[BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms: heat and work
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
In Mechanics, Work is the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Mathematically work done is evaluated by
2 

W1 2   F  ds
1

Heat transfer and work transfer are the only mechanisms by which energy can be transferred across the
boundary of a closed system. Hence, if the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it
must be work.

All our efforts are oriented towards how to convert heat to work or vice versa:
Heat to work Thermal power plant
Work to heat Refrigeration

Examples of Mechanical work concept:

Thermodynamic Work:

 Work can take on a number of forms (e.g., electrical, mechanical, or magnetic) since it can result
from a variety of potential differences. The following general definition attempts to accommodate
all forms of work in a general manner:
Work (and only work) is performed by a system on its surroundings during a process if the only effect
external to the system could be the raising of a mass in a gravitational field.
 The raising of mass is in effect of force acting through a distance, and so the work concept of
mechanics is included.

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Examples of Work Interactions

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Notes on Heat:
 All temperature changes need not be due to heat alone e.g.: Friction
 All heat interaction need not result in changes in temperature e.g.: condensation or evaporation

Sign conventions for Heat:

 Heat transfer is considered as positive if it takes place from the surroundings to

the system.

Heat in

 Heat is considered as negative if it takes place from the system to the

surroundings.

Heat out

Fig: Sign convention in Energy Transfer by Work, Heat and Mass Flow

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Path function and Point Function:

Point Function: They depend on the state only, and not on how a system reaches that state. All properties
(e.g. temperature, pressure, enthalpy, entropy etc.) are point functions. The differential of a property is
“exact” (designated by the symbol d.) since it is independent of details of the process, e.g.
2

 dT  T
1
2  T1

The cyclic integral of a point function is zero.

Path function: Their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states.
Work (W), heat (Q) is path functions. Differential of path functions are “inexact,” (designated by the
symbol ) the following integral can’t be evaluated without knowing details of the process.
2
 W  W
not 2
 W  W2  W1
1 1
The cyclic integral of a path function is non-zero.

Understanding Heat and Work interactions

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Consider in which three alternative systems are shown that include a quantity of a gas (or liquid) in a
rigid, well-insulated container. In Fig. a, the gas itself is the system. As current flows through the copper
plate, there is an energy transfer from the copper plate to the gas. Since this energy transfer occurs as a
result of the temperature difference between the plate and the gas, it is classified as a heat transfer. Next,
refer to fig. b, where the boundary is drawn to include the copper plate. It follows from the
thermodynamic definition of work that the energy transfer that occurs as current crosses the boundary of
this system must be regarded as work. Finally, in Fig. c, the boundary is located so that no energy is
transferred across it by heat or work.

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

General Expression for Work

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Expansion and Compression Work

Consider the expansion of the gas in a piston-cylinder assembly ( P is average pressure on piston face)
p

Piston area A

  2
2 2
W1 2   F  ds   ( Pp A)dx   Pp dV
1 1 1

For a slow or quasi-equilibrium process all the states through which the system passes are considered
equilibrium states and thus the intensive properties, i.e., pressure, are uniform throughout the system
P  P , so
P gas
V2

W1 2   Pgas dV
V1

Graphical Interpretation:

W  PdV shaded area

2 V2
W1 2   W   PdV total area under curve
1 V1

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

Consider two processes with the same start and end state

Since the area under each curve is different the amount of work done for each path is different.
V2 V2
(  PdV ) path1  (  PdV ) path 2
V1 V1
Work done depends on the path taken and not just the value of the end states.
Work is not a property!

Polytropic Compression and Expansion

In Polytropic process the pressure-volume relationship can be described by

PVn= constant c n= constant
The work done is:

V2 V2 V2
c
W1 2   PdV   ( n )dV   (cV  n )dV
V1 V1 V V1

 V2  V1 
1 n 1 n
V  V2
1 n

 c   c 
1  n  V1  1 n 

but c=PV
1 1
n
 PV
2 2
n

 V2  V1   PV
1 n 1 n
  PV
2 2  1
n
V 1 n  Now put p2 v n 2  p1v n1
W1 2  PV 
n
 
2 2

2
 1 n  
2
1 n 

 PV  PV1 1 
W1 2   2 2  n 1
 1 n 

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

For n=1 PV=c, P= c/V (Isothermal Process)

 c
2 V 2 V V2
W1 2   PdV     dV clnV 
V1 V1  V  V1

V 
 clnV2  lnV1   c ln 2 
 V1 
V 
W1 2  P1V1 ln 2  n=1
 V1 

Special case:
For n = 0 P=c  constant pressure process (Isobaric Process)
V2

W1 2   PdV  P(V2  V1 ) n0

V1

An isobaric system may feature

a change in volume, but the
pressure remains constant.

For n = ∞ V=c  constant volume process (Isochoric Process):

=0

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 [BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Heat & Work

 An adiabatic process should not be confused with an isothermal process. Even though
there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content and thus the
temperature of a system can still be changed by other means such as work.

REFERENCE: ANJAN GOSWAMI

Assistant Professor,
Dept. of MPE, AUST

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