000 000 m
for the distance from the earth to the sun, we write 1.49 × 1011 m or
25
1.49 × 108 km. The position immediately to the right of the first nonzero digit is
known as the standard position of the decimal point.
Suppose we have measured a certain distance to be one thousand two hundred

metres and the result is accurate to four significant figures. If we write the distance
as 1200 m it implies that only two significant figures are known. If, on the other
hand, we write this as 1.200 × 103 m it indicates clearly that the distance is known
to four significant figures. It is a good principle, therefore, to use scientific notation
whenever it is important to indicate the exact number of significant figures — and
it is always important to do so in experimental work!
Write down the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers:
Number Number of significant figures


10 000
10 001
1.00
1 × 106
3 020 000
1.6946004
Table 2.7: Significant figures
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Number Number of significant figures

10 000 1
10 001 5
1.00 3
1 × 106 1
3 020 000 3
1.6946004 8
Table 2.8: Feedback: Significant figures
…………………………………………………........................................................
When entering data that is expressed in scientific notation in a table, it makes the
table easier to read if we indicate the multiplying power of ten in the heading of the
appropriate row or column of the table. Say, for example, the inductance of a coil
of wire was measured in henry (H) as part of an experiment and the following data
were obtained:
26
9.51 × 10−3 H; 9.32 × 10−3 H; 9.92 × 10−3 H; 9.93 × 10−3 H; 9.14 × 10−3 H.
The best way to display the data in a table would be to include the multiplying
factor, expressed as a power of ten, in the heading of the table, as shown in Table
2.9.
Inductance (10−3 H) 9.51 9.32 9.92 9.93 9.14
TABLE 2.9: Measured values of the inductance of a coil of wire
Use the space provided below to present the following pressure data measured in

pascal (Pa) in a table:
1.03 × 105 Pa; 1.01 × 105 Pa; 9.9 × 104 Pa; 1.05 × 105 Pa; 1.08 × 105 Pa.
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
Pressure (105 Pa) 1.03 1.01 0.99 1.05 1.08
....................................................................................................................................
2.3 ROUNDING OFF
Having recorded the results of an experiment to reflect the accuracy of the

measurements, one should keep track of the accuracy of the experimental data while
they are being processed. It is often necessary to drop insignificant digits from a
number after calculations have been performed.
The procedure to follow for rounding off a number is to truncate the number to the
desired number of significant digits and to treat the excess digits as a decimal
fraction. (“Truncate” means to make the number shorter.) The following rules
apply:
1. If the fraction is greater than ½, increment the least significant digit.
(“Increment” means to increase by one.)
2. If the fraction is less than ½, do not increment the least significant digit.
27
3. If the fraction equals ½, increment the least significant digit only if it is odd.
In this manner, the value of the final result is always within half the value of the You will find out
least significant digit of the original number. Let us look at some examples exactly what a
illustrating how we apply these rules. If we have to round off the number 122.49 to systematic error is
three significant figures, we use rule 2, because the fraction is less than ½. The least in Study Unit 5.
significant digit (the second “2” in this case) is therefore NOT incremented, and the
number is rounded off to 122. Should we have to round off the number 34.758 to
three significant figures, it will become 34.8, because the fraction is greater than ½,
and rule 1 applies. The reason for rule 3 is that in many cases the fraction equals
either 0 or ½ and consistently incrementing the least significant digit for a fraction
of ½ would lead to a systematic error. For example, 1.235 and 1.245 both become
1.24 when rounded off to three significant figures, but 1.2451 becomes 1.25.
Before we start doing calculations, a few hints about the effective use of a pocket
calculator:
1. Most calculators use scientific notation and add and subtract exponents
automatically but you should be able to do such calculations without a calculator
if necessary.
2. Check that the order of magnitude of your result makes sense by using rounded
off numbers to make an order-of-magnitude estimate. The great nuclear physicist
Enrico Fermi called this type of estimation a “back-of-the-envelope calculation”.
3. Check your calculations by carrying out the operations in reverse order.
4. Ask yourself whether the result of a calculation or measurement seems
reasonable.
5. Use the memory of your calculator to store intermediate results, keeping more
significant figures than needed and round off only the final answer.
2.4 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS
When two or more numbers are used in a calculation, the number of significant
figures in the answer is limited by the number of significant figures in the original
data. Let us consider the types of calculations you will encounter separately.
2.4.1 Multiplication and division
In all computations involving multiplication and division, the factor with the least
number of significant digits determines the number of significant figures in the
answer. This study guide, for instance, has a short side with a length of 21 cm and
a long side with a length of 29.7 cm, so its area is (21 cm × 29.7 cm). A pocket
calculator gives an answer of 623.7 cm2 for this product. The length of the shorter
side of the study guide was known to only two significant figures, however, so the
final answer cannot contain more than two significant figures. It should therefore
be rounded off to 620 cm2 .
28
In intermediate steps of calculations (i.e. steps between the beginning and the end INTERMEDIATE
of calculations), it is a good policy to retain one or two extra digits to avoid STEPS
introducing additional errors. Have a look at the way in which the results were
processed in the model report on the soft drink experiment. In the intermediate steps
the value of 362 cm3 was used for the volume of the can, for instance. The answers
were always rounded off to contain only two significant figures, however, because
the measurements could only be given accurately to two significant figures.
The importance of not rounding off too soon is best illustrated by an example. The
sum
2.5 + 2.49 + 2.45 = 7.44 (2.2)
becomes
2+2+2= 6 (2.3)
if the three numbers are rounded off before they are added together. Quite a
difference as you can see!
Do the following calculation with your pocket calculator and round off the answer
to contain the correct number of significant digits:
𝑥=
(8.2239)(2.7)(98.35)π2
2764
.

(2.4)
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

A calculator gives the answer as
𝑥 = 7.7978999. (2.5)
The fact that the pocket calculator gives the answer to seven decimal places does
not mean that they are all significant figures! In the numerator, the first three factors
have five, two and four significant figures respectively and the constant
𝜋 (= 3.1415926 … ) is known to an arbitrarily great accuracy. (In other words, in
cases like these the constant 𝜋 is assumed to contain at least as many significant
figures as the most accurate number in the calculation.) The denominator is known
to four significant digits, so the factor with the least number of significant figures
is 2.7, which has two significant figures. The answer should therefore be rounded
off to two digits, that is x = 7.8.
....................................................................................................................................
2.4.2 Addition and subtraction
The number of significant figures in the answer to a calculation involving addition

or subtraction is also limited by the number of significant figures in the original
data. In this case, the number of significant figures in the answer is determined by
29
the number with the least number of significant figures to the right of the decimal
point. Consider the sum
25.24
+ 0.475
25.715
(2.6)
Because the first number contains two significant to the right of the decimal point
and the second number contains three significant figures to the right of the decimal
point, it would be meaningless to include three significant figures after the decimal
point in the answer. The answer should therefore be rounded off to 25.72. Let us
look at another example to show that the same ideas apply to subtraction.
45.657
− 2.34159
43.315
(2.7)
The answer given by a pocket calculator was actually 43.31541 but it is rounded
off to contain only three significant figures to the right of the decimal point, because
45.657 had three significant figures after the decimal point. In this case, 45.657 was
the number with the least number of significant figures after the decimal point.
Add the numbers given below and give the answer to the correct number of
significant figures.
12.53
32

+ 23.4 (2.8)
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
12.53
32
+ 23.4
67.93
(2.9)
This answer should be rounded off to 68 because the number 32 contained no

significant figures to the right of the decimal point.
Explanation:
In this case, 32 was the number with the least significant figures after the decimal
point. When adding or subtracting numbers, the last significant figure in the answer
occurs in the last column (counting from left to right) containing a number that
30
results from a combination of digits that are all significant. In the answer 67.93, the
“7” is the sum of 2 + 2 + 3, which are all significant digits. The “9” however, is the
sum of 5 + 0 + 4, where the zero comes from the number 32 which has no significant
figures to the right of the decimal point.
…………………………………………………........................................................
2.5 END NOTE
The question you will probably be asking yourself when you start taking readings See Study Unit 9 for
or making measurements during an experiment is: “How many significant figures a discussion of
should I record?”. This question can best be answered after we have found a way to significant figures in
evaluate the accuracy and precision of an experimental result, so we will return to experimental
significant figures in experimental results a little later. results.
31
SINGLE VARIABLES
STUDY UNIT 3
SINGLE VARIABLES
Learning Objectives
1. explain why it is necessary to make repeated measurements to determine the

value of a single variable
2. calculate the arithmetic mean of a number of successive measurements
3. explain the difference between the total number of measurements and the
number of values obtained
4. summarise repeated measurements by making use of the frequency with which
each measurement occurred.
3.1 MEASURING A SINGLE VARIABLE
When measuring a single quantity once only, it is difficult to know how accurately
we have made the measurement. The best way of reducing the uncertainty in a
measurement is to repeat the measurement several times and to calculate the
average value of the measured quantity.
Suppose some unknown variable x (this could be anything — the mass of a

pendulum bob, the length of a conductor or the capacity of a soft drink can for that
matter!) was measured N times, giving a set of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑁 . The
arithmetic mean 𝑥 of any set of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑁 is defined as ARITHMETIC
MEAN
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑁
𝑥=
𝑁
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
=
𝑁
∑𝑥
= .
𝑁
(3.1)
In equation (3.1) ∑ (sigma) means the “sum of”, so ∑𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 should be read as the
“sum of 𝑥𝑖 for values of i from 1 to N”. The expression can be abbreviated as ∑ 𝑥.
32
SINGLE VARIABLES
Example 3.1
The length l of the metal bar shown in Figure 3.1 was measured five times (in mm).
The values obtained are shown in Table 3.1.
FIGURE 3.1: Metal bar measured in Example 3.1
i 1 2 3 4 5
l (mm) 52 54 51 56 53
TABLE 3.1: Results for five measurements of the metal bar's length
From equation (3.1) the average value of the bar’s length is
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑙𝑖
𝑙=
𝑁
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + 𝑙3 + 𝑙4 + 𝑙5
=
5
(52 + 54 + 51 + 56 + 53) mm
=
5
= 53 mm. (3.2)

Let us have another look at our soft drink can. As an exercise in taking repeated
measurements, you can determine the height of the can. Use a ruler calibrated in
millimetres to measure the height of the can. Use the method illustrated in
Figure 3.2. Put something straight and flat (I used my pocket diary, but a second
ruler, preferably the short 15 cm type, would also be fine) on top of the can. This is
to help you measure exactly to the top edge of the can, since it has a slight indent at
the top. Place the can right at the edge of the table that you are working on, and take
a reading at the edge of the table, and another at the flat object on top of the can.
Remember, the ruler has a short interval before the calibration (i.e. the markings)
starts! Also, it is not a good policy to take either of the readings at the zero mark on
the ruler, because most rulers get slightly worn with use, and it may be difficult to
see exactly where the calibration line is. The height of the can is given by the
difference between the two readings. Repeat the measurement five times, recording
your measurements in Table 3.2 and calculate the arithmetic mean of the height
33
SINGLE VARIABLES
of the can. It is good practice to measure the height at five different positions along
the circumference of the can.
FIGURE 3.2: The height of a soft drink — showing the correct

way to measure the height with a ruler
Measurement Bottom reading Top reading Height h

number (mm) (mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
TABLE 3.2: Height of the soft drink can, measured five times
The arithmetic mean of the height of the can is
ℎ=
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
When measuring the height of the can five times, the following results were
obtained:
34
SINGLE VARIABLES
Measurement Bottom reading Top reading Height h

number (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 30 152 122
2 35 152 117
3 36 155 119
4 29 149 120
5 30 150 120
TABLE 3.3: Feedback on the soft drink can measurements
The arithmetic mean of the height of the can is
∑5𝑖=1 ℎ𝑖
ℎ=
5
(122 + 117 + 119 + 120 + 120) mm

=
5
598 mm
=
5
= 120 mm. (3.3)
…………………………………………………........................................................
When we make repeated measurements of a single variable, the same value can
occur more than once. Look at the measurements of the height of the soft drink can
that we have just made; in the results the value 120 mm occurred twice. When a
large number of measurements are made, it is convenient not to have to write down
each value more than once. For this purpose we make use of the frequency with FREQUENCY
which each value occurs. The frequency of a value is the number of times that the
value occurs. This means that the frequency of the value of 120 mm for the height
of the can is 2. If the total number of measurements is N, the sum of the frequencies
equals N, i.e.
𝑛
∑ 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑁.
𝑖=1
(3.4)
NOTE:
There is a difference between the total number of measurements made and the total MEASUREMENTS
number of values obtained. When one makes N measurements, they need not all be
different — some of the values may occur more than once, so that the total number VALUES
of values obtained is n where 𝑛 ≤ 𝑁.
35
SINGLE VARIABLES
3.2 ARITHMETIC MEAN
If a set of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 occur with frequencies 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , … , 𝑓𝑛

respectively, the arithmetic mean is given by
𝑓1 𝑥1 + 𝑓2 𝑥2 + 𝑓3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑥=
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
=
∑ 𝑓𝑖
∑ 𝑓𝑥
= .
∑𝑓
(3.5)
Example 3.2
When the length of the bar in Figure 3.1 was measured 10 times, the values shown
in Table 3.4 were obtained.
NOTE:
The frequency f indicates the number of times each value for l was read. For
example, a reading of 53 mm occurred three times. Although 10 measurements were
made, only five different values for l were obtained. You can check this by adding
the values of f — as you can see ∑ f = 10.
i 1 2 3 4 5
l (mm) 51 52 53 54 56
f 1 3 3 2 1
TABLE 3.4: Results for ten measurements of the bar's length
From equation 3.5 the arithmetic mean of the bar’s length is
∑5𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑙𝑖
𝑙=
∑5𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
𝑓1 𝑙1 + 𝑓2 𝑙2 + 𝑓3 𝑙3 + 𝑓4 𝑙4 + 𝑓5 𝑙5
=
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + 𝑓4 + 𝑓5
[(1 × 51) + (3 × 52) + (3 × 53) + (2 × 54) + (1 × 56)] mm
=
1+3+3+2+1
= 53 mm
(3.6)
36
SINGLE VARIABLES
Measure the height of the soft drink can ten times, and record the values in the table
below.
i
Height
h (mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Now arrange the values according to frequency in the table below, and calculate the
mean value of the height of the can.
Value no Height Frequency

i h (mm) f
The mean value of the height of the can is
ℎ=
37
SINGLE VARIABLES
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The results for ten measurements of the height of a soft drink can are tabulated
below:
Height
i
h (mm)
1 122
2 117
3 119
4 120
5 120
6 121
7 119
8 120
9 119
10 120
Arranged by frequency, the values can be tabulated as follows:
Height Frequency
i
h (mm) f
1 117 1
2 119 3
3 120 4
4 121 1
5 122 1
The average value of the height of the can is
∑5𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 ℎ𝑖
ℎ=
∑ 𝑓𝑖
[(1 × 117) + (3 × 119) + (4 × 120) + (1 × 121) + (1 × 122)] mm

=
10
1197 mm
=
10
= 120 mm. (3.7)
…………………………………………………........................................................
38
A CASE STUDY
STUDY UNIT 4
A CASE STUDY
Learning Objectives
1. plot a frequency distribution of the results of a number of repeated

measurements of a single variable.
2. recognize the difference between different sets of measurements from the
difference in their frequency distributions.
4.1 TWO STUDENTS EXPERIMENTING
A lot has now been said about the uncertainty present in measurements and the
necessity of giving an indication of the reliability of a result, but how does one
actually do this? Before we go into the details of estimating an error, let us consider
a case study of two typical students in the first year physics laboratory. Let us call
them John and Thabo. We will compare their results for the same experiment to get
an idea of the factors that need to be taken into account when evaluating the
reliability of an experimental result.
On their first day at the physics practical, our two intrepid experimenters were asked
to determine the period of a pendulum. They each measured the period of the same
pendulum once. John reported the period to be 1.4 s, while Thabo obtained a result
of 1.53 s. Which result is the most reliable — John’s because he seemed a
dependable sort of person, or Thabo’s because he gave the result to two decimal
places? One has to be very careful not to confuse the information given by the
experimental results with preconceptions about the person carrying out the
experiment.
To be able to decide which value is closest to the true value of the period of the TRUE VALUE
pendulum, we need to know something about the reliability of the measurements.
A single numerical result on its own cannot give information about both the value
obtained for the period and its reliability. At least two numbers are required if we
want give a result and a measure of its reliability. As we shall see later, it is even
more useful to include yet a third number as an indication of the reliability of a
result. When the volume of the soft drink in the soft drink experiment was given as
(340 ± 10) cm3 , 340 cm3 was the result of the measurement, and 10 cm3 was an
estimate of the error in the result.
39
A CASE STUDY
Let us get back to John and Thabo. To be able to evaluate their results, they were
asked to repeat their measurements. They went back to the laboratory and they
each measured the period five times. The results of their repeated measurements are
tabulated in Table 4.1.
John’s result for the period Thabo’s result for the period
(s) (s)
1.4 1.53
1.7 1.50
1.4 1.51
1.6 1.52
1.7 1.51
TABLE 4.1: John's and Thabo's results.
This gives a very different view of the matter. For one thing, both experimenters
revised their original estimates. Both of them could now give a mean value of their ARITHMETIC MEAN
measurements by calculating the arithmetic mean or average of their results. John
calculated the mean value of the period to be
(1.4 + 1.7 + 1.4 + 1.6 + 1.7) s

= 1.56 s
5
(4.1)
while Thabo calculated it to be
(1.53 + 1.50 + 1.51 + 1.52 + 1.51) s

= 1.514 s
5
(4.2)
4.2 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
These values still differ from each other but we now have an objective way to
compare the two experiments. We can do this by plotting each set of measurements
as a frequency distribution. This is a useful way of visually presenting the FREQUENCY
distribution of a set of measurements by plotting it as a graph with the measurement DISTRIBUTION
values on the x axis and the frequency on the y axis. Instead of joining the data
points, a vertical line is drawn from each data point to the x ordinates. The length FREQUENCY
of each line indicates the frequency of each value and the way in which the values
are spread across the x axis shows how far apart the different values lie. The
frequency of a value tells us how many times the particular value occurs. To
compare John’s and Thabo’s new sets of measurements, they were plotted as
frequency distributions in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 respectively.
40
A CASE STUDY
FIGURE 4.1: Frequency distribution of John’s results after five measurements
FIGURE 4.2: Frequency distribution of Thabo's results after five measurements
Thabo’s measurements are closely bunched together, lying from 1.50 s to 1.53 s,
while John’s measurements are spread from 1.4 s to 1.7 s. Thabo’s measurements
seem more consistent than John’s because they lie closer together. For this reason
Thabo’s measurements look more reliable than John’s but we cannot be very
specific about what we mean by “more reliable”. On this basis the lecturer preferred
Thabo’s value of 1.514 s to John’s value of 1.56 s.
41
A CASE STUDY

Turn back to the results you obtained when you measured the height of the soft
drink can five times. Plot the frequency distribution of these measurements on the
graph paper below.
Frequency distribution of your five measurements

of the height of the soft drink can
42
A CASE STUDY
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The distribution of five measurements of the volume of the soft drink can is shown
in Figure 4.3.
FIGURE 4.3: FEEDBACK: The frequency distribution of five

measurements of the height of a soft drink can
John was not prepared to take this lying down. He put in several hours’ work and
came back with 500 measurements and a mean value of 1.5326 s. The frequency
distribution of his 500 measurements is shown in Figure 4.4.
FIGURE 4.4: Frequency distribution of John's results after 500 measurements
43
A CASE STUDY
This is still a much broader distribution than Thabo’s and in this sense it is inferior.
But should not some credit be given for the fact that it represents 500 measurements
as opposed to only five? Whom should we believe at this stage — John or Thabo?
Does the fact that John gives his final result to four decimal places make it more
accurate than Thabo’s, which is given to three decimal places? What is the true
value for the period? In what follows we shall try to show how a systematic way of
analysing experimental results will help us to answer these questions. We shall see
that there is no “right” or “wrong” answer to any problem of this type. However,
there are usually good grounds on which we can agree about the “best” answer, and
even if we cannot agree, a clear method of looking at the problem will at least enable
us to see just what we are disagreeing about.

Use the graph paper below to plot the frequency distribution of the measurements
you obtained when you measured the height of the soft drink can 10 times and
compare it with the distribution you had for five measurements. Did the distribution
change noticeably when more measurements were taken? What changes do you
notice?
Frequency distribution of your 10 measurements of the height of a soft drink can
44
A CASE STUDY
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

The distribution of 10 measurements of the height of the soft drink can is shown in
Figure 4.5. As you can see, the most apparent change in the frequency distribution
is that the frequencies of the values near the centre of the distribution became larger.
The distribution did not, however, become any narrower. Also, the change in the
shape of the distribution is not as marked as that between John’s two sets of
readings. The first five readings were distributed closer to the mean value than were
John’s and we would also have to take a lot more readings to achieve a similar
change.
FIGURE 4.5: FEEDBACK: The frequency distribution of ten

measurements of the height of a soft drink can
....................................................................................................................................
45
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
STUDY UNIT 5
Learning Objectives
1. distinguish between the terms precision and accuracy

2. distinguish between systematic and random errors
3. indicate how the precision of an experiment can be improved
4. explain how to improve the accuracy of an experiment
5. identify systematic errors that occur in an experiment
5.1 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
In a discussion of measurements and errors the words “accuracy” and “precision”

often crop up. What do these terms mean exactly? Do they not refer to the same
thing? It is convenient to make a distinction between accuracy and precision when
we are speaking of errors.
Because it is not possible to obtain a measurement which is exactly equal to the true
value of a quantity, we have to indicate how much a measurement differs from the
true value. When we state the accuracy of an observation we indicate how close the ACCURACY
experimental value is to the true value. When making successive measurements of
the same quantities, we obtain values that differ from one another, even though they
were made under apparently identical conditions. By precision we mean how
closely the values we obtain in an experiment agree. This implies that we could PRECISION
have a situation where the result is highly precise but inaccurate nevertheless. In
other words the values may be very similar but they may differ quite a bit from the
true value.
Have another look at the frequency distributions of John’s and Thabo’s results when
they measured the period five times each. Thabo’s measurement of the period is
much more precise than John’s because the values he obtained lie much closer
together than John’s. We can therefore expect the arithmetic mean of Thabo’s
measurements to be closer to the true value than John’s.
An important point needs to be made here about independent measurements. In the INDEPENDENT
remainder of our discussion concerning the statistical processing of data to obtain MEASUREMENTS
a measure of the precision and the accuracy of a measurement, all measurements
which are repeated will be considered to be independent. By this we mean that no
previous measurement should in any way influence a subsequent measurement.
46
This is why we emptied and refilled the soft drink can repeatedly. To make each
measurement unique, we did not pour the water from the measuring jug back into
the can. We refilled the can from the tap each time. When making repeated
measurements, one runs the risk of becoming bored or frustrated and of finishing
the task without paying proper attention to experimental procedure. If, for example,
during the measurement of the height of the soft drink can, we had grown impatient
and had not removed the ruler completely from its measuring position between
measurements and had not turned the can around, but had simply looked at the top
and bottom readings five times in succession, the readings would no longer have
been independent. Whenever an experimenter does not observe the principle of
independent measurements, his/her results lose credibility. Therefore, if you are
conducting an experiment and you feel your concentration flagging at any stage,
stop for a few minutes or walk out of the room to regain you objectivity.
5.2 TYPES OF ERRORS
Experimental errors can be divided into two main types, namely systematic errors SYSTEMATIC AND
and random errors. A systematic error usually remains constant throughout a set of RANDOM ERRORS
readings, while a random error varies and can be either positive or negative.
5.2.1 Systematic errors

Systematic errors occur due to definite discoverable phenomena and can be
controlled. In other words, we can find out what is causing the error and do
something about it. The accuracy of a measurement can be increased by reducing
the magnitude of these errors or by eliminating them as far as possible. There are
various kinds of systematic errors depending on the type of apparatus or
measurement. Unfortunately systematic errors have to be detected before they can
be eliminated and this is not always easy. Repeating the measurement will not affect
these errors since their effect is usually noticeable in “one direction” only. By “one
direction” we mean that all the measurements are either larger or smaller than the
true value. If the effect were present in both directions, it would mean that some
values are smaller than the true value, while others are larger than the true value.
The best policy is to remain alert and to be healthily suspicious of the apparatus you
are using. The following examples of systematic errors will show you what to be
on the lookout for:
1. Mistakes
Because we are human, we can hardly avoid making mistakes. Among the
mistakes that occur most frequently are
➢ following the wrong experimental procedure
➢ misreading a scale
➢ recording results incorrectly
➢ making a mistake in a calculation
47
A mistake is a serious type of error and should be avoided by using the

necessary care and patience. Finally, there is no substitute for experience! The
more experiments you do, the less likely you are to make mistakes.
2. Personal errors
These errors can be attributed to personal imperfections of the observer. One
form of personal error is related to the observer’s reaction time. Someone with
slow reactions may react too slowly to a signal. When having to start a stop
watch, such a person would press the button slightly too late and in this way
cause a systematic error. A very nervous person, on the other hand, may press
the button slightly too soon, causing a systematic error in the opposite direction
to the slower person’s error. The ability to distinguish between colours is
another common cause of personal errors.
3. Instrumental errors
You should realise that all instruments have only a limited degree of accuracy.
It is the responsibility of the observer to determine the limits of accuracy of any
instrument before he/she uses it. When more than one measuring instrument is
used in an experiment, the degree of accuracy in the final result will not be
greater than that of the least reliable instrument that was used. Examples of
instrumental errors are that the zero reading of an instrument may not be correct
or that screw instruments may have backlash. (Backlash refers to the irregular
recoil of a wheel or a set of wheels in an instrument when sudden pressure is
applied to it.) Equipment should be set up with great care and precision, because
most instrumental errors can be decreased by proper use of the instrument.
4. Inherent errors
When we refer to inherent errors, we mean that these errors are naturally part
of an experiment. Examples of inherent errors are:
➢ the expansion of a measuring instrument with an increase in temperature

➢ friction in mechanical experiments
➢ change in room temperature during measurement
➢ heat losses in calorimetry experiments
➢ a variation in the emf of a battery
➢ current losses in a voltmeter
You should attempt to recognise these errors and try to eliminate them by improving
the experimental procedure.

Think back to the experimental method we followed when measuring the volume
of the soft drink can. Which of the following can be identified as systematic errors
that occurred during the experiment?
1. Reading the meniscus incorrectly by taking the reading at the upper edge of the
curve formed by the water.
48
2. Mistaking the scale divisions for 10 ml divisions instead of 20 ml divisions.

3. Spilling some water from the can when it was emptied into the measuring cup.
4. A dent in the soft drink can that was used.
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Errors number 1, 2 and 4 are all systematic errors. Any of these three would have
the effect of influencing the measurement in one direction – reading the meniscus
at the top edge every time would result in too large a reading of the volume of the
water, while reading the scale divisions as 10 ml would result in too small a value
for the capacity, as would a dent in the can. You would probably not have spilt the
same amount of water from the can every time it was emptied into the measuring
cup and the effect would probably be averaged out over five measurements.
....................................................................................................................................
5.2.2 Random errors
Random errors are always present in experiments and are caused by intrinsic and
unpredictable fluctuations in the apparatus. They cause successive readings of the
same quantity to be dispersed (or spread) about the true value of the quantity. After
a long series of measurements these errors average to zero and consequently we can
increase the precision of the measurement by increasing the number of
measurements. The difference between systematic and random errors is illustrated
in Figure 5.1. Every tick represents a reading of the same quantity. When there are
no systematic errors, the successive readings of a quantity are spread about the true
value (Figure 5.1(a)). If a systematic error is present, the readings are spread about
some displaced value and not about the true value (Figure 5.1(b)).
FIGURE 5.1: Illustration of the difference between systematic and random errors
In Study Unit 7 some elementary statistical methods of evaluating random errors STATISTICAL
will be introduced. It is important to remember that these statistics deal only with METHODS
random errors. Systematic errors cannot be evaluated by any statistical method.
49
IMPORTANT END NOTE:

Now that you know the difference between random and systematic errors, we would
like to make one final remark about the difference between precision and accuracy.
A precise measurement is one in which random errors are small while an accurate
measurement is one in which both random and systematic errors are small.
Example 5.1
Suppose we know that a stone weighs 1.6921 N. When the stone is weighed on a
balance which has not been zeroed (i.e. set to zero), the following successive
readings are obtained:
Reading no. 1 2 3 4
Weight (N) 1.6734 1.6737 1.6735 1.6738
TABLE 5.1: Weight of a stone
From these readings, the average value of the weight of the stone is 1.6736 N. The
calculation of the average value (also known as the arithmetic mean) of a number AVERAGE
of readings is discussed in Study Unit 3. The readings are spread about this average
value as shown in Figure 5.2(a). As you can see, the readings are very precise
because they lie very close together. The random error is only 0.0002 N, because
that is the greatest difference between any of the readings and the average weight.
Although the readings are very precise, at the same time they are very inaccurate.
Figure 5.2(b) shows that the true value lies some distance away from the average
value. The difference between the true value and the average value is 0.0185 N, so
in this case we can say that the systematic error is 0.0185 N. Obviously this large
error cannot be eliminated by taking more readings, because the readings would
remain in the same region as before. The systematic error can be eliminated once it
has been identified. In this case it means that the experimenter would have to realise
that the balance has not been zeroed and then zero the scale to eliminate this
systematic error.
50
FIGURE 5.2: (a) Spread of readings about the average value of

the weight of the stone
(b) Position of the true value of the weight of the stone
5.3 ACCURACY OF THE APPARATUS
A lot has now been said about the accuracy, precision and errors involved in taking
measurements. We have not, however, paid any attention to the apparatus that was
used for any specific measurement. The accuracy of a measurement also depends
on the apparatus being used. To illustrate this, we will have a brief look at the
instruments that can be used to measure length.
When there is no need for a very high degree of accuracy, the wooden metre rule METRE RULE
shown in Figure 5.3 is often used to measure length. A metre rule is calibrated in
millimetres (i.e. the distance between any of the two shortest lines on the metre rule You can turn back to
is 1 mm), so the smallest unit of length that can be read from the metre rule is 1 Study Unit 3 to
mm. If a reading should fall between two scale divisions, we can estimate whether refresh your memory
it is halfway between the two lines or not. We did this when we measured the height about how we
of the soft drink can. We found the height of the soft drink can to be 120 mm. measured the height
of the soft drink can.
FIGURE 5.3: A metre rule
When we want to measure a somewhat smaller length like the diameter of a R5

coin, for instance, the metre rule is not accurate enough for our purpose. Using the
vernier calliper shown in Figure 5.4 we are able to measure length accurately to VERNIER CALLIPER
one hundredth of a millimetre. In this modern version of the vernier calliper, the
reading is conveniently given by the digital display mounted on the movable jaw.
51
The photograph shows the vernier calliper open to just more than 44 mm on the
main scale, and the digital display shows us that the distance between the lower
jaws is actually 44.30 mm.
FIGURE 5.4: Vernier calliper
The span of the lower jaw is used to measure length and is especially useful for
measuring the diameter of a circular or a cylindrical object. The span of the upper
jaw is used to measure distances between two surfaces, like the inside diameter of
a drinking glass, for example.
If we want to measure an even smaller length, like the diameter of a pencil, we can
use the micrometrer screw gauge (Figure 5.5) which consists of a movable spindle MICROMETER
that is advanced toward another parallel-faced jaw by rotating the spindle. The SCREW GAUGE
reading shown in millimetres on the digital display is accurate to two decimal
places, and a third decimal place can be estimated by judging whether the reading
line on the thimble scale falls exactly between two scale divisions or closer to the
one or the other. In the photograph, the micrometer shows a reading of 26.445 mm,
where the 5 is the estimated or doubtful figure. The digital display reads 26.44 mm,
and we estimate the reading line to be halfway between the 0.44 mm and the 0.45
mm marks on the rotating scale.
52
FIGURE 5.5: A micrometer screw gauge
To illustrate the difference in accuracy of the three length-measuring instruments

we have just discussed, we measured the diameter d of a squash ball with a metre
rule, then with a vernier calliper and lastly with a micrometer screw gauge. The
measurement was repeated five times with each instrument and the mean value of
each set of data was calculated. The results of the measurements are shown in Table
5.2. As you can see, with the metre rule, it was only possible to read the diameter
to 1 mm (estimating a further 0.5 mm), while the vernier calliper and the micrometer
screw gauge both enable one to read accurately to 0.01 mm (and estimating a further
0.005 mm on the micrometer).
Metre rule Vernier calliper Micrometer screw gauge

i
𝑑m (mm) 𝑑v (mm) 𝑑s (mm)
1 40.0 40.16 40.165
2 42.0 40.18 40.190
3 38.5 40.20 40.175
4 40.0 40.17 40.165
5 41.0 40.18 40.180
Average 40.3 40.18 40.175
TABLE 5.2: Diameter of a squash ball measured by a metre rule, a

vernier calliper and a micrometer screw gauge

Suppose you are asked to measure the diameter of a long thin wire using a
micrometer screw gauge. Which of the following methods would give a result that
is both accurate and precise? Measuring the diameter of the wire by taking:
1. one reading near the middle of the wire
2. one reading near one of the ends of the wire
3. several readings at equidistant points along the wire. (Equidistant points are
points that are at the same distance from one another.)
53
4. the zero reading of the micrometer first and then taking one reading near the
middle of the wire
5. the zero reading of the micrometer and then taking several readings at
equidistant points along the wire
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Following method 5 would give the most precise result because the effects of errors
would be minimised by averaging over several readings. The result would also be
more likely to be accurate because the zero reading of the micrometer was taken
into account. This would eliminate the possibility of a systematic error due to a zero
reading that is not exactly zero.
....................................................................................................................................
54
REPEATED MEASUREMENTS
STUDY UNIT 6
Learning Objectives
1. define
(a) the relative frequency of a value in a distribution
(b) the mode of a distribution
(c) the median of a distribution
2. represent a set of measurements in the form of a
(a) relative frequency curve
(b) histogram
(c) normalized histogram
3. explain what the limiting frequency curve is
4. explain the difference between a discrete distribution and a continuous
distribution
5. differentiate between a symmetrical distribution and an asymmetrical
distribution
6.1 DISTRIBUTION OF REPEATED MEASUREMENTS

When we measure a single variable and obtain n different values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ,
we calculate the arithmetic mean 𝑥 of the readings and consider this to be the best
value of the true value X of the quantity. What we do not know yet, is how close we
can expect 𝑥 to be to X. Because we do not know the value of X, the best we can do
is to make an estimate of the error in 𝑥. We make this estimate by calculating the
probability that X lies within a certain range of values with 𝑥 at the centre.
Remember John and Thabo? From Figures 4.1 and 4.2 we could see that Thabo’s
successive measurements were grouped much closer around the mean value than
John’s were.
From John and Thabo’s experience in the laboratory, we have seen that the
precision of a measurement can be improved by repeating the measurement. What
we need to do now, is to find a numerical way of comparing John’s 500
measurements with Thabo’s five. This numerical value is determined by the way in
which the frequency distribution of the successive measurements of an arbitrary
variable x changes as more and more measurements are made. We will assume that
there are no systematic errors present in the measurement. Figures 4.1 and 4.4 show
how the distribution of John’s measurements changed as he increased the number
55
of measurements. These are the changes in the distribution that we must try to relate
to the number of measurements that have been made.
6.2 RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION: NORMALISATION
Comparing Figures 4.1 and 4.4, we see that the most obvious change in the
distribution is that the y-values become larger as the number of measurements
increases. This means that the frequency with which each value occurs becomes
larger, especially for the values that fall close to the arithmetic mean of the
distribution. We have used the frequency distribution as a way of visually
presenting the results of the measurement of a single variable up to now. Comparing
the results of five measurements with the results of 500 measurements on the same
scale is, however, not meaningful. A better way of doing this would be to compare
the relative frequencies of the measurements. The relative frequency 𝑟 with which RELATIVE
a measurement occurs, is the ratio of the frequency to the total number of FREQUENCY
measurements.
The relative frequency 𝑟𝑖 with which value 𝑥𝑖 occurs, is therefore given by
𝑓𝑖
𝑟𝑖 = .
∑ 𝑓𝑖
(6.1)
We can now present the results by means of a relative frequency distribution, where RELATIVE
the ordinates are not the actual or absolute number of times a measurement is FREQUENCY
recorded, but the ratio of this number to the total number of measurements. DISTRIBUTION
When the frequency distributions in Figures 4.1 and 4.4 are converted into relative
frequency distribution form, the ordinate values (i.e. the values presented on the
y axis) change as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
56
FIGURE 6.1: Relative frequency distribution of John’s results

after five measurements
FIGURE 6.2: Relative frequency distribution of John’s results

after 500 measurements
57

Turn back to the results that you obtained when you measured the height of the soft
drink can 10 times.
(a) Record the values of your measurements and the frequencies of each value in
the table below.
(b) Calculate the relative frequencies of the measurements and record the results in
the table below.
Value no Height Frequency Relative frequency

i h (mm) f r
TABLE 6.1: 10 measurements of the height of the soft drink can
(c) Plot the relative frequency distribution on the graph paper provided below.
The relative frequency distribution of your 10 measurements

of the height of a soft drink can
58
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Table 6.2 shows
(a) the values and frequencies

(b) the relative frequencies of 10 measurements of the height of a soft drink can
Value no Height Frequency Relative frequency

i h (mm) f r
1 117 1 0.1
2 119 3 0.3
3 120 4 0.4
4 121 1 0.1
5 122 1 0.1
TABLE 6.2: FEEDBACK: The relative frequencies of 10 measurements

of the height of a soft drink can
(c)
FIGURE 6.3: Relative frequency distribution of 10 measurements

of the height of the soft drink can
....................................................................................................................................
59
An important feature of relative frequencies is that their sum R is equal to one:

𝑛
𝑅 = ∑ 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑓𝑖
= ∑[ ]
∑ 𝑓𝑖
𝑖=1
= 1. (6.2)
When a distribution has the property that the frequencies add up to one, we say that NORMAL
the distribution is normalised. By changing a frequency distribution into a relative DISTRIBUTION
frequency distribution, the distribution has been normalised. The term “normalized” The normal
should not be confused with a “normal distribution”. Any distribution can be distribution is
normalised, but that does not make it a normal distribution. treated in Study
Unit 8.
6.3 LIMITING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
From Figures 6.1 and 6.2 you can see that a normalised frequency distribution
changes as the number of measurements increase. For most experiments these
changes are quite substantial and they can be erratic for small numbers of
measurements. Remember, for example, the changes in the distribution for the
height of the soft drink can when we increased the number of measurements from
five to 10. As the number of measurements increases the changes become less
pronounced. The difference between the distribution of John’s initial five
measurements (Figure 6.1) and that of his final 500 measurements (Figure 6.2) is
quite substantial. There are differences between the distributions for 50 and 100
measurements, but they are much less marked and when we come to compare 500
and 1 000 measurements the difference between their normalised frequency
distributions is negligible.
There is usually no way of predicting exactly what the fluctuations will be. We are
only able to say that the distribution settles down to a more and more definite shape
as the number of measurements increases. We summarise this by saying that there
is a limiting frequency distribution for the infinite experiment. That means that there LIMITING
is a point beyond which the frequency distribution will not change any more no FREQUENCY
matter how much we increase the number of measurements. This limiting DISTRIBUTION
distribution is the basis of the whole of the discussion that follows.
It is very important to realise that the existence of the limiting frequency distribution
is nearly always an assumption. In other words, we believe that the limiting
frequency distribution exists but we can never really test it satisfactorily. If an
experimentalist keeps on and on making a measurement he may become tired and
careless, or the apparatus may begin to wear out, both of which will tend to broaden
60
the frequency distribution. The quantity that is being measured may also itself vary
with time (it may be influenced by room temperature for instance) so that the
frequency distribution will drift up or down as the measurements are repeated.
Our whole analysis of experimental errors is therefore built upon an assumption,

which may seem to be a very uncertain and unsatisfactory basis for an important
part of science. However, we should not be discouraged by this. All scientific
theories start from a number of assumptions, although they are often not clearly
stated or understood. There is an honourable and well-tested way of proceeding
under these circumstances. We simply develop the theory to the extent that it makes
predictions that can be tested against experimental results or other theories. If
discrepancies appear we look back along our line of reasoning, examining each
assumption as we come to it to see how necessary it was to enable us to develop the
theory and to see what possible changes could remove the discrepancy.
It is safe to say that any experiment occurring in a school or undergraduate course

is extremely unlikely to cast doubt on our initial assumption of a limiting frequency
distribution, and that it should be possible to resolve the discrepancies that do occur
in a less deep and philosophical way than revising the basic assumption.
6.4 HISTOGRAM
Another way of making a graphical presentation of experimental data is by means
of a histogram. To construct a histogram, we divide the range of measured values HISTOGRAM
into a set of equal intervals and then count the number of times a measurement
occurs in each interval. We choose the width of the intervals which is the most
convenient for a specific set of data. It is important that there should be no doubt as
to where the boundaries of the intervals are and that there should be no overlapping
or gaps between successive intervals. Suppose we want to exhibit the results of a
set of n values that were obtained by measuring some hypothetical variable x in the
form of a histogram. If we decide on intervals with end points 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ,
the intervals are
𝑥0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥1
𝑥1 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥2
.
.
.
𝑥𝑛−1 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑛 (6.3)
Take careful note of the “≤” and “<” signs! They serve to show that a specific
value cannot fall into more than one interval. Look at 𝑥1 for example; it belongs to
the first interval (as indicated by the ≤ sign) but it is excluded from the second
interval (as indicated by the < sign). The frequencies of the measurements are
61
𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑛 and n is the total number of measurements. A typical histogram is

illustrated in Figure 6.4.
FIGURE 6.4: General representation of a histogram
As we have explained previously, relative frequencies give information about a

distribution in a better form than absolute frequencies. In the same way that we
plotted a relative frequency or a normalised frequency distribution, we can also plot
a normalised histogram of a set of measurements by using the relative frequencies NORMALISED
as ordinate values. HISTOGRAM
If the width of the intervals (i.e. the width of the bars) of a normalised histogram is
one unit, the area under the histogram will be one. This means that the area of each
bar is numerically equal to its height, which is of course the relative frequency of
the value at the centre of the interval. Even if the bars of a normalised histogram
are not one unit wide, the area of each bar is still proportional to the relative
frequency of the values that fall into this interval as long as the bars are of equal
width. Once you start plotting your own histograms, you will realise how important
the width of the intervals of a histogram is!
6.5 STURGES’ RULE
Sturges’ rule is used as a guideline to select the number of intervals for a histogram.
The number of intervals m is given by
𝑚 = 1 + 3.3 log 𝑛 (6.4)
where n is the number of measurements or observations. If the value of m is not an

integer, it is increased to the integer just larger than the calculated value to include
all the measurements.
62
If for example the number of measurements is 50, then the value of m is calculated
as
𝑚 = 1 + 3.3 log 𝑛
= 1 + 3.3 log(50)
= 6.61
≅7 (6.5)
The ideal number of intervals to select in this case would be 7.
Example 6.1
Table 6.3 shows the results of 33 measurements of the length of a screw. The
measurements have been grouped into intervals and the frequency gives the number
of times a measurement occurred in each interval. Figure 6.5 shows the histogram
representing the results.
Length intervals Frequency

(mm) f
9.9 – 10.1 1
10.1 – 10.3 3
10.3 – 10.5 7
10.5 – 10.7 9
10.7 – 10.9 6
10.9 – 11.1 5
11.1 – 11.3 2
∑ f = 33
TABLE 6.3: Results of 33 measurements of length of a screw
63
FIGURE 6.5: Histogram of the length of a screw measured 33 times

Complete Table 6.4 by filling in the relative frequencies of the measurements of the
length of the screw and plot the normalised histogram on the graph paper provided
below.
Length intervals Frequency Relative frequency

(mm) f r
9.9 – 10.1 1
10.1 – 10.3 3
10.3 – 10.5 7
10.5 – 10.7 9
10.7 – 10.9 6
10.9 – 11.1 5
11.1 – 11.3 2
∑ f = 33 R=∑r=
TABLE 6.4: Relative frequencies of the 33 measurements of the screw
64
Your normalised histogram of the 33 measurements of the screw
65
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
The relative frequencies of the 33 measurements of the screw are shown in Table
6.5. These results are represented by the normalised histogram in Figure 6.6.
Length intervals Frequency Relative frequency

(mm) f r
9.9 – 10.1 1 0.03
10.1 – 10.3 3 0.09
10.3 – 10.5 7 0.21
10.5 – 10.7 9 0.27
10.7 – 10.9 6 0.18
10.9 – 11.1 5 0.15
11.1 – 11.3 2 0.06
∑ f = 33 R=∑r=1
TABLE 6.5: FEEDBACK: The relative frequencies of the 33 measurements

of the length of the screw
FIGURE 6.6: Normalised histogram of the 33 measurements

of the length of the screw
....................................................................................................................................
66
6.6 CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
The frequency distribution (shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2) and the histogram (shown DISCRETE
in Figures 6.4 to 6.6) are both examples of a discrete distribution. If we were able DISTRIBUTION
to conduct an infinite number of measurements, we would come up with a
continuous distribution. This would be presented by a smooth curve drawn through CONTINUOUS
the outline of the diagrams (see Figures 6.7 and 6.8). DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 6.7: Continuous distribution associated with a discrete distribution
FIGURE 6.8: Continuous distribution associated with a histogram
67
This smooth curve in Fig 6.8 represents the limiting frequency distribution that we
discussed earlier. Given such a smooth curve, what is the true value of the quantity SYMMETRICALCUR
we are trying to measure? This can be answered most easily when the limiting VE
frequency distribution curve is symmetrical with a single peak as shown in Figure
6.9. The true value is then equal to the arithmetic mean 𝑥 at the central axis of
symmetry of the curve.
FIGURE 6.9: Symmetrical continuous frequency distribution
In addition to the arithmetic mean of a distribution there are two more

characteristics of a continuous distribution that are often used to describe the MODE
distribution. (We discussed the calculation of the arithmetic mean in Study Unit 3.)
They are the mode and the median of the distribution. The mode of a distribution MEDIAN
refers to the value that occurs with the greatest frequency. The median of a
distribution is the value that lies exactly in the middle of the distribution. The
median is therefore the value above or below which exactly half of the
measurements fall.
In the case of a symmetrical distribution, the mean, mode and median all have the
same value. If the curve is not symmetrical, the values are usually different, as
illustrated in Figure 6.10 below.
68
FIGURE 6.10: Asymmetrical continuous frequency distribution
69
EVALUATING THE PRECISION OF A MEASUREMENT
STUDY UNIT 7
EVALUATING THE PRECISION OF A
MEASUREMENT
Learning Objectives
1. define
(a) the range of a distribution

(b) the standard deviation from the mean
2. calculate
(a) the range of a distribution

(b) the standard deviation from the mean
7.1 PRECISION OF A MEASUREMENT
In Study Unit 6 we saw that when a single variable is repeatedly measured, the
values of the successive measurements are dispersed about the mean value. What If you cannot
we have not done up to now, is to describe the way in which the values are spread remember exactly
about the mean by using numbers. In this study unit we are going to introduce a what precision
way of calculating a numerical value that will provide a measure of the way in means, you can
which the data are distributed about the mean. The mean value in itself does not tell look it up in Study
us how the values are dispersed about the mean, so we need a second number to Unit 5.
provide this information. This number will tell us more about the precision of a set
of measurements.
7.2 RANGE
One of the most obvious ways to express the dispersion about the mean is simply
the difference between the smallest observation and the largest observation. This is
known as the range of a distribution and is given by the formula RANGE
Range = 𝑥max − 𝑥min (7.1)
where 𝑥max is the largest and 𝑥min is the smallest value of a set of data.
70
In general, different sets of data can have different means and different dispersions
about the mean. It can also happen that two different sets of data have the same
mean but that the data are dispersed about the mean value quite differently. The
three numbers 24, 25 and 26, for example, have a mean value of 25 and so have the
numbers 5, 25 and 45. The first group is within the limits indicated by 25 ± 1 while
the second group is within the limits 25 ± 20. The range of the first group mentioned
above is therefore 26 − 24 = 2, while that of the second group is 45 − 5 = 40.
The range of a distribution is a very simple measure of dispersion and as such it has
certain limitations. When calculating the range of a distribution, we take only two
values into account, so the other values in the distribution make no contribution to
the calculation. Furthermore, the frequencies with which the maximum and
minimum values occur are not used in the calculation, which can give misleading
information about a distribution. The following example proves this point.
Example 7.1
The marks obtained by two different classes in the same school for a mathematics
test are tabulated below.
x 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62
𝑓class 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 1 1
𝑓class 2 1 2 3 5 8 9 7 2 1 1
TABLE 7.1: Marks obtained by two different classes for a mathematics test
The two distributions in Table 7.1 are presented by the frequency distributions in
Figure 7.1. Although they have the same range, they are dispersed about the mean
quite differently. As you can see, the distribution for class 2 shows a much higher
and narrower peak than that of class 1. The shape of neither of the two curves is,
however, reflected by the range of the two distributions which is in both cases given
by
Range = 𝑥max − 𝑥min
= 62 − 53
=9
71
FIGURE 7.1: Two frequency distributions with the same range

This illustrates the need for a measure of the precision of a measurement that will
provide us with some information about the way in which the experimental values
are dispersed about the mean.
7.3 STANDARD DEVIATION

Suppose the same physical quantity is measured in two different experiments
involving different apparatus, just like John and Thabo independently measured the
period of the same pendulum. If the limiting frequency distribution curves of both
experiments are single peaked and symmetrical, they should give the same value
for the position of the peak. We would, therefore, expect something like the two
curves in Figure 7.2 for the results of the two experiments. As you can see, the
narrower curve (a) has the taller peak of the two. The reason for this is that the areas
under the two curves must be equal.
FIGURE 7.2: Limiting frequency distributions
72
From Figure 7.2 we see that the mean value 𝑥 determines the position of the peak
for both curves. The shape of the two curves differs because of the way the
measurements are dispersed about this mean value. From our comparison of John’s
and Thabo’s measurements we could see that the distribution of the measurements
is determined partly by the role of the experimenter and the types of errors that can The different
be made. If we assume the measurements to be free of systematic errors, the types of errors are
dispersion of the measurements, and therefore the shape of the curve representing discussed in Study
the distribution, is determined by random errors. Random errors are caused by Unit 5.
inherent variations within the apparatus, so they tell us something about the
precision of the apparatus.
Because curve (a) in Figure 7.2 has a narrower peak, the measurements lie closer
together than the measurements presented by curve (b). A far greater proportion of
the measurements obtained in experiment (a) (with the narrow distribution) lie close
to the mean value, 𝑥, than those in experiment (b) (with the broad distribution). This
is roughly what we mean when we say that experiment (a) has a greater precision
than experiment (b). What we have to do now is to find a way to measure this
precision in some simple, systematic, numerical way. We need to calculate a single
number that tells us something about the “width” of the curve.
Any particular measurement 𝑥𝑖 will differ from the mean value 𝑥 by a deviation 𝛿𝑖
from the mean value, where
𝛿𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥. (7.2)
Large deviations clearly correspond to broadly peaked curves, so some measure of

the average size of the errors will give us the sort of number we are looking for.
There are many ways of obtaining a measure of the average magnitude of the STANDARD
errors. One of the simplest is the standard deviation, which is defined as the root- DEVIATION
mean-square deviation from the mean. The square root of the mean value of a
squared quantity is known as the root-mean-square or rms value of the quantity. RMS VALUE
Suppose a variable x was measured N times and the values obtained
were 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑁 . The deviation of each value from the mean 𝑥 is given by
equation (7.2):
𝛿1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥
𝛿2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥
.
.
.
𝛿𝑁 = 𝑥𝑁 − 𝑥 (7.3)
The standard deviation σ is defined as the square root of the mean value of the
squares of the deviations. For N measurements that is
73
1
δ12 + δ22 + δ23 + ⋯ + δ2𝑁 2
𝜎=[ ]
𝑁
1
∑𝑁 2 2
𝑖=1 δ𝑖
=[ ].
𝑁
(7.4)
If the N measurements consist of n different values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 with

corresponding frequencies 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … , 𝑓𝑛 , then
1
𝑓1 δ12 + 𝑓2 δ22 + 𝑓3 δ23 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛 δ2𝑛 2
𝜎=[ ]
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 δ2𝑖 2
=[ 𝑛 ]
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 δ2𝑖 2
=[ ]
𝑁
(7.5)
where
𝑛
𝑁 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 = ∑ 𝑓 .
𝑖=1
(7.6)
What does the value of the standard deviation tell us? Because it is a measure of the
“width” of a distribution, a small value for 𝜎 indicates a narrow curve, while a large
value of 𝜎 tells us that the curve is wider. In terms of the precision of the
measurements, we can say that the smaller the value of 𝜎, the more precise the
measurements. We can now describe the difference in the shapes of the two curves
in Figure 7.2 by saying that the distribution represented by curve (a) has a smaller
standard deviation than that of curve (b).
We need to point out that precision is too complex a concept to be completely

described in this way. For the purposes of this module, however, there is usually no
better measure of precision than the standard deviation of the limiting frequency
distribution.
74
Example 7.2
Let us consider an example from everyday life. The mass of each of 100 new
members at a weight watchers club was registered at the beginning of their program.
Table 7.2 shows the different masses that were recorded and the number of persons
for each mass — that is the frequency with which each mass occurred. Calculate
the mean mass of the club members, and the standard deviation from the mean.
Mass (kg) 61 66 70 75 80 84
f 10 20 30 20 10 10
TABLE 7.2: Mass of 100 weight watchers club members
From equation (3.2) the mean mass of the club members is
∑6𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑚𝑖
𝑚=
∑6𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
[(10 × 61) × (20 × 66) + (30 × 70) + (20 × 75) + (10 × 80) + (10 × 84)] kg
=
10 + 20 + 30 + 20 + 10 + 10
7170 kg
=
100
= 71.7 kg
−
̃ 72 kg.
NOTE: Read Study Unit 2

The mean mass is given as 72 kg and not 71.7 kg, because the mass was measured
again if you want
accurately to two significant figures. For the calculation of the standard deviation
to refresh your
we shall use 71.7 kg and round off the final answer.
memory about
significant
i m f 𝛿 𝑓𝛿 2
(kg) (kg) (kg 2 ) numbers.
1 61 10 −10.7 1144.9
2 66 20 −5.7 649.8
3 70 30 −1.7 86.7
4 75 20 3.3 217.8
5 80 10 8.3 688.9
6 84 10 12.3 1512.9
∑ 100 4301.0
TABLE 7.3: Summary of the calculation of standard deviation

from the mean mass
The standard deviation [from equation (7.5)] is:
75
1
∑6𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 δ2𝑖 2
𝜎=[ ]
𝑁
1
4301 kg 2 2
=[ ]
100
= 6.5582 kg
−
̃ 7 kg.

Now you have a go at calculating the range and standard deviation of a distribution.
Mrs Bird took to feeding the sparrows in her garden. She counted the number of
sparrows feeding at 10:00 in the morning every day from the beginning of March
to the end of June. The results of her observations are tabulated below.
Number of sparrows 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
f 2 3 8 16 22 46 17 5 2 1
TABLE 7.4: Observations of the number of sparrows
(a) Calculate the range of the distribution

Range =
(b) Calculate the average number of sparrows in the garden. (Let the average
number of sparrows in the garden be 𝑏.)
𝑏=
76
(c) Record the values of δ and 𝑓𝛿 2 needed for the calculation of the standard
deviation in the table below:
b f δ f𝛿 2
TABLE 7.5: Calculation of the standard deviation
Calculate the standard deviation from the mean:
σ=
.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
(a) The range of the distribution is
Range = 13 − 4 = 9 sparrows.
(b) Let the average number of sparrows in the garden be 𝑏. According to equation
(3.2)
∑10
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑏𝑖
𝑏 = 10
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
1035
=
122
= 8.48 sparrows.
NOTE:
Although the mean value of 8.48 sparrows is a practical impossibility, use this
unrounded value to calculate the standard deviation, because the calculation of
the mean is an intermediate calculation in the process of calculating the
standard deviation.
77
(c) The values of δ and 𝑓𝛿 2 that are needed for the calculation of the standard
deviation are tabulated below.
b f δ 𝑓𝛿 2
4 2 −4.48 40.14
5 3 −3.48 36.33
6 8 −2.48 49.20
7 16 −1.48 35.05
8 22 −0.48 5.07
9 46 10.52 12.44
10 17 1.52 39.28
11 5 2.52 31.75
12 2 3.52 24.78
13 1 4.52 20.43
∑ 122 294.47
TABLE 7.6: Feedback: Calculation of the standard deviation
The standard deviation is given by equation (7.5) as

1
∑10 2 2
i=1 𝑓𝑖 𝛿𝑖
𝜎 = [ 10 ]
∑i=1 𝑓𝑖
1
294.47 2
=[ ]
122
= 1.55 sparrows
−
̃ 2 sparrows.
Final answer: The number of sparrows visiting the garden is 8 ± 2 sparrows.
....................................................................................................................................
78
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
STUDY UNIT 8
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Learning Objectives
1. explain what is meant by:
(a) a distribution function

(b) a Gaussian or normal distribution
2. describe the characteristics of the normal distribution curve

3. find the distribution function that describes the normal distribution associated
with a set of data
4. plot the curve representing the normal distribution associated with a set of data
8.1 SHAPE OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Now that you know what “standard deviation” means, we can have a look at the
mathematical function that determines the shape of a distribution. This function is
known as the distribution function and it describes the typical distribution of DISTRIBUTION
measurements by making use of the mean 𝑥 and the standard deviation σ. This FUNCTION
might sound very theoretical, but please do not be intimidated by the mathematics.
You will see that it is very interesting and most satisfying to be able to describe the
shape of a distribution mathematically.
The distribution function is given by the equation
1 2 /(2𝜎 2 )
𝑟= 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥)
𝜎√2𝜋
(8.1)
where r is the relative frequency, σ the standard deviation and 𝑥 the mean. The
distribution described by this function is known as a Gaussian or normal NORMAL
distribution. The shape of the curve of a normal distribution is shown in Figure 8.1. DISTRIBUTION
Note that equation (8.1) is valid if the width w of the interval is equal to one. If 𝑤 ≠
1, then we have to multiply equation (8.1) by w.
79
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.1: Normal distribution
8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Have another look at the symmetrical distribution in Figure 6.9. Apart from the CHARACTERISTICS OF
fact that Figure 8.1 is a relative frequency curve and Figure 6.9 is a frequency THE NORMAL
curve, the shapes of the two curves are the same. The curve representing the normal DISTRIBUTION CURVE
distribution has the following characteristics:
1. It is bell-shaped and symmetric about the mean 𝑥.

2
2. For a large number of readings, 68% (or approximately 3 ) of the readings fall
within the range 𝑥 ± 𝜎 and 95% fall within the range 𝑥 ± 2𝜎, as shown in
Figure 8.1.
3. The constant 1/(𝜎√2𝜋) in equation (8.1) is chosen to ensure that the area under
the curve is equal to 1.
The shape of the normal frequency curve changes as the value of 𝜎 changes. If 𝜎 is
large, the curve is wide, but if 𝜎 is small, the curve becomes narrower. In Figure
8.2 the normal frequency curve for the same value of 𝑥 and different values of 𝜎 is
shown. As you can see, the width of the curve is directly related to the standard
error of the distribution, so it provides us with a very useful visual representation
of the precision of a set of measurements.
80
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.2: Shape of normal frequency curve for different values of 𝜎
By calculating the mean and the standard deviation of any set of measurements, we
can determine the normal frequency curve that fits the set of data best. Let us look
at an example to show what this means.
Example 8.1
A student measures the width of a wooden beam at different positions along the
length of the beam.
The data tabulated in Table 8.1 are the number of times (f) each measurement of
the width x is observed.
x (mm) 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
f 1 5 17 49 85 52 25 11 4 1
TABLE 8.1: Measurements of the width of a wooden beam
Find the equation of the normal frequency curve that fits the data.
Solution
The summations needed for the calculation of the mean and the standard deviation
are tabulated below:
i x f fx δ 𝑓𝛿 2
81
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2 )

1 25 1 25 −4.2 17.6
2 26 5 130 −3.2 51.2
3 27 17 459 −2.2 82.3
4 28 49 1372 −1.2 70.6
5 29 85 2465 −0.2 3.4
6 30 52 1560 0.8 33.3
7 31 25 775 1.8 81.0
8 32 11 352 2.8 86.2
9 33 4 132 3.8 57.8
10 34 1 34 4.8 23.0
∑ 250 7304 506.4
TABLE 8.2: Feedback: Calculations for the standard deviation
The mean value of the width of the beam is
∑10
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥 = 10
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
7304 mm
=
250
= 29.22 mm
−
̃ 29 mm (8.2)
and the standard deviation in the width is
1
∑10 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝛿𝑖
𝜎=[ ]
𝑁
1
506.4 mm2 2
=[ ]
250
= 1.423 mm
−
̃ 1.4 mm. (8.3)
Substituting the values of the mean and the standard deviation into equation (8.1)
gives the equation of the normal frequency curve for the data
1 2 /(2𝜎 2 )
𝑟= 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥)
𝜎√2𝜋
82
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
1 2 /(2(1.423)2 )
= 𝑒 −(𝑥−29.22)
(1.423√2𝜋)
2
= 0.28 𝑒 −0.247(𝑥−29.22) . (8.4)
Let us call the relative frequency calculated with the equation of the normal
frequency curve 𝑟calc , and let the relative frequency that we obtain from the
experimental results by using equation (6.1) be 𝑟exp . The values of 𝑟calc and 𝑟exp are
shown in Table 8.3. When calculating 𝑟calc use the unrounded values of 𝑥 and σ As
you can see, they correlate quite well. A better way to see this is to plot a histogram
using the values 𝑟exp and a normal frequency curve using 𝑟calc on the same set of
axes. Figure 8.3 shows the normalised histogram and the normal frequency curve
for the measurements of the width of the beam.
i x f 𝑟exp 𝑟calc
1 25 1 0.004 0.0034
2 26 5 0.020 0.0216
3 27 17 0.068 0.0829
4 28 49 0.196 0.1939
5 29 85 0.340 0.2767
6 30 52 0.208 0.2409
7 31 25 0.100 0.1280
8 32 11 0.044 0.0415
9 33 4 0.016 0.0082
10 34 1 0.004 0.0035
∑ 250 1.000 1.0006
TABLE 8.3: Values of 𝑟exp and 𝑟calc
FIGURE 8.3: Normalised histogram and normal frequency

curve for the width of the beam
83
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Can’t wait to try this yourself? A physics test with a maximum mark of 20 was
written by 120 students. The marks obtained by the students in the test are tabulated
below. In this case, the frequency indicates the number of students who obtained a
certain mark.
Mark 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
f 1 2 1 4 6 7 13 18 20 14 10 11 8 2 2
TABLE 8.4: Marks of 120 students
(a) Complete the table below and use the results of the summations in the last row
to calculate the mean and the standard deviation of the distribution. In this
case, x is the mark out of 20 obtained in the physics test.
i x f fx δ f𝛿 2
TABLE 8.5: Calculations for the standard deviation

The mean score obtained by the class is
𝑥=
=
=
and the standard deviation of the score is
𝜎=
=
=
(b) Find the equation for the normal frequency distribution by substituting the
values of 𝑥 and 𝜎 into equation (8.1).
𝑟=
=
84
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
=
(c) Calculate
(i) the relative frequency 𝑟calc by using the equation you have just derived
(ii) the experimental value of the relative frequency 𝑟exp using equation (6.1) and
tabulate the results in the table below.
i x f 𝑟exp 𝑟calc
TABLE 8.6: Calculations of 𝑟exp and 𝑟calc
(d) Plot both the normalised histogram of the data and the normal frequency curve
on the graph paper provided below.
85
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.4: Your histogram and normal frequency curve for

the results of the physics test
................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........
(a) The table below shows the summations needed to calculate the mean and the
standard deviation.
86
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
i x f fx δ f𝜹𝟐
1 5 1 5 −7.9 62.4
2 6 2 12 −6.9 95.2
3 7 2 7 −5.9 34.8
4 8 4 32 −4.9 96.0
5 9 6 54 −3.9 91.3
6 10 7 70 −2.9 58.9
7 11 13 143 −1.9 46.9
8 12 18 216 −0.9 14.6
9 13 20 260 0.1 0.2
10 14 14 196 1.1 16.9
11 15 10 150 2.1 44.1
12 16 11 176 3.1 105.7
13 17 8 136 4.1 134.5
14 18 2 36 5.1 52.0
15 19 2 38 6.1 74.4
16 20 1 20 7.1 50.4
∑ 120 1551 978.3
TABLE 8.7: Feedback: Calculations for the standard deviation
The mean score obtained by the class is
∑16
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥 = 16
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
1551
=
120
= 12.9
−
̃ 13 (8.5)
and the standard deviation from the mean score is

1
∑16 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝛿𝑖
𝜎 = [ 16 ]
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
1
978.3 2
=[ ]
120
= 2.9. (8.6)
(b) Substituting the values of 𝑥 and σ into equation (8.1) gives us the following
equation for the normal distribution:
87
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
1 2 /(2𝜎 2 )
𝑟= 𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥)
𝜎√2𝜋
1 2 2
= 𝑒 −(𝑥−12.9) /(2(2.9) )
2.9√2𝜋
2
= 0.14 𝑒 −0.06(𝑥−12.9) . (8.7)
(c) The values of 𝑟exp and 𝑟calc are tabulated below.
i x f 𝒓𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝒓𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐜
1 5 1 0.008 0.003
2 6 2 0.017 0.008
3 7 1 0.008 0.017
4 8 4 0.033 0.033
5 9 6 0.050 0.056
6 10 7 0.058 0.085
7 11 13 0.108 0.113
8 12 18 0.150 0.133
9 13 20 0.167 0.140
10 14 14 0.117 0.130
11 15 10 0.083 0.107
12 16 11 0.092 0.079
13 17 8 0.067 0.051
14 18 2 0.017 0.029
15 19 2 0.017 0.015
16 20 1 0.008 0.007
∑ 120 1.000 1.006
TABLE 8.8: Feedback: Calculations for 𝑟exp and 𝑟calc
As you can see, we have lost some accuracy (∑ 𝑟calc = 1.006) because the
numbers in the equation that we used to calculate 𝑟calc were rounded off.
(d) The histogram and normal frequency curve for the results of the physics test are
shown in Figure 8.5.
88
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE 8.5: Histogram and normal distribution of the results

of a physics test written by 120 students
....................................................................................................................................
This brings us to the end of Topic 1. You may now want to test yourself to see what
you have mastered. Self-Evaluation Test 1 contains questions about the most
important aspects of the work we have covered in Topic 1. A memorandum for the
test is given on page 81. Do not look at the memorandum before doing the test — it
would defeat the purpose of self-evaluation! After completing the test, you can mark
it according to the memorandum. You should be able to see which areas of the work
you have mastered and which areas still need some attention. Remember, this test is
a tool to help you with your studies.
89
SELF-EVALUATION TEST 1
1. Indicate the number of significant digits in each of the following numbers:
(a) 0.00030
(b) 3.0000
(c) 12700
(d) 1.400 × 103
(e) 40001
2. Calculate the average speeds
∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
in m s−1 to the appropriate number of significant figures that correspond to the

following data:
(a) A car covers a distance of 1 km in 50 s.

(b) A lorry covers a distance of 1.20 km in 65 s.
(c) Light covers a distance of 3 000 km in 0.01 s.
3. Organise the data given below into a table that shows
(a) the frequency f

(b) the relative frequency r
of each value.
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5
4. A manufacturer of light bulbs investigated the burn time of his bulbs by

measuring the burn time of 100 bulbs. The results of his investigation are
summarised in the table below:
Burn time
(hours) f
1 325 – 1 375 2
1 375 – 1 425 5
1 425 – 1 475 8
1 475 – 1 525 60
1 525 – 1 575 19
1 575 – 1 625 3
1 625 – 1 675 3
90
(a) What was the average burn time of the tested bulbs?
(b) Calculate the standard deviation from the mean.
(c) Draw a normalised histogram of the distribution.
91
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF TOPIC 1
MEMORANDUM FOR SELF-EVALUATION TEST 1

1. The number of significant figures in each of the numbers are:
(a) Two
(b) Five
(c) Three
(d) Four
(e) Five
2.
(a) For the car
∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
1 × 103 m
=
50 s
= 2 × 101 m s −1 .
Comment:
The answer is given to only one significant figure because that was the number of
significant figures in the most uncertain number used in the calculation. (In this case,
both quantities, 1 km and 50 s, were known only to one significant figure.)
(b) For the lorry

∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
1.20 × 103 m
=
65 s
= 1.8 × 101 m s−1 .
Comment:
Here the answer could be given to two significant figures, because the least certain
quantity, that is t = 65 s, in this case was known to two significant figures.
(c) For light

∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
3 × 106 m
=
1 × 10−2 s
= 3 × 108 m s−1 .
Comment:
92
In all three of these calculations, scientific notation was used, because the number of
significant figures is immediately apparent with this notation.
3. The frequency f and relative frequency r of the data are summarised in the table below:
x f r
0.1 4 0.13
0.2 6 0.20
0.3 11 0.37
0.4 6 0.20
0.5 3 0.10
∑ 30 1.00
4.
(a) The average burn time is
∑7𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝑡𝑖
𝑡= 7
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
150500 hours
=
100
= 1505 hours
̃ 1.5 × 103 hours.

−
(b) The summations used in the calculation of the standard deviation are tabulated below:
t f r 𝛿 𝑓𝛿 2
2
(hours) (10 hours) (10 hours2 )
4
1 350 2 0.02 −1.55 4.805

1 400 5 0.05 −1.05 5.513
1 450 8 0.08 −0.55 2.420
1 500 60 0.60 −0.05 0.150
1 550 19 0.19 0.45 3.848
1 600 3 0.03 0.95 2.708
1 650 3 0.03 1.45 6.308
∑ 100 1.00 25.752
93
The standard deviation from the mean is

1
∑7𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖 𝛿𝑖2 2
𝜎=[ 7 ]
∑𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
1
2.5752 × 105 hours2 2
=[ ]
100
= 51 hours.
(c) Normalised histogram of the burn time of 100 light bulbs
94

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PHY1509 PHYSICS SECTION: WHAT TO EXPECT

Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures

▪ observing physical phenomena

1.2 THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT

Formulating an aim for the experiment

FIGURE 1.1: A can containing soft drink

Each of these statements can be called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement HYPOTHESIS

………………………………..................................... FEEDBACK .......................

1.3 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT

6. Draw conclusions from your results.

Having completed an experiment, the usual procedure is to summarise the results

1.4 YOUR REPORT ON THE SOFT DRINK EXPERIMENT

1.2 Background theory

𝛿 = volume of water recorded in reading 1 – average volume of water

TABLE 1.1: Your results of the soft drink experiment

Volume of soft drink: ...........................

2. Try to make an estimate of the error in the results.

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

TABLE 1.2: Results of the soft drink experiment

𝑉can = (360 ± 4)cm3 . (1.3)

𝑉 = 𝑉can − 𝑉soft drink

= 360 cm3 − 340 cm3

𝑉soft drink 340 cm3

4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

𝑉can = 𝑉soft drink + (20 ± 10)cm3 (1.8)

1.6 WHAT WAS THAT ALL ABOUT?

2. Electricity and magnetism

Study Unit 2 Units and significant figures

Study Unit 3 Single variables

Study Unit 4 A case study

Study Unit 5 Precision and accuracy

Study Unit 6 Repeated measurements

Study Unit 7 Evaluating the precision of a measurement

Study Unit 8 Normal distribution

Experimental confirmation of a prediction is merely a measurement. An

𝑉soft drink = (340 ± 10)cm3 .

➢ Why was the volume of the can determined five times?

FIRST THINGS FIRST

1. explain what is meant by SI units

DEFINITION OF STANDARD UNITS

Table 2.2: Examples of base and derived SI units

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Table 2.3: Feedback: Examples of base and derived SI units

Prefix Abbreviation Factor

Table 2.4: Standard prefixes that denote multiples of 10

Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

TABLE 2.5: Activity: Conversion to SI units

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Quantity Measurement Measurement in SI units

TABLE 2.6: Feedback: Conversion to SI units

2.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Experiments in physics involve the measurement of a variety of quantities and a

1. The leftmost nonzero digit is always the most significant digit.

most significant significant least significant

most significant significant least significant

The following numbers all have four significant digits:

1 234, 123 400, 123.4, 1 001, 101.0, 0.001010.

Suppose we have measured a certain distance to be one thousand two hundred

Number Number of significant figures

Table 2.7: Significant figures

.................................................................................................. FEEDBACK ..........

Number Number of significant figures

Table 2.8: Feedback: Significant figures