Prof. Dr.-Ing Jochen H.

Schiller
Inst. of Computer Science
Freie Universität Berlin
Germany

Mobile Communications
- an Overview

1.1
Why Mobile Communications?

Source: https://www.funktel.international/
Largest SW/HW/networked system

Source: https://riot-os.org/
Largest number of subscribers
Mobile devices dominate the Internet
Mobile applications dominate Internet usage
New possibilities, new threats
Technology fully integrated into everybody's life almost 24/7, almost anywhere
Internet of Everything needs mobile/wireless access

Source: https://www.apple.com/
Source: https://www.apple.com/ Source: https://www.samsung.com/

1.2
Overview of the lecture

- Introduction - Wireless LANs/PANs

- Use-cases, applications - Basic Technology
- Challenges, history - IEEE 802.11a/b/g/…, .15, Bluetooth, ZigBee

- Wireless Transmission - Internet Protocols

- Frequencies & regulations, Cognitive Radio - Mobile IP
- Signals, antennas, signal propagation, MIMO - Locator/Identifier split
- Multiplexing, modulation, spread spectrum, cellular system, - Ad-hoc networking
SDR - Routing
- Transport Protocols
- Medium Access - IoT
- SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
- CSMA/CA, versions of Aloha, Collision avoidance, polling - Outlook
- Beyond LTE, 5G
- Wireless Telecommunication Systems
- GSM, GPRS, TETRA, UMTS, IMT-2000, LTE

1.3
Prof. Dr.-Ing Jochen H. Schiller
Inst. of Computer Science
Freie Universität Berlin
Germany

Mobile Communications
Chapter 1: Introduction

A case for mobility – many aspects

History of mobile communication
Market
Areas of research

1.4
Computers for the next decades?
Computers are integrated (>95% embedded systems!)
- small, cheap, portable, replaceable - no more separate devices (see M. Weiser/invisible computer)

Technology is in the background

- computer are aware of their environment and adapt (“location awareness”)
- computer recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g., call forwarding, message forwarding,
“context awareness”)

Advances in technology
- more computing power in smaller devices
- flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption
- new user interfaces due to small dimensions
- more bandwidth per cubic meter
- multiple wireless interfaces: NFC, piconets, wireless LANs, wireless WANs, regional wireless
telecommunication networks, VLC etc.

1.5
What is Mobility

Initially Internet and Telephone Networks is designed assuming the user terminals
are static
- No change of location during a call/connection
- A user terminals accesses the network always from a fixed location
Mobility and portability
- Portability means changing point of attachment to the network offline
- Mobility means changing point of attachment to the network online

1.6
Degrees of Mobility

Walking Users
- Low speed
- Small roaming area
- Usually uses high-bandwith/low-latency access

Vehicles
- High speeds
- Large roaming area
- Usually uses low-bandwidth/high-latency access
- Uses sophisticated terminal equipment (cell phones)

1.7
Mobile communication
Two aspects of mobility:
- user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
- device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

Wireless vs. mobile Examples

  high performance cluster
  notebook in a hotel, on-board networks
  wireless LANs in historic buildings, ad-hoc infrastructure replacement
  Smartphone

The demand for mobile communication created already decades ago the need for integration of wireless networks
into existing fixed networks:
- local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11
- Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
- wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN, VoIP over WLAN and POTS

1.8
Applications I
Vehicles
- transmission of news, road condition, weather, music/video via DAB+/DVB-T2/LTE
- personal communication using GSM/UMTS/LTE
- positioning via GPS/Galileo/Glonass/Beidou
- local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance system, redundancy
- vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance for maintenance

Emergencies
- early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis
- replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire etc.
- crisis, war, ...

1.9
Typical application: road traffic

UMTS, WLAN,
DAB+, LTE, GSM,
cdma2000, TETRA, ...

Smartphone,
Laptop, Tablet, LTE,
GSM, UMTS, WLAN,
Bluetooth, NFC ...
1.10
Mobile and wireless services – Always Best Connected

LTE LAN
DSL/ GSM/GPRS 53 kbit/s 10 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s,
WLAN Bluetooth 500 kbit/s WLAN
50 Mbit/s 300 Mbit/s

UMTS
2 Mbit/s

GSM/EDGE 384 kbit/s,

DSL/WLAN 6 Mbit/s
UMTS, GSM
GSM 115 kbit/s,
384 kbit/s
WLAN 11 Mbit/s
1.11
Applications II
Traveling salesmen
- direct access to customer files stored in a central location
- consistent databases for all agents
- mobile office

Replacement of fixed networks

- remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
- flexibility for trade shows
- LANs in historic buildings

Entertainment, education, ...

- outdoor Internet access
- intelligent travel guide with up-to-date location dependent information
- ad-hoc networks for multi user games

1.12
Location dependent services
Location aware services
- what services, e.g., printer, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment

Follow-on services
- automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current location

Information services
- “push”: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
- “pull”: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cheese Cake?

Support services
- caches, intermediate results, state information etc. “follow” the mobile device through the fixed network

Privacy
- who should gain knowledge about the location

1.13
Mobile devices
Specialized PDAs Laptop/Notebook/Convertible
• graphical displays • fully functional
• character recognition • standard applications
• application specific
• ruggedized

Sensors,
embedded
controllers

Smart
dust Classical mobile phones
• voice, data
• simple graphical displays
• robust, water proof
Smartphone/Tablet
• tiny virtual keyboard
• voice recognition
• simple(r) versions
of standard applications

performance
No clear separation between device types possible
(e.g. smart phones, embedded PCs, …)
1.14
Effects of device portability
Power consumption
- limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to limited battery capacity
- CPU: power consumption ~ CV²f
- C: internal capacity, reduced by integration
- V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
- f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally Source: https://www.welectron.com/

Loss of data
- higher probability, has to be included in advance into the design (e.g., defects, theft)

Limited user interfaces

- compromise between size of fingers and portability
- integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols

Limited fast memory (always in relation to e.g. PCs)

- Limited/no usage of mass memories with moving parts
- flash-memory or ? as alternative
Source: https://www.catphones.com/

1.15
Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks
Higher loss-rates due to interference
- emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning

Restrictive regulations of frequencies

- frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied

Lower transmission rates

- local some Mbit/s, regional sometimes only, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS or about 150 kbit/s using EDGE – some
Mbit/s with LTE (shared!) – compare country side vs. downtown

Higher delays, higher jitter

- connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred milliseconds for other wireless systems – in
ms range with LTE

Lower security, simpler active attacking

- radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones

Always shared medium

- secure access mechanisms important

1.16
Early history of wireless communication
Many people in history used light for communication
- heliographs, flags (“semaphore”), ...
- 150 BC smoke signals for communication;
(Polybius, Greece)
- 1794, optical telegraph, Claude Chappe

Here electromagnetic waves are

of special importance:
- 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction
- J. Maxwell (1831-79): theory of electromagnetic Fields, wave equations (1864)
- H. Hertz (1857-94): demonstrates with an experiment the wave character
of electrical transmission through space (1886, in Karlsruhe, Germany)

1.17
History of wireless communication I
1896 Guglielmo Marconi
- first demonstration of wireless telegraphy (digital!)
- long wave transmission, high transmission power necessary (> 200kW)

1907 Commercial transatlantic connections

- huge base stations (30 100m high antennas)

1915 Wireless voice transmission New York - San Francisco

1920 Discovery of short waves by Marconi

- reflection at the ionosphere
- smaller sender and receiver, possible due to the invention of the vacuum tube (1906, Lee DeForest and Robert
von Lieben)

1926 Train-phone on the line Hamburg - Berlin

- wires parallel to the railroad track
1.18
History of wireless communication II
1928 many TV broadcast trials (across Atlantic, color TV, news)
1933 Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong)
1958 A-Netz in Germany
- analog, 160MHz, connection setup only from the mobile station, no handover, 80% coverage, 1971 11000
customers
1972 B-Netz in Germany
- analog, 160MHz, connection setup from the fixed network too (but location of the mobile station has to be
known)
- available also in A, NL and LUX, 1979 13000 customers in D
1979 NMT at 450MHz (Scandinavian countries)
1982 Start of GSM-specification
- goal: pan-European digital mobile phone system with roaming
1983 Start of the American AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, analog)
1984 CT-1 standard (Europe) for cordless telephones

1.19
History of wireless communication III
1986 C-Netz in Germany
- analog voice transmission, 450MHz, hand-over possible, digital signaling, automatic location of mobile device
- was in use until 2000, services: FAX, modem, X.25, e-mail, 98% coverage

1991 Specification of DECT

- Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications)
- 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data transmission, voice encryption,
authentication, up to several 10000 user/km2, used in more than 50 countries

1992 Start of GSM

- in D as D1 and D2, fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels
- automatic location, hand-over, cellular
- roaming in Europe - now worldwide in more than 200 countries
- services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...

1.20
History of wireless communication IV
1994 E-Netz in Germany
- GSM with 1800MHz, smaller cells
- as Eplus in D (1997 98% coverage of the population)

1996 HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)

- ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s
- recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATM-networks (up to 155Mbit/s)

1997 Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11

- IEEE standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz and infrared, 2Mbit/s
- already many (proprietary) products available in the beginning

1998 Specification of GSM successors

- for UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) as European proposals for IMT-2000
- Iridium
- 66 satellites (+6 spare), 1.6GHz to the mobile phone
1.21
History of wireless communication V
1999 Standardization of additional wireless LANs
- IEEE standard 802.11b, 2.4-2.5GHz, 11Mbit/s
- Bluetooth for piconets, 2.4GHz, <1Mbit/s
- decision about IMT-2000
- several “members” of a “family”: UMTS, cdma2000, DECT, …
- Start of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) and i-mode
- first step towards a unified Internet/mobile communication system
- access to many services via the mobile phone
2000 GSM with higher data rates
- HSCSD offers up to 57,6kbit/s
- first GPRS trials with up to 50kbit/s (packet oriented!)
- UMTS auctions/beauty contests
- Hype followed by disillusionment (50 B$ paid in Germany for 6 licenses!)
- Iridium goes bankrupt
2001 Start of 3G systems
- Cdma2000 in Korea, UMTS tests in Europe, Foma (almost UMTS) in Japan
1.22
History of wireless communication VI
2002
- WLAN hot-spots start to spread
2003
- UMTS starts in Germany
- Start of DVB-T in Germany replacing analog TV
2005
- WiMax starts as DSL alternative (not mobile)
- first ZigBee products
2006
- HSDPA starts in Germany as fast UMTS download version offering > 3 Mbit/s
- WLAN draft for 250 Mbit/s (802.11n) using MIMO
- WPA2 mandatory for Wi-Fi WLAN devices
2007
- over 3.3 billion subscribers for mobile phones (NOT 3 bn people!)
2008
- “real” Internet widely available on mobile phones (standard browsers, decent data rates)
- 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA, 1.4 Mbit/s HSUPA available in Germany, more than 100 operators support HSPA worldwide, first LTE tests (>100 Mbit/s)
2009 – the story continues with netbooks, iPhone, VoIPoWLAN…
2010 – LTE available in some cities, new frequencies allocated
- Reuse of old analog TV bands, LTE as DSL replacement for rural areas
2015 – VoLTE, LTE@700MHz, LTE advanced
2020 – Start of 5G

1.23
Worldwide wireless subscribers (old prediction 1998)
700

600

500
Americas
400 Europe
Japan
300 others
total
200

100

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

2014 more than 7 billion subscriptions – be aware: this includes many devices!
1.24
Mobile phones per 100 people 1999
Germany
Greece
Spain
Belgium
France
Netherlands
Great Britain
Switzerland
Ireland
Austria
Portugal
Luxemburg
Italy
Denmark
Norway
Sweden
Finland
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2005: 70-90% penetration in Western Europe, 2009 (ten years later): > 100% – 2016: 96% worldwide!
1.25
Global ICT developments, 2005-2019

1.26
Mobile-cellular subscriptions, 2001-2016

1.27
Mobile-cellular subscriptions per region per 100 inhabitants 2019

1.28
Mobile population coverage by type of network 2007-2019

1.29
Areas of research in mobile and wireless communication
Wireless Communication
- transmission quality (bandwidth, error rate, delay)
- modulation, coding, interference
- medium access, regulations
- ...
Mobility
- location dependent services
- location transparency
- quality of service support (delay, jitter, security)
- ...
Portability
- power consumption
- limited computing power, sizes of display, ...
- usability
- ...
… and as always: security (privacy, data integrity, tracking, encryption, law enforcement…)!
1.30
Simple reference model used here

Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium

1.31
Influence of mobile communication to the layer model

service location
Application layer
new/adaptive applications
multimedia
congestion/flow control
Transport layer
quality of service
addressing, routing
Network layer
device location
hand-over
authentication
Data link layer
media access/control
multiplexing
encryption
modulation
Physical layer
interference
attenuation
frequency

1.32
Seamless Overlay Networks – (still) the global goal
integration of heterogeneous fixed and
mobile networks with varying
transmission characteristics

regional

vertical
handover
metropolitan area

 5G
campus-based horizontal
handover

in-house

1.33
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Paging system
 Cordless Telephones

PSTN
Telephone
Network
Cordless Base unit
Phone
 Cordless Telephones
• Characterized by
– Low mobility (in terms of range and speed)
– Low power consumption
– Two-way tetherless (wireless) voice communication
– High circuit quality
– Low cost equipment, small form factor and long talk-time
– No handoffs between base units
• Appeared as analog devices
• Digital devices appeared later with CT2, DECT standards
in Europe and ISM band technologies in USA
 Cordless Telephones
• Usage
– At homes
– At public places where cordless phone base units
are available
• Design Choices
– Few users per MHz
– Few users per base unit
• Many base units are connected to only one handset
– Large number of base units per usage area
– Short transmission range
 Cordless Phone
• Some more features
– 32 Kb/s adaptive differential pulse code
modulation (ADPCM) digital speech encoding
– Tx power <= 10 mW
– Low-complexity radio signal processing
– No forward error correction (FEC) or whatsoever.
– Low transmission delay < 50ms
– Simple Frequency Shift Modulation (FSK)
– Time Division Duplex (TDD)
What is Wireless and
Mobile Communication?
Wireless Communication

 Transmitting voice and data using

electromagnetic waves in open space
 Electromagnetic waves
 Travel at speed of light (c = 3x108 m/s)
 Has a frequency (f) and wavelength (l)
 c=fxl
 Higher frequency means higher energy photons
 The higher the energy photon the more penetrating is
the radiation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14 10-16

Radio Micro Cosmic

IR UV X-Rays
Spectrum wave Rays

104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
1MHz ==100m
100MHz ==1m
10GHz ==1cm
Visible light < 30 KHz VLF
30-300KHz LF
300KHz – 3MHz MF
3 MHz – 30MHz HF
30MHz – 300MHz VHF
300 MHz – 3GHz UHF
3-30GHz SHF
> 30 GHz EHF
Wavelength of Some Technologies

 GSM Phones:
 frequency ~= 900 Mhz
 wavelength ~= 33cm
 PCS Phones
 frequency ~= 1.8 Ghz
 wavelength ~= 17.5 cm
 Bluetooth:
 frequency ~= 2.4Gz
 wavelength ~= 12.5cm
Frequency Carries/Channels

 The information from sender to receiver is carrier

over a well defined frequency band.
 This is called a channel
 Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in
KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate)
 Different frequency bands (channels) can be used
to transmit information in parallel and
independently.
Example
 Assume a spectrum of 90KHz is allocated over a base
frequency b for communication between stations A and B
 Assume each channel occupies 30KHz.
 There are 3 channels
 Each channel is simplex (Transmission occurs in one way)
 For full duplex communication:
 Use two different channels (front and reverse channels)
 Use time division in a channel

Channel 1 (b - b+30)
Station A Channel 2 (b+30 - b+60) Station B

Channel 3 (b+60 - b+90)

Simplex Communication

 Normally, on a channel, a station can

transmit only in one way.
 This is called simplex transmision
 To enable two-way communication (called
full-duplex communication)
 We can use Frequency Division Multiplexing
 We can use Time Division Multiplexing
Duplex Communication - FDD

 FDD: Frequency Division Duplex

Mobile Forward Channel Base Station

Terminal B
Reverse Channel
M

Forward Channel and Reverse Channel use different frequency

bands
Duplex Communication - TDD

 TDD: Time Division Duplex

Mobile Base Station

Terminal M B M B M B
B
M

A singe frequency channel is used. The channel is divided into time

slots. Mobile station and base station transmits on the time slots
alternately.
Example - Frequency Spectrum
Allocation in U.S. Cellular Radio Service
Reverse Channel Forward Channel

991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799 991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799

824-849 MHz 869-894 MHz

Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)

Reverse Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 825.0
991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 825.0

Forward Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 870.0

991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 870.0
(Channels 800-990 are unused)
Channel bandwidth is 45 MHz
Need of Wireless and
Mobile Communication?
The Need for Wireless/Mobile
Networking
 Demand for Ubiquitous Computing
 Anywhere, anytime computing and
communication
 You don’t have to go to the lab to check your email
 Pushing the computers more into background
 Focus on the task and life, not on the computer
 Use computers seamlessly to help you and to make
your life more easier.
 Computers should be location aware
 Adapt to the current location, discover services
Some Example Applications of
Ubiquitous Computing
 You walk into your office and your computer
automatically authenticates you through your
active badge and logs you into the Unix
system
 You go to a foreign building and your PDA
automatically discovers the closest public
printer where you can print your schedule
and give to your friend
More Examples

 You walk into a Conference room or a shopping Mall

with your PDA and your PDA is smart enough to
collect and filter the public profiles of other people
that are passing nearby
 Of course other people should also have smart PDAs.
 The cows in a village are equipped with GPS and
GPRS devices and they are monitored from a
central location on a digital map.
 No need for a person to guide and feed them
 You can find countless examples
How to realize Ubiquitous Computing

 Small and different size computing and

communication devices
 Tabs, pads, boards
 PDAs, Handhelds, Laptops, Cell-phones
 A communication network to support this
 Anywhere, anytime access
 Seamless, wireless and mobile access
 Need for Personal Communication Services (PCS)
 Ubiquitous Applications
 New software
What is PCS
Personal Communication
Services
What is PCS

 Personal Communication Services

 A wide variety of network services that includes
wireless access and personal mobility services
 Provided through a small terminal
 Enables communication at any time, at any place,
and in any form.
 The market for such services is tremendously
big
 Think of cell-phone market
Several PCS systems

 High-tier Systems
 GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications
 The mobile telephony system that we are using
 IS-136
 USA digital cellular mobile telephony system
 TDMA based multiple access
 Personal Digital Cellular
 IS-95 cdmaOne System
 CDMA based multiple access
Several PCS systems

 Low-tier systems
 Residential, business and public cordless access
applications and systems
 Cordless Telephone 2 (CT2)
 Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone (DECT)
 Personal Access Communication Systems (PACS)
 Personal Handy Telephone System (PHS)
Several PCS systems

 Wideband wireless systems

 For Internet access and multimedia transfer
 Cdma2000
 W-CDMA, proposed by Europe
 SCDMA, proposed by China/Europe
Several PCS systems

 Other PCS Systems

 Special data systems
 CDPD: Cellular Digital Packet Data
 RAM Mobile Data
 Advanced Radio Data Information System (ARDIS)
 Paging Systems
 Mobile Satellite Systems
 LEO, MEO, HEO satellites for data/voice
 ISM band systems: Bluetooth, 802.11, etc.
PCS Problems

 How to integrate mobile and wireless users to

the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) (Voice Network)
 Cellular mobile telephony system
 How to integrate mobile and wireless users to
the Internet (Data Network)
 Mobile IP, DHCP, Cellular IP
 How to integrate all of them together and also
add multimedia services (3G Systems)
Looking to PCS from different
Angles
PSTN Internet
(Telephone Network)

Wireless Access

Mobile Users
Mobile Users
-Laptop users
-Cell phone users
-Pocket PC users
-Cordless phone users
-Mobile IP, DHCP enabled
computers
Telecom People View Data Networking People View
Telecom and Data Networking

Telecom Interest Data Networking Interest

- Voice Transmission
- Frequency Reuse -Data Transmission
-Radio Propagation -Mobile IP (integrating
- Handoff
-Link Characteristics mobile hosts to
Management
-Error Models internet)
-Location Tracking
-Wireless Medium -Ad-hoc Networks
-Roaming
Access (MAC) -TCP over Wireless
-QoS
- Error Control -Service Discovery
-GSM, CDMA,
Cordless Phones,
-GPRS, EDGE
Very Basic Cellular/PCS Architecture

Mobility
Public Switched Database
Base Station
Telephone Network Controller

Mobile
Switching
Center
(MSC)

Radio Network

Base Station
(BS) Mobile Station
Wireless System Definitions

 Mobile Station
 A station in the cellular radio service intended for use while in
motion at unspecified locations. They can be either hand-held
personal units (portables) or installed on vehicles (mobiles)

 Base station
 A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio
communication with the mobile stations. Base stations are
located at the center or edge of a coverage region. They
consists of radio channels and transmitter and receiver
antennas mounted on top of a tower.
Wireless System Definitions

 Mobile Switching Center

 Switching center which coordinates the routing of calls in a
large service area. In a cellular radio system, the MSC
connections the cellular base stations and the mobiles to
the PSTN (telephone network). It is also called Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
 Subscriber
 A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile
communication system
 Transceiver
 A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and
receiving radio signals
Wireless System Definitions

 Control Channel
 Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call
request, call initiation and other beacon and control
purposes.
 Forward Channel
 Radio channel used for transmission of information from
the base station to the mobile
 Reverse Channel
 Radio channel used for transmission of information from
mobile to base station
Wireless System Definitions

 Simplex Systems
 Communication systems which provide only one-way
communication
 Half Duplex Systems
 Communication Systems which allow two-way
communication by using the same radio channel for both
transmission and reception. At any given time, the user can
either transmit or receive information.
 Full Duplex Systems
 Communication systems which allow simultaneous two-way
communication. Transmission and reception is typically on
two different channels (FDD).
Wireless System Definitions

 Handoff
 The process of transferring a mobile station from one
channel or base station to an other.
 Roamer
 A mobile station which operates in a service area (market)
other than that from which service has been subscribed.
 Page
 A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service
area, usually in simulcast fashion by many base stations at
the same time.
The Cellular Concept
Cellular Telephony

 Characterized by
 High mobility provision
 Wide-range
 Two-way tetherless voice communication
 Handoff and roaming support
 Integrated with sophisticated public switched
telephone network (PSTN)
 High transmit power requires at the handsets
(~2W)
Cellular Telephony - Architecture

Radio tower

PSTN
Telephone
Network
Mobile Switching
Center
Cellular Telephony Systems

 Mobile users and handsets

 Very complex circuitry and design
 Base stations
 Provides gateway functionality between wireless
and wireline links
 ~1 million dollar
 Mobile switching centers
 Connect cellular system to the terrestrial
telephone network
Basic Concept

 Cellular system developed to provide mobile

telephony: telephone access “anytime,
anywhere.”

 First mobile telephone system was developed

and inaugurated in the U.S. in 1945 in St. Louis,
MO.
 This was a simplified version of the system used
today.
System Architecture

 A base station provides coverage

(communication capabilities) to users on mobile
phones within its coverage area.
 Users outside the coverage area
receive/transmit signals with too low amplitude
for reliable communications.
 Users within the coverage area transmit and
receive signals from the base station.
 The base station itself is connected to the wired
telephone network.
 First Mobile Telephone System

One and only one

high power base
station with which all
users communicate.

Normal
Telephone Entire Coverage
System Area

Wired connection
Problem with Original Design

 Original mobile telephone system could only

support a handful of users at a time…over an
entire city!

 With only one high power base station, users

phones also needed to be able to transmit at
high powers (to reliably transmit signals to the
distant base station).
 Car phones were therefore much more feasible
than handheld phones, e.g., police car phones.
Improved Design

 Over the next few decades, researchers at

AT&T Bell Labs developed the core ideas for
today’s cellular systems.

 Although these core ideas existed since the

60’s, it was not until the 80’s that electronic
equipment became available to realize a cellular
system.

 In the mid 80’s the first generation of cellular

systems was developed and deployed.
The Core Idea: Cellular Concept

 The core idea that led to today’s system was the

cellular concept.
 The cellular concept: multiple lower-power
base stations that service mobile users within
their coverage area and handoff users to
neighboring base stations as users move.
Together base stations tessellate the system
coverage area.
Cellular Concept

 Thus, instead of one base station covering an

entire city, the city was broken up into cells, or
smaller coverage areas.

 Each of these smaller coverage areas had its

own lower-power base station.

 User phones in one cell communicate with the

base station in that cell.
3 Core Principles

 Small cells tessellate overall coverage area.

 Users handoff as they move from one cell to

another.

 Frequency reuse.
Tessellation

 Some group of small regions tessellate a large

region if they over the large region without any
gaps or overlaps.

 There are only three regular polygons that

tessellate any given region.
Tessellation (Cont’d)

 Three regular polygons that always tessellate:

 Equilateral triangle
 Square
 Regular Hexagon

Triangles
Squares
Hexagons
Circular Coverage Areas

 Original cellular system was developed

assuming base station antennas are
omnidirectional, i.e., they transmit inUsers
all located outside
some distance to the
directions equally. base station receive
weak signals.

Result: base station has

circular coverage
area.
Circles Don’t Tessellate

 Thus, ideally base stations have identical,

circular coverage areas.
 Problem: Circles do not tessellate.

 The most circular of the regular polygons that

tessellate is the hexagon.
 Thus, early researchers started using hexagons
to represent the coverage area of a base station,
i.e., a cell.
Thus the Name Cellular
 With hexagonal coverage area, a cellular
network is drawn as:

Base
Station

 Since the network resembles cells from a

honeycomb, the name cellular was used to
describe the resulting mobile telephone network.
Frequency Reuse

 Extensive frequency reuse allows for many

users to be supported at the same time.

 Total spectrum allocated to the service provider

is broken up into smaller bands.

 A cell is assigned one of these bands. This

means all communications (transmissions to and
from users) in this cell occur over these
frequencies only.
Frequency Reuse (Cont’d)
 Neighboring cells are assigned a different
frequency band.

 This ensures that nearby transmissions do not

interfere with each other.

 The same frequency band is reused in another

cell that is far away. This large distance limits
the interference caused by this co-frequency
cell.

 More on frequency reuse a bit later.

Example of Frequency Reuse

Cells using the same frequencies

Handoffs

 A crucial component of the cellular concept is

the notion of handoffs.
 Mobile phone users are by definition mobile, i.e.,
they move around while using the phone.
 Thus, the network should be able to give them
continuous access as they move.
 This is not a problem when users move within
the same cell.
 When they move from one cell to another, a
handoff is needed.
A Handoff
 A user is transmitting and receiving signals from
a given base station, say B1.
 Assume the user moves from the coverage area
of one base station into the coverage area of a
second base station, B2.
 B1 notices that the signal from this user is
degrading.
 B2 notices that the signal from this user is
improving.
A Handoff (Cont’d)

 At some point, the user’s signal is weak enough

at B1 and strong enough at B2 for a handoff to
occur.
 Specifically, messages are exchanged between
the user, B1, and B2 so that communication
to/from the user is transferred from B1 to B2.
How to made a call
Timing diagram illustrating how a call to a mobile user
initiated by a landline subscriber is established
Timing diagram illustrating how a call initiated by a
mobile is established.
 Major Mobile Radio Standards
USA
Standard Type Year Multiple Frequency Modulation Channel
Intro Access Band BW
(MHz) (KHz)
AMPS Cellular 1983 FDMA 824-894 FM 30

USDC Cellular 1991 TDMA 824-894 DQPSK 30

CDPD Cellular 1993 FH/Packet 824-894 GMSK 30

IS-95 Cellular/PCS 1993 CDMA 824-894 QPSK/BPSK 1250

1800-2000
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FSK 15

DCS-1900 PCS 1994 TDMA 1850-1990 GMSK 200

(GSM)
PACS Cordless/PCS 1994 TDMA/FDMA 1850-1990 DQPSK 300
 Major Mobile Radio Standards -
Europe
Standard Type Year Multiple Frequency Band Modulation Channel
Intro Access (MHz) BW
(KHz)
ETACS Cellular 1985 FDMA 900 FM 25

NMT-900 Cellular 1986 FDMA 890-960 FM 12.5

GSM Cellular/PCS 1990 TDMA 890-960 GMSK 200KHz

C-450 Cellular 1985 FDMA 450-465 FM 20-10

ERMES Paging 1993 FDMA4 Several 4-FSK 25

CT2 Cordless 1989 FDMA 864-868 GFSK 100

DECT Cordless 1993 TDMA 1880-1900 GFSK 1728

DCS-1800 Cordless/PCS 1993 TDMA 1710-1880 GMSK 200

Cellular Networks
 First Generation
 Analog Systems
 Analog Modulation, mostly FM
 AMPS
 Voice Traffic
 FDMA/FDD multiple access
 Second Generation (2G)
 Digital Systems
 Digital Modulation
 Voice Traffic
 TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple access
 2.5G
 Digital Systems
 Voice + Low-datarate Data
 Third Generation
 Digital
 Voice + High-datarate Data
 Multimedia Transmission also
 2G Technologies
cdmaOne (IS-95) GSM, DCS-1900 IS-54/IS-136
PDC
Uplink Frequencies (MHz) 824-849 (Cellular) 890-915 MHz (Eurpe) 800 MHz, 1500 Mhz
1850-1910 (US PCS) 1850-1910 (US PCS) (Japan)
1850-1910 (US PCS)
Downlink Frequencies 869-894 MHz (US Cellular) 935-960 (Europa) 869-894 MHz (Cellular)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS) 1930-1990 (US PCS) 1930-1990 (US PCS)
800 MHz, 1500 MHz
(Japan)
Deplexing FDD FDD FDD
Multiple Access CDMA TDMA TDMA
Modulation BPSK with Quadrature GMSK with BT=0.3 p/4 DQPSK
Spreading
Carrier Seperation 1.25 MHz 200 KHz 30 KHz (IS-136)
(25 KHz PDC)
Channel Data Rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec 270.833 Kbps 48.6 Kbps (IS-136)
42 Kbps (PDC)
Voice Channels per 64 8 3
carrier
Speech Coding CELP at 13Kbps RPE-LTP at 13 Kbps VSELP at 7.95 Kbps
EVRC at 8Kbps
2G and Data

 2G is developed for voice communications

 You can send data over 2G channels by
using modem
 Provides a data rates in the order of ~9.6
Kbps
 Increased data rates are requires for internet
application
 This requires evolution towards new systems:
2.5 G
2.5 Technologies

 Evolution of TDMA Systems

 HSCSD for 2.5G GSM
 Up to 57.6 Kbps data-rate
 GPRS for GSM and IS-136
 Up to 171.2 Kbps data-rate
 EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136
 Up to 384 Kbps data-rate

 Evolution of CDMA Systems

 IS-95B
 Up to 64 Kbps
3G Systems

 Goals
 Voice and Data Transmission
 Simultanous voice and data access
 Multi-megabit Internet access
 Interactive web sessions
 Voice-activated calls
 Multimedia Content
 Live music
3G Systems

 Evolution of Systems
 CDMA sysystem evaolved to CDMA2000
 CDMA2000-1xRTT: Upto 307 Kbps
 CDMA2000-1xEV:
 CDMA2000-1xEVDO: upto 2.4 Mbps
 CDMA2000-1xEVDV: 144 Kbps datarate
 GSM, IS-136 and PDC evolved to W-CDMA (Wideband
CDMA) (also called UMTS)
 Up to 2.048 Mbps data-rates
 Future systems 8Mbps
 Expected to be fully deployed by 2010-2015
 New spectrum is allocated for these technologies
 Interest to 3G Applications
Western Eastern USA
Europe Europe
Emails 4.5 4.7 4.3
City maps/directions 4.3 4.2 4.2
Latest news 4.0 4.4 4.0
Authorize/enable payment 3.4 3.8 3.0
Banking/trading online 3.5 3.4 3.2
Downloading music 3.1 3.4 3.2
Shopping/reservation 3.0 3.1 2.9
Animated images 2.4 2.7 2.6
Chat rooms, forums 2.3 2.9 2.2
Interactive games 2.0 2.2 2.4
Games for money 1.8 1.8 1.8

(Means based upon a six-point interest scale, where 6 indicates high interest and 1 indicates low interest.)
Upgrade Paths for 2G Technologies
2G
IS-136
IS-95 GSM
PDC

2.5G
GPRS
IS-95B HSCSD
EDGE

3G
cdma200-1xRTT
W-CDMA
EDGE
cdma2000-1xEV,DV,DO
TD-SCDMA
cdma200-3xRTT
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