SST Reviewer
but who
Lesson 1
Sex
- refers to a set of biological attributes in humans
and animals. It is primarily associated with
physical and physiological features including
chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels
and function, and reproductive/sexual anatomy.
- Sex is usually categorized as female or male but
there is variation in the biological attributes that
comprise sex and how those attributes are
expressed.
Gender
- refers to the socially constructed roles,
behaviors, expressions, and identities of girls,
women, boys, men, and gender-diverse people.
It influences how people perceive themselves
and each other, how they act and interact, and
the distribution of power and resources in
society.
- Gender identity is not confined to a binary
(girl/woman, boy/man) nor is it static; it exists
along a continuum and can change over time.
There is considerable diversity in how individuals
and groups understand, experience, and express
gender through the roles they take on, the
expectations placed on them, relations with
others, and the complex ways that gender is
institutionalized in society.
Ally: Someone who advocates for and supports members
of a community other than their own. Reaching across
differences to achieve mutual goals. A person who may not
share the sexual orientation or gender identity of LGBTQ,
supports and honors sexual and gender diversity and
challenges homophobic, transphobic, and heterosexist
remarks, behaviors, institutions, and systems.
✓ Androgyny: A gender expression that has elements of
both masculinity and femininity.
✓ Asexual: Someone who does not experience sexual
attraction towards other people, and who identifies as
asexual. May still have romantic, emotional, affectional, or
relational attractions to other people.
✓ Bisexual: A person who experiences sexual, romantic,
physical, and/or spiritual attraction to people of their own
gender as well as another gender.
✓ Cross Dresser: A person who wears clothing opposite of
their gender for comfort, pleasure, or fun. It carries no
implications of sexual orientation. Has
replaced the term “Transvestite.”
✓ Femininity/Feminine: Femininity is a set of attributes,
behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and
women. Femininity is often perceived as a social construct,
which is made up of both socially-defined and biologically
created factors.
✓ Genderqueer: A person whose gender identity is
neither man nor woman, is between or beyond genders, or
is some combination of genders. Some
genderqueer people identify under the transgender
umbrella while others do not.
✓ Heterosexual: A medical definition for a person who is
attracted to someone with the other gender (or, literally,
biological sex) than they have; often referred to as
“straight.”
✓ Homosexual: A medical definition for a person who is
attracted to someone with the same gender (or, literally,
biological sex) they have, this is considered an
offensive/stigmatizing term by many members of the
queer community; often used incorrectly in place of
“lesbian” or “gay.”
✓ Intersex: A health condition, often present at birth,
involving anatomy or physiology that differs from societal
expectations of male and female. Intersex
conditions can affect the genitals, the chromosomes
and/or other body structures. Intersex conditions are
sometimes referred to as “disorders of sexual
development.” People with intersex conditions should not
be assumed to be transgender.
✓ Lesbian: A woman whose primary sexual, emotional,
and romantic orientation is toward people of the same
gender. A woman who is attracted to women.
✓ Masculinity/Masculine: Masculinity (also called
boyhood, manliness, or manhood) is a set of attributes,
behaviors, and roles generally associated with boys and
men.
✓ Pansexual: A person who experiences sexual, romantic,
physical, and/or spiritual attraction for members of all
gender identities/expressions.
✓ Questioning: A person who is in the process of
questioning or analyzing their sexual orientation, gender
identity, or gender expression.
✓ Transsexual: A person whose gender identity is different
from their designated sex at birth and has taken steps of
physical transition so that their body is
congruent to both their gender identity and the
conventional concept of sexually male and female bodies.
✓ Maybe now, you can identify yourselves among those
described above.
Gender roles in the Philippines over the
Years:
THE SPANISH ERA/REGIME
PRE-HISPANIC/PRE-COLONIAL ERA
- The women of the pre-Hispanic era were given
importance, they could even hold high
characters in communities like healers,
priestesses, and they could even handle
leadership roles and fight as warriors.
- Men and women were treated equally,
they had equal rights. Women had the right to
inherit property and they also had
important parts in business and trading. They
would weave, do pottery, and make
jewelries to be used for exchange in the market,
in other tribes, and other foreign traders like the
Chinese. They controlled the operations of
transactions because their husbands were not
allowed to barter unless their wives approved.
- The “Babaylan” or the healer was
usually a woman and when an
occasion arises that a man would take
this role he needs to dress up as a
woman. They were looked up to
because of their wisdom and
knowledge. When problems in
communities arise and there are no
other means to fix it, the Babaylan is
the one to be called; she would
perform rituals and chants to drive
away the spirits that caused turmoil.
- Filipino Women had the power to
decide for themselves, they controlled
how they lived. They enjoyed equal
status with men, were known for their
wisdom and knowledge, and enjoyed
the privileges of human rights.
—---------------------------------------------
- The glorious years of the women were destroyed
when the Spanish arrived during the 16th
century. They brought with them their own idea
of what a woman is and where she is supposed
to be placed in society. From men and women
being equal, women were turned into objects of
suppression. By this time, education in the
Philippines had been altered and was based on
Catholicism. Priests stood as the educators.
- The Spaniards had occupied a large amount of
land, thus erecting schools, universities, and
seminaries. It was not a problem until it led to
the spread of the Catholic ideology and the
conversion of many Filipinos.
- During this period, good education and the
opportunity to go to prestigious schools were
more prioritized to be available for men.
- Although some women were able to attend
vocational schools, most were not given an
opportunity for an education because the church
and the government believed that women
 should only stay at home. Thus, the role of the
woman became attached to the home, her duty
was to become an obedient and respectful
daughter, a good wife, and mother.
- The ideal woman for the Spaniards is someone
who is overly religious, submissive, and
obedient. Yes, the typical “Maria Clara”. That
“mahinhing dalaga” stereotype was brought to
us by the Spaniards. Women can no longer loiter
around, run along the meadows, and swim in
rivers or climb trees as children.
- The real Filipina was replaced by the ideal
woman dictated by the Spaniards. During the
Spanish occupation, the woman being
subordinate was instilled, men rising as the
dominant gender, establishing a patriarchal
society that has prevailed and surpassed
generations, and is now the prevalent type of
society that we follow.
- The Philippines was controlled by the Spaniards
and the Catholic Church. Women were no longer
allowed to hold high positions and participate in
political activities. She was even snatched of her
right to express her thoughts being instructed to
stay within the shadows with her lips sealed.
- Gabriela Silang and Gregoria de Jesus were some
of the prominent Filipina icons of the revolution.
Gabriela Silang took over the rebellion in Ilocos
when her husband Diego Silang died. She fought
for freedom from the Spaniards until she was
captured and beheaded on September 20, 1763
in Vigan, Ilocos Sur.
- Gregoria de Jesus fought alongside her husband
Andres Bonifacio as a member of the Katipunan.
She was regarded as the “Mother of Philippine
Revolution”. She was also the first Filipina that
was able to decipher the code of the Katipunan.
- The freedom of women was suppressed because
the Spaniards realized that women in the
Philippines were very important and were
regarded highly and that fact scared them. It was
different from what they were used to, coming
from a land where patriarchy ruled and men
were the stronger ones.
JAPANESE ERA/REGIME
- Many Filipino women fought alongside our
Filipino men during the Japanese Occupation.
However, one unforgettable experience of some
of our women was when the Japanese soldiers
treated them as “comfort women”.
- In the parts of the Philippines occupied by the
Japanese military, according to victims'
testimonies, a number of women were raped
and abducted through violent means to garrison
buildings, then confined there and forced to
provide sexual services.
- Such victims can be thought of as equivalent to
comfort women. In many of these cases, their
fathers or husbands were killed in front of the
women and their other family members.
AMERICAN ERA/REGIME
- The entry of women into the factory system
showcased their industrious prowess highlighting
their qualities like adaptability, patience, and the
resistance to commit frauds, which were deemed
advantageous.
- Filipinas possessed great skills in weaving, using
different kinds of fiber like abaca, pineapple, silk,
and cotton, to make a variety of clothes.
- The coming of the Americans creates
opportunities for women to earn college degrees
and learn the essentials of business. One
prevalent change also was that women were
allowed to vote. The prioritization of education
was responsible for improving the influence of
women in the fields of trade and commerce.
GENDER ROLES IN THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
ETHIOPIA
- In Ethiopia, gender influences everyday life. Due
to traditions that are held by certain cultures and
religions, both men and women have
responsibilities and duties to uphold within their
community. In some cultures, women are
responsible for maintaining the home, cooking
and cleaning, and raising the children.
AFGHANISTAN
- However, the Taliban now enforces women to
live in seclusion. This means that females are
restricted from attending a school or venturing
outside the home.
- The Taliban is currently out of power in most
areas of Afghanistan, but the conservatism
persists.
- Women and men have dress codes they need to
abide by and there is a continued struggle by
young girls to gain access to educational
experiences.
UNITED KINGDOM
- Oftentimes, there’s violence and hostility when
females try to attend
school.
INDIA
- Purdah is the practice of concealing women from
unrelated men. In India, this is most commonly
done in public settings by upper-class people.
- Purdah is used as a sign of rising wealth within a
family because many families adopt this tradition
as they are moving up the class system.
- A second tradition upheld in Indian culture is a
dowry.
- A dowry is a sum of money paid by a bride’s
family to the groom's family. This is most
commonly practiced by families that also
practice purdah.
- Women are thought to be liabilities to the
groom’s family, resulting in the payment once
they get married.
ECUADOR
- Much of everyday life in Ecuador is influenced by
the Roman Catholic Church, including gender
roles.
- Women look up to Virgin Mary and aspire to live
as she did. The set of values that women follow
is known as marianismo. Marianismo is based on
three values.
- One of which is motherhood. Service to the
family is the second value of marianismo.
- Chastity is the third value of marianismo.
Women are expected to stay loyal to their
husbands.
- However, males are given the freedom to have
relations with other women. This increases their
manhood and their power within the home and
society
- Every woman that completes a double day will
never be compensated for the extra work done.
- As the next generation of men grows up, there
will be fewer double days for women. More men
are cooking, cleaning, and becoming a stay at
home father.
- However, “UN research shows that in most of
Europe, women’s domestic duties average 4
hours and 20 minutes each day, while men put in
2 hours and 16 minutes”.
- With this being said, the United Kingdom is one
of the most developed countries in the world
when it comes to gender development and it is
still struggling to gain complete equality.
- It is therefore understood that gender roles vary
in every country or region in the world. It is also
evident that as years go by, women are
continuously empowered no matter what
situation they are in. Equality is being pursued by
all members of the society in all aspects.
Lesson 2
Foot Binding
- was a practice first carried out on young girls in
Tang Dynasty China to restrict their normal
growth and make their feet as small as possible.
- Considered an attractive quality, the effects of
the process were painful and permanent.
- Widely used as a method to distinguish girls of
the upper class from everyone else, and later as
a way for the lower classes to improve their
social prospects, the practice of foot- binding
would continue right up to the early 20th
century CE.
Breast Ironing
- Also known as ‘Breast Flattening’ is the process
whereby young pubescent girls’ breasts are
ironed, massaged and/or pounded down through
the use of hard or heated objects in order for the
breasts to disappear or delay the development of
the breasts entirely.
- It is believed that by carrying out this act, young
girls will be protected from harassment, rape,
abduction and early forced marriage, and
therefore, be kept in education.
Female genital mutilation (FGM)
- comprises all procedures that involve partial or
total removal of the external female genitalia, or
other injury to the female genital organs for
non-medical reasons.
- The practice is mostly carried out by traditional
circumcisers, who often play other central roles
in communities, such as attending childbirths.
- In many settings, health care providers perform
FGM due to the belief that the procedure is safer
when medicalized.
Lesson 3
The Magna Carta of Women also spells out every
woman's right to: (Philippine Statistics Authority,2010)
✓ Protection from all forms of violence, including those
committed by the State. This includes the incremental
increase in the recruitment and training of women
in government services that cater to women victims of
gender-related offenses. It also ensures mandatory training
on human rights and gender sensitivity to all government
personnel involved in the protection and defense of
women against gender-based violence, and mandates local
government units to establish a Violence Against Women
Desk in every barangay to address violence against women
cases;
✓ Protection and security in times of disaster, calamities,
and other crisis situations, especially in all phases of relief,
recovery, rehabilitation, and construction efforts, including
protection from sexual exploitation and other sexual and
gender-based violence;
✓ Participation and representation, including undertaking
temporary special measures and affirmative actions to
accelerate and ensure women's equitable participation
and representation in the third level civil service,
development councils and planning bodies, as well as
political parties and international bodies, including the
private sector;
✓ Equal treatment before the law, including the State's
review and when necessary amendment or repeal of
existing laws that are discriminatory to women;
✓ Equal access and elimination of discrimination against
women in education, scholarships, and training. This
includes revising educational materials and curricula to
remove gender stereotypes and images, and outlawing the
expulsion, non-readmission, prohibiting enrollment, and
other related discrimination against women students and
faculty due to pregnancy outside of marriage;
✓ Equal participation in sports. This includes measures to
ensure that gender-
based discrimination in competitive and non-competitive
sports is removed so that women and girls can benefit
from sports development;
✓ Non-discrimination in employment in the field of
military, police, and other similar services. This includes
according to the same promotional privileges and
opportunities as their men counterparts, including pay
increases, additional benefits, and awards, based on
competency and quality of performance. The dignity of
women in the military, police, and other similar services
shall always be respected, they shall be accorded with the
same capacity as men to act in and enter into contracts,
including marriage, as well as be entitled to leave
benefits for women such as maternity leave, as provided
for in existing laws;
✓ Non-discriminatory and non-derogatory portrayal of
women in media and film to raise the consciousness of the
general public in recognizing the dignity of women
and the role and contribution of women in family,
community, and the society through the strategic use of
mass media;
✓ Comprehensive health services and health information
and education covering all stages of a woman's life cycle,
and which addresses the major causes of women's
mortality and morbidity, including access to among others,
maternal care, responsible, ethical, legal, safe, and
effective methods of family planning, and encouraging
healthy lifestyle activities to prevent diseases;
✓ Leave benefits of two (2) months with full pay based on
gross monthly compensation, for women employees who
undergo surgery caused by gynecological disorders,
provided that they have rendered continuous aggregate
employment service of at least six (6) months for the last
twelve (12) months;
✓ Equal rights in all matters relating to marriage and
family relations. The State shall ensure the same rights of
women and men to enter into and leave marriages, freely
choose a spouse, decide on the number and spacing of
their
children, enjoy personal rights including the choice of a
profession, own, acquire, and administer their property,
and acquire, change, or retain their nationality. It also
states that the betrothal and marriage of a child shall have
no legal effect. The Magna Carta of Women also
guarantees the civil, political, and economic rights of
women in the marginalized sectors, particularly their right
to:
✓ Food security and resources for food production,
including equal rights in the titling of the land and issuance
of stewardship contracts and patents;
✓ Localized, accessible, secure, and affordable housing;
✓ Employment, livelihood, credit, capital, and technology;
✓ Skills training, scholarships, especially in research and
development aimed towards women friendly farm
technology;
✓ Representation and participation in policy-making or
decision-making bodies in the regional, national, and
international levels;
✓ Access to information regarding policies on women,
including programs, projects and funding outlays that
affect them;
✓ Social protection;
✓ Recognition and preservation of cultural identity and
integrity provided that these cultural systems and practices
are not discriminatory to women;
✓ Inclusion in discussions on peace and development;
✓ Services and interventions for women in especially
difficult circumstances or WEDC;
✓ Protection of girl-children against all forms of
discrimination in education, health and nutrition, and skills
development; and
✓ Protection of women senior citizens.
- The Magna Carta of Women defines the
marginalized sectors as those who belong to the
basic, disadvantaged, or vulnerable groups who
are mostly living in poverty and have little or no
access to land and other resources, basic social
and economic services such as health care,
education, water and sanitation, employment,
and livelihood opportunities, housing security,
physical infrastructure and the justice system.
The General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms, Another is a bill being debated in our country, the SOGIE
Integrity, Equality, Leadership, and Action (GABRIELA)- (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression)
GABRIELA National Alliance,2020 BILL/Senate Bill 689,2022 *** The newest update in
the Philippines , REPUBLIC ACT 11313 or otherwise
- Founded in 1984, GABRIELA organizes Filipino known as Safe Spaces Act or Bawal Bastos Law
women, primarily from marginalized sectors of
society, and helps educate and empower them to
fight for their rights and interests through
collective action.

- GABRIELA provides direct services to

marginalized women including counseling
services to women survivors of VAW, medical
missions, free clinics, relief and rehabilitation in
times of disaster and capability building training
on women’s health and women’s rights.

- GABRIELA builds networks and links with other

local and international women’s organizations
and institutions for cooperation and mutual
support as well as with other people’s
organizations in the Philippines and in other
countries.

- GABRIELA aspire for a sovereign society free

from foreign domination and intervention with a
self-reliant economy geared towards the
people’s needs and gives equal value to the role
of women in production; where land belongs to
the tillers and recognizes women’s equal right to
own land; a democratic government where the
people’s rights – including women’s rights – are
upheld, respected and guaranteed and women’s
political participation is ensured and; a
socio-cultural system that is devoid of patriarchal
values, gender oppression, discrimination, and
violence.
- GABRIELA have led the Risings in the Philippines
and abroad (where Gabriela chapters are
situated) since 2013. They are now regionally
coordinating OBR across Southeast Asia. They
are part of a huge and broad coalition of other
member groups who make up the OBR
Philippines Task Force.
The newest update in the Philippines , REPUBLIC ACT
11313 or otherwise known as Safe Spaces Act or Bawal
Bastos Law. Here is its content in a nutshell.
In the International arena, there were also laws
promulgated to protect women like: The Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women (CEDAW)
- Adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is
often described as an international bill of rights
for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30
articles, it defines what constitutes
discrimination against women and sets up an
agenda for national action to end such
discrimination.
 - The Convention defines discrimination against
women as "...any distinction, exclusion or
restriction made on the basis of sex which has
the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying
the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by
women, irrespective of their marital status, on a
basis of equality of men and women, of human
rights and fundamental freedoms in the political,
economic, social, cultural, civil or any other
field."
By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to
undertake a series of measures to end discrimination
against women in all forms, including:
• to incorporate the principle of equality of men and
women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws
and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination
against women;
law in relation to sexual orientation and gender
identity.
- The Principles affirm binding international legal
standards with which all States must comply.
They promise a different future where all people
born free and equal in dignity and rights can
fulfill that precious birthright.
- The Yogyakarta Principles address the broad
range of human rights standards and their
application to issues of sexual orientation and
gender identity.
- These include extrajudicial executions, violence
and torture, access to justice, privacy,
non-discrimination, rights to freedom of
expression and assembly, employment, health,
education, immigration and refugee issues,
public participation, and a variety of other rights.

• to establish tribunals and other public institutions to

ensure the effective protection of women against
discrimination; and

• to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against

women by persons, organizations, or enterprise

- The Convention provides the basis for realizing

equality between women and men through
ensuring women's equal access to, and equal
opportunities in, political and public life --
including the right to vote and to stand for
election -- as well as education, health, and
employment.

- The Convention is the only human rights treaty

which affirms the reproductive rights of women
and targets culture and tradition as influential
forces shaping gender roles and family relations.
It affirms women's rights to acquire, change or
retain their nationality and the nationality of
their children.

The Yogyakarta Principles address a broad range of

international human rights standards and their
application to issues of sexual orientation and gender
identity.

- The Yogyakarta Principles are a set of principles

on the application of international human rights
Values Education Reviewer
Lesson 1
Spiritualism
- In religion, spiritualism is a movement based on
the belief that departed souls can interact with
the living.
- As defined by most scholars and systems of
thought, spiritualism is the concept that there is
an immaterial reality which the senses cannot
physically feel.
- Psychologists also say that spirituality is one’s
connection to a reality greater
than himself/herself. It involves deep feelings
and beliefs, including one’s sense of purpose,
connection to others, and understanding of life’s
meaning.
Spiritual Orientations:
1. Theist: a person who believes in the existence of a god
or gods; Specifically, one who believes in the existence of
one God is viewed as the creative source of the human
race.
2. Agnostic Theist/ Agnostic Atheist: An agnostic theist is
someone who thinks that there is /are Supreme Being (s)
who has/have created and is/are guiding the universe, but
he/she deems that he/she may be wrong. On the other
hand, an agnostic atheist does not believe in any spiritual
entity but is still doubtful and thinks that he/she could also
be wrong.
3. Atheist: a person who does not believe in the existence
of Supreme Being(s).
4. Apatheist: An apatheist has a total lack of interest in the
subject of spiritualism and does not involve himself/herself
in any discussion about religions and spiritual beliefs.
THE BENEFITS OF A SPIRITUAL LIFE
- No direct causal link has been established, but
research has consistently found that religious
involvement is correlated with better physical
and mental health, including better sleep, lower
blood pressure and an overall lower rate of
mortality. Higher levels of spirituality have also
been linked to increased compassion,
strengthened relationships, and improved
self-esteem.
Spirituality equates with love for others. How does
spirituality come into play in relationships?
- Spiritual love can refer to a love rooted in a
spiritual connection that helps us find meaning
and purpose in our lives.
- These spiritual loves can serve different
purposes: some are meant to walk with us
through life, while others are meant to teach us
lessons.
- Sometimes their purpose isn’t obvious right
away; that said, our spirituality can help us
better understand our relationships.
- Our spirituality has a heavy influence on all of
our relationships, whether we set aside time for
engaging in spiritual practices or not.
- Ultimately, spirituality connects us to something
bigger than ourselves and furthers or stunts our
relationships with others based on our spiritual
connection.
Lesson 2
- Life is the aspect of existence that processes,
reacts, evaluates, and evolves through growth
(reproduction and metabolism). The crucial
difference between life and non-life (or
non-living things) is that life uses energy for
physical and conscious development. Life is
anything that grows and eventually dies, i.e.,
ceases to proliferate and be cognizant.
• Abortion- is a procedure to end a pregnancy. It uses
medicine or surgery to remove the embryo or fetus and
placenta from the uterus.
• Human sterilization - is any of a number of medical
methods of birth control that intentionally leaves a person
unable to reproduce.
• Human cloning- is the creation of a genetically identical
copy (or clone) of a human. The term is generally used to
refer to artificial human cloning, which reproduces human
cells and tissue.
• Contraception- is the deliberate use of artificial methods
or other techniques to prevent pregnancy due to sexual
intercourse.
• Embryonic- stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived
from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-stage
pre-implantation embryo; used in research today come
from unused embryos. These result from an in vitro
fertilization procedure.
• Euthanasia- is the practice of intentionally ending a life;
the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable
and painful disease or in an irreversible coma. The practice
is illegal in most countries
• Murder- is the unlawful premeditated killing of one
human being by another.
• Suicide- is the act or an instance of taking one's own life
voluntarily and intentionally.
• Capital punishment- is punishment by death: the practice
of killing people as punishment for a serious crime.
• War -is a state of armed conflict between different
nations or states or groups within a nation or state.
Lesson 3
Patriotism
- It is the feeling and expression of love for one’s
home country, along with a feeling of unity with
those who share those feelings. It is a feeling of
pride, devotion, and attachment to a homeland.
- Patriotism is shown when we care about our
country enough to speak up when things go
wrong. Our love for our country will empower us
to get involved in social issues and stand up for
what is right and fair in our country, even it
entails opposing what the people in power
promote.
Lesson 4
ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP
- It refers to the responsible utilization of the
natural environment through sustainable
practices. Here, people are expected to sustain
the utility and beauty of the natural resources as
they employ them for their benefit. As humans
develop themselves by employing the earth's
fruits, they have to be mindful of their sacred
duty to conserve nature’s shape and retain its
usefulness so that the next generations can still
benefit from and be nourished by it.
STEWARD
- A steward is someone who takes care of
something for someone else. If someone is a
steward, he does not own what he has.
RELATIONSHIP
- Clearly, in the relationship human beings have
with the environment (or God’s creation), they
are not the owners. God is. ROLE Human beings’
role as stewards: To exercise responsible
stewardship of creation; to guarantee the
well-being of God’s creation.
GREED
- It is the intense and selfish desire for something,
especially wealth, power, or food. Greed has its
new forms. There is a kind of greed that
threatens each one when he/she walks through a
supermarket or a department store. Shoppers
are tempted and often give in to the particular
temptation – to buy a lot of junk they do not
need. In the end, the simplicity of life is
complicated by materialism and consumerism.
Together with this inevitable trend, the spiritual
progress of humanity is rarely seen as something
desirable. It seems to be dwindling.
FRUGALITY

- This refers to the careful management and

prudent employment of consumable resources
to avoid wastage, lavishness, and extravagance.
It disposes a person to curb his costly habits,
worldly appetites, and gluttonous inclinations,
shaping him into a man of contentment who
lives within his means and a man of efficiency
and effectiveness who gets the most he possibly
can from his resources.

ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS

Environmental Threats as singled out by Pope Francis, in

his encyclical Laudato Si’:

1. Pollution and climate change

2. The issue of water
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. Decline in the quality of human life and the breakdown
of society
5. Global inequality
6. Weak responses to environmental threats
English Reviewer
Lesson 1
A literary theory is the body of principles and methods
used in the reading and understanding of literature.
Literary theories formulate the relationship between
the author and his/her work, develop the significance of
race, class, and gender, and analyze the historical role of a
literary masterpiece.
LITERARY THEORIES/APPROACHES
(Types of Literary Criticism) DEFINITION
Formalism/Structuralism
- t is an interpretive approach that emphasizes
literary form and the study of literary devices
within the text. The work of the Formalists had a
general im pact on later developments in
“Structuralism” and other theories of narrative.
- “Formalism,” like “Structuralism,” sought to place
the study of literature on a scientific basis
through objective analysis of the motifs, devices,
techniques, and other “functions” that comprise
the literary work.
Feminist Literary Theory/Feminism
- This literary theory looks at how aspects of our
culture are inherently patriarchal and how it
affects the status of women in our society.
Feminist literary critics have observed that the
women in literature are often viewed as
marginalized, downtrodden individuals, whose
values and characteristics are based on their
differences from men.
- The ultimate goal of this theory is to expose the
misogynistic view in literature in order to prompt
gender equality and women empowerment
everywhere.
Marxist Literary Theory
- Marxist literary theories tend to focus on the
representation of class conflict as well as the
reinforcement of class distinctions through the
medium of literature. Marxists believe that
society is divided into three classes and the cycle
of chaos and tension among the classes is
inevitable and will always be reflected in
literature. Marxist critics focus on the plight of
the lower or working classes, both in everyday
life and in literature.
Reader’s Response Theory
- This type of criticism does not designate any one
critical theory, but focuses on the activity of
reading a work of literature.
- By this shift of perspective a literary work is
converted into an activity that goes on in a
reader's mind. It is through this interaction that
meaning is made. Proponents believe that
literature has no objective meaning or existence.
People bring their own thoughts, moods. And
experiences whatever text they are reading and
get out of it whatever they happen to based on
their own explanations and ideas.
Historical Approach
- The historical approach involves understanding
the events and experiences surrounding the
composition of the work, especially the life of
the author, and using the findings to interpret
that work of literature.
Moral/Ethical Theory
- The moral/intellectual critical approach is
concerned with content and values. The
approach is as old as literature itself, for
literature is a traditional mode of imparting
morality, philosophy, and religion.
- The concern in moral criticism is not only to
discover meaning but also to determine whether
works of literature are both true and significant.
- To study literature from the moral perspective is
therefore to determine whether a work conveys
a lesson or message and whether it can help
readers lead better lives and improve their
understanding of the world.
COMPOSING AN INDEPENDENT LITERARY CRITIQUE

- A critique is written not only to summarize a

literary text’s plot, but also to highlight its merits
and weaknesses in the form of a critical literary
discussion.

- Literary criticism is the comparison, analysis,

interpretation, and/or evaluation of works of
literature. It is essentially an opinion, supported
by evidence, relating to theme, style, setting or
historical or political context. It usually includes
discussion of the work’s content and integrates
your ideas with other insights gained from
research.

- Literary criticism may have a positive or a

negative bias and may be a study of an individual
piece of literature or an author’s body of work.

In writing a critique, you may use the following guide:

CONTEXT - What genre is it? Adventure? Science Fiction?

Fantasy?

AUTHOR'S INTENTION- What is the author trying to

accomplish with the story? If the story is meant to be
funny and isn't, or is meant to be a morality tale but
doesn't quite pull it off, then it has failed in at least one
respect.
LITERARY DEVICES- Figures of speech used in the story and
its purpose.
YOUR REACTION- Note your reactions as you read. Either
keep a spare piece of paper with you or mark your
reactions on the margins of the text.
LITERARY TECHNIQUE- Ask yourself if these literary
techniques make the reading experience more enjoyable
or strengthen the story.
ENDING OF THE STORY- Decide how the ending relates
both to the story as a whole and to its beginning. Does the
ending resolve the plot and bring closure to the crisis of
the characters?
Special occasion
- speeches are short informal speeches performed
to commemorate a person or to celebrate a
joyous event. People give this type of speech to
toast a special occasion (like wedding or a
birthday, to roast or poke fun at a person, to
present and/or accept an award, to inspire
graduating class during a commencement
activity, or to give tribute to a person, place, or
event.
- Special occasion speeches are usually shorter
than informative or persuasive speeches. They
can inform readers about a certain thing, but
their main goal is to stir emotions from the
crowd. The usual aim is to elicit laughter or to
humorously tease a certain people in the
audience.
Filipino Reviewer 3. Estratehiya– Dito makikita ang husay ng debater sa
pagsalo o pagsagot sa mga argumento, at kung paano niya
maitatawag ng pansin ang kanyang proposisyon. Dito rin
Lesson 1
makikita kung gaano kahusay ang pagkakahabi ng mga
argumento ng magkakagrupo. Mahalagang mag-usap at
Ang salitang mito/myth
magplano nang maigi ang magkakagrupo upang ang
babanggiting patotoo o pagpapabulaan ng isa ay susuporta
- ay galing sa salitang latin na mythos at mula sa
at hindi kokontra sa mga sasabihin ng iba.
Greek na muthos, na ang kahulugan ay kuwento.
Ang mitolohiyang Griyego at kuwentong
Lesson 2
tinatampukan ng mga diyos at diyosa.
Karaniwang paksa ay pag-ibig,
❖ Si Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ay ang
pakikipagsapalaran, pakikidigma at pagpapakita
kauna-unahang Pangulo ng Aprika na may itim
ng kapangyarihan.
na balat. Naglingkod siya sa Timog Aprika sa
taong 1994 hanggang 1999. Kilala itong
Ang debate o pakikipagtalo
anti-apartheid icon dahil sa pakikipaglaban sa
apartheid system o ang sistema ng racial
- ay isang pormal na pakikipagtalong may
segregation noon sa Timog Aprika.
estruktura at sistemang sinusundan. Isinasagawa
ito ng dalawang grupo o indibidwal na may
❖ Sa kaniya ring pag-upo bilang pangulo,
magkaslungat na panig tungkol sa isang
nilabanan ni Mandela ang kahirapan at
partikular na paksa; ang dalawang panig ay: Ang
deskriminasyon at isinulong ang rekonsilasyon ng
proposisyon o sumasasang-ayon, at ang
iba’t-ibang lahi.
oposisyon o sumasalungat.

❖ Nagsilbi si Mandela bilang presidente ng African

- May isang moderator na magiging
National Congress (1991-1997) na siyang ruling
tagapamagitan upang matiyak na magiging
party pa rin ngayon sa nasabing bansa at
maayos ang daloy ng debate at igagalang ng
secretary general ng Non-Aligned Movement
bawat kalahok ang tuntunin ng debate.
noong 1998-1999. Kinikilala rin itong ama ng
demokrasya ng Timog Aprika.Ipinanganak noong
Mga Katangiang Dapat Taglayin ng Isang Mahusay na
July 19, 1918 sa Mvezo, Umatu na dating bahagi
Debater
ng Cape Province. Dati itong tinaguriang
Rolihlahla o “troublemaker” pero ngayon ay
1. Nilalaman – Napakahalagang may malawak na kaalaman
kilala na sa kaniyang clan name na “Madiba.”
ang isang debaterpatungkol sa panig na kanyang
ipinagtatanggol at maging sa pangkalahatang paksa ng
Lesson 3
debate. Kailangan niyang magkaroon sapat na panahon
upang mapaghandaan ang sandaling ito at kasama sa
Ang anekdota- ay isang uri ng akdang tuluyan na
paghahanda ang malawak na pagbabasa, pananaliksik at
tumatalakay sa kakaiba o kakatuwang pangyayaring
pangangalap ng datos at ebidensya tungkol sa paksa
naganap sa buhay ng isang kilala, sikat o tanyag na
upang magbigay ng bigat at patunay sa katotohanan ng
tao. Ito ay may dalawang uri: totoong nangyari sa buhay ng
kanyang ipinahahayag.
nasabing tao o maari ding mga likhang isip lamang subalit
halos nahahawig sa katotohanan.
2. Estilo – Dito makikita ang husay ng debater sa
pagsasalita, sa pagpili ng tamang salitang gagamitin, at sa
- Ang anekdotang base sa totoong buhay ng
kaangkupan ng pagbuo niya ng mga pangungusap na
nasabing tao ay nagbibigay ng pagkakataon
kanyang babanggitin sa debate. Papasok din dito ang linaw
upang lalo pang makilala ng mga mambabasa
at lakas o taginting ng kanyang boses, husay ng tindig,
ang personal na buhay ng pinatutungkulan nito.
kumpiyansa sa sarili, at iba pa.
Ang ankedota naman na likhang isip lamang ay
madalas katatawanan subalit may taglay parin ng
mensaheng kapupulutan ng mga mambabasa.
Lesson 4
Mga Uri Ng Tula
➔ Ang Tula ay may apat na uri at bawat isa sa mga
uring ito ay may kaniya-kaniyang bahagi. Ang
mga uri ng tula ay ang sumusunod.Tulang Liriko o
Tulang Damdamin, Tulang Pasalaysay o narrative
poetry sa ingles, Tulang Patnigan at Tulang
Pantanghalan o Padula.
1. Tulang Liriko o Tulang Damdamin (lyric poetry)
- Tulad ng isang soneto o ng isang oda, na
ipinapahayag ang mga saloobin at damdamin ng
makata.
- Ang kataga ng tulang liriko ay ngayon karaniwang
tinutukoy bilang ang mga salita sa isang
kanta.Ang Tulang liriko na uri ng mga tula ay
hindi nagpapahayag sa isang kuwento na
naglalarawan sa karakter at aksyon. Ang makata
ay direktang sinasabi sa mambabasa, ang
kanyang sariling damdamin, iniisip, at
persepsyon.
Uri ng Tulang Liriko
Awit - Ang awit ay isang uri ng tulang pasalaysay na
binubuo ng tig-aapat na taludtod ang bawat saknong, na
ang bawat taludtod ay may lalabindalawahing pantig, at
ang tradisyonal na dulong tugma ay isahan.Ito ay ang
karaniwang awiting ating naririnig.Karaniwan itong may
malungkot na paksa - sad love songs kumbaga.
Soneto - Isang tula na karaniwang may 14 linya.Hinggil sa
damdamin at kaisipan, may malinaw na kabatiran sa likas
na pagkatao.
Oda - Ang oda ay karaniwang isang liriko o tula na
nakasulat bilang papuri o dedikado sa isang tao o isang
bagay na kinukuha interes ang makata o nagsisilbing isang
inspirasyon para sa oda.
Elehiya - Ito ay tulang may kinalaman sa guniguni tungkol
sa kamatayan.
Dalit - Isang uri ng tula, karaniwang pang relihiyon,
partikular na nakasulat para sa layunin ng papuri,
pagsamba o panalangin, at karaniwan ay ipadala sa isang
Diyos o sa isang kilalang pigura o maliwanag na
halimbawa. at may kahalong pilosopiya sa buhay.
2. Tulang Pasalaysay (narrative poetry)
- Isang tula na may balangkas. Ang tula ay
maaaring maikli o mahaba, at ang mga kuwento
na may kaugnayan sa maaaring maging simple o
kumplikadong pangyayari. Ito ay karaniwang
hindi madrama, nagkukuwentong tula gaya ng
mga epiko, ballad, idylls at lays.
Uri ng Tulang Pasalaysay
a. Epiko - Isang mahaba kuwento/tula, kalimitan tungkol sa
isang seryosong paksa na naglalaman ng mga detalye ng
kabayanihan gawa at mga kaganapan ng makabuluhang sa
isang kultura o bansa.
b. Awit at kurido - Isang uri ng panitikang Filipino kung
saan ito ay may walong sukat. ang tulang kurido ay
kadalasang mga alamat o kuwento na galing sa mga bansa
sa Europa tulad ng Pransya, Espana, Italya at Gresya. Ang
tulang kurido ay pasalaysay. Ang tanyag na kurido ay ang
Ibong Adarna.
c. Karaniwang Tulang Pasalaysay - Ang mga paksa nito ay
tungkol sa mga pangyayari sa araw-araw na buhay.
3. Tulang Patnigan (joustic poetry)
a. Balagtasan - Tagisan ito ng talino sa pagbigkas ng tula,
bilang pngangatwiran sa isang paksang pagtatalunan. Ito’y
sa karangalan ni Francisco “Balagtas” Baltazar.
b. Karagatan - Ito ay isang laro sa tula o isang paligsahan sa
pagtula na kabilang sa tinatawag na “libangang
itinatanghal” na ang taglay na pamagat ay nanggaling sa
isang alamat ng singsing ng isang dalaga na nahulog sa
dagat.
c. Duplo - Ito ay isang laro sa tula o isang paligsahan sa
husay sa pagbigkas at pangangatwiran nang patula. Hango
ang pangangatwiran sa Bibliya, mga salawikain at mga
kasabihan.
Paraan ng Pagpapahayag ng Emosyon o Damdamin

1. Mga Pangungusap na Padamdam – Ito ay mga

pangungusap na nagpapahayag ng matinding damdamin o
emosyon. Ginagamitan ito ng tandang padamdam (!)

2. Maiikling Sambitla – Ito ay mga sambitlang iisahin o

dadalawahing pantig na nagpapahayag ng matinding
damdamin.

3. Mga Pangungusap na Nagsasaad ng Tiyak na Damdamin

o Emosyon ng Isang Tao – Ito’y mga pangungusap na
pasalaysay kaya’t hindi nagsasaad ng matinding
damdamin, ngunit ito ay nagpapakita ng tiyak na
damdamin o emosyon.

4. Mga Pangungusap na Nagpapahiwatig ng Damdamin sa

Hindi Tuwinrang Paraan – Ito ay mga pangungusap na
gumagamit ng matatalinghagang salita sa halip na tuwirang
paraan.

Lesson 5

➢ Siya si Arsobispo Desmond Tutu. Isa sa mga

Aprikanong ipinaglaban ang kanilang mga
karapatan laban sa mga Amerikano kung saan ay
trinato silang mas mababa ang kanialang
lipunan.

➢ Ipinanganak siya noong ika-7 ng Oktubre, 1931

sa Klerksdorp, Timog Aprika. Ang ama niya ay
isang punong guro ng elementaryang paaralan at
ang ina naman niya’y tagapagluto at tagapaglinis
sa isang paaralan ng mga bulag. Batang bata pa
siya ay nararanasan na niya ang diskriminasyon
at ang pagmamaliit ng kanilang karapatan.

➢ Bagama’t bata pa lamang, naiintindaihan na ni

Desmond kung paano sila pinagtunguhan ng
sumakop sa kanila, binatay ang kanilang
pagkatao sa kulay ng balat, ay natupad pa rin
niya ang maaliwalas na karanasan ng kabataan.
Science Reviewer

Lesson 1

The Roles of Hormones in the Reproductive System

- Hormones are chemical messengers produced by

the glands of the endocrine system that control
body activities. These hormones are released
directly in the bloodstream. How do these
hormones affect reproduction?

- The reproductive system is responsible for

procreating. It consists of both external and
internal parts as seen in the illustration below. To
have a deeper understanding about how human
reproduction takes place, let us identify the
different hormones and their roles both for the
male and female reproductive systems.

Feedback Mechanism Involved in the Female

Reproductive System

- One of the prerequisites for the existence of life

is homeostasis, the maintenance of a relatively
constant range of internal conditions, no matter
what the external condition is. The
complementary activities of the different organ
systems create internal balance. However, due to
the constant changing of the internal and
external environments of cells, adjustments are
made to maintain homeostasis.

- The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands

regulate the activities of the body cells. The
release of hormones in the blood is controlled by
an existing stimulus. A stimulus is any external
and internal change in the environment that
causes an organism to react. A stimulus may also
increase or decrease in the amount of hormones,
which may cause changes in the internal
conditions of the cells. The self- adjusting
mechanism is called the feedback mechanism.
Types of Feedback Mechanism
Homeostasis
1. Negative Feedback Loop- involves reducing or
decreasing the response to a stimulus.
Example: when the amount of glucose rises
2.Positive Feedback Loop- occurs when a stimulus
increases the original stimulus.
Example: contraction of stimulus during childbirth
The Development of Life
The Roles of the Nervous System in Maintaining
- Homeostatic regulation is not only the work of
the endocrine system. The nervous system
enables the body to adjust to changes and
regulate its activities.
- These two systems are closely linked and work
cooperatively to maintain homeostasis.
- Of all the body systems, the nervous system is
the major control system of homeostasis. It
provides monitoring, response, and regulation of
all systems in the human body and other
organisms. It functions from the tiny level of
individual cells to affecting the whole body at
once.
- Receptors inside and outside the body are
constantly monitoring conditions and watching
for changes. When a body system leaves a set
point and falls outside its normal range, signals
are sent through the nervous system which
trigger responses to bring the system back into
the normal range of functioning.
- This is the process of homeostasis. These
complicated and intricate processes have
evolved over millions of years. For example,
thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the
skin sense change in temperature and pressure,
respectively.
- Then, signals sent from them to the brain make it
possible to detect situations that could cause
injury or death. In addition, nerves make muscles
contract which moves the bones of the skeleton,
making it possible to evade predators and/or
fight. This ability to perceive the environment
and reacting to it is critical to maintaining
homeostasis in the body.
Nervous System vs Endocrine System (BYJU’s)
- Both the nervous system and endocrine system
give signals to the internal body parts.
- One of the most significant differences between
the nervous system and endocrine system is that
the nervous system uses electrical impulses to
send messages through neurons while endocrine
glands use hormones to send messages to the
target cells through the bloodstream.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Lesson 2
❖ Deoxyribunucleic Acid (DNA) is found in the
nucleus of every cell and has something to do
with who we are or how we look. Studying DNA
helps us understand how some traits are passed
from parents to offspring. Aside from its role in
the inheritance of traits, DNA is also responsible
in the formation of protein, in replication of cells
and in the growth and maintenance of life.
DNA: The Body’s Instruction Manual
- According to the American Society of Human
Genetics (ASHG)(2019), Humans and all other
living things have DNA, which contains
hereditary information. The information in your
DNA gives your cells instructions for producing
proteins. Proteins drive important body
functions, like digesting food, building cells, and
moving muscles.
- Your DNA is the most unique and identifying
factor about you—it helps determine what color
your eyes are, how tall you are, and how likely
you are to have certain health problems. Even so,
over 99% of DNA sequences are the same among
all people.
- It is the remaining 1% that explains much of
what makes you, you!
- DNA is arranged like two intertwined ropes, in a
structure called a double helix (see figure 1).
Each strand of DNA is made of four types of
molecules, also called bases, attached to a
sugar-phosphate backbone.
- The four bases are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The bases pair in a
specific way across the two strands of the helix:
adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs
with guanine.
- Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a long chain made up
of building blocks called nucleotides. The sugar
molecule found in DNA is called deoxyribose;
while sugar molecule in RNA is called the ribose.
RNA contains adenine, guanine(G), and
cytosine(C), but instead of thymine(T), its fourth
base is uracil (U). Finally, RNA has a single chain
strand and douse not entwine in a double helix.
There are 3 kinds of RNA in which cells build
proteins. This is called protein synthesis.

Replication- is a semiconservative process in which the two
strands are separated and new complementary strands are
generated independently, resulting in two exact copies of
the original DNA molecule. Before the cell of an organism
can reproduce, it must first replicate or make a copy of
their DNA.
Protein Synthesis (BYJU’S)
- Different types of proteins exist in every living
organism. Protein is the most varied molecule in
which the human body contains at least 10,000
different kinds of proteins. Since the human
body are made up of cells, their unique
characteristics are determined by the type of
proteins they possess.
- The proteins that occur in the body are large,
complex molecules composed mainly oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. Proteins are
essential part structure of cells. It acts as an
enzyme or catalyst for chemical reactions in cells.
- Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins,
which are made up of long chains of chemical
units. There are 20 amino acids. Our body system
can synthesize non-essential amino acids
through metabolic processes from simple organic
molecules and the 9 essential amino acids must
be obtained from the dietary food we intake.
Processes of Producing Protein from DNA
1. Transcription
- The DNA is found inside the nucleus of the cell
which are embedded in the chromosomes. The
genetic information within the DNA must be
transported to the ribosome in the cytoplasm
where protein synthesis takes place. The genetic
information code is copied into the mRNA
through the process of transcription. The
transcription process occurs when the nucleotide
sequence along the DNA is copied into a strand
of mRNA. The DNA strand will be exposed once
the DNA molecule is uncoiled. The RNA
polymerase is responsible for the alignment and
binding together of the ribonucleotides that will
create the single strand of RNA molecule. The
mRNA molecule, as the complimentary
ribonucleotides, attach to the exposed bases of
the DNA strand.
2.Translation
- When mRNA has copied all the information
needed in making proteins, it will move into the
cytoplasm. Then, mRNA in the cytoplasm
becomes associated with a ribosome.
- A cell's cytoplasm contains thousands of
protein-making ribosomes.
- Translation starts when mRNA in the cytoplasm
interacts with rRNA and tRNA. First, a small
ribosomal unit of rRNA is attached to mRNA
carrying the codon. A codon is composed of a
sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA. It will
then be capsulated by its large ribosomal
subunit.
- Each tRNA has an anticodon- a sequence of three
nucleotide bases that can base-pair with a
specific mRNA codon. In addition, each tRNA
carries a specific amino acid. When tRNAs bind
with their mRNA codons at the ribosome, the
amino acids are properly lined up according to
the order dictated by the DNA. Elongation
continues until a stop codon is reached on the
mRNA molecule. When stop signal enters the
ribosome, the tRNA will release the completed
polypeptide chain
Gene Mutation
➔ If change happens in the gene or chromosome,
the traits too will correspondingly be altered. A
permanent change in a gene or chromosome is
called mutation.
Types of Mutations(BYJUs)
There are three types of mutations:
1.Silent mutation
- It refers to any change in the sequence of DNA,
which has no further impact on the amino acid
sequence in a protein or in the functions
performed by a protein. There is no phenotypic
indicator of mutation.
2.Nonsense mutation
- When due to a point mutation there is change in
the sequence of base pair leading to stop codon.
It results in a shortened or non-functional
protein.
3.Missense mutation
- A missense mutation is a result of point mutation
leading to change in the codon, which then
codes for another amino acid.
Causes of Mutations
- The mutation leads to genetic variations among
species. Positive mutations are transferred to
successive generations. A mutation in the gene
controlling the cell division leads to cancer.
1.Internal Causes
- Most of the mutations occur when the DNA fails
to copy accurately. All these mutations lead to
evolution. During cell division, the DNA makes a
copy of its own. Sometimes, the copy of the DNA
is not perfect and this slight difference from the
original DNA is called a mutation.
2.External Causes
- When the DNA is exposed to certain chemicals or
radiations, it causes the DNA to break down. The
ultraviolet radiations cause the thymine dimers
to break resulting in a mutated DNA.
Effects of Mutation
● There are several mutations that cannot be
passed on to the offsprings. Such mutations
occur in the somatic cells and are known as
somatic mutations. The germline mutations can
be passed on to successive generations and
occur in the reproductive cells.
Beneficial Effects of Mutation
● Few mutations result in new versions of proteins
and help the organisms to adapt to changes in
the environment. Such mutations lead to
evolution. Mutations in many bacteria result in
antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria that can
survive in the presence of antibiotics. A unique
mutation found in the population of Italy
protects them from atherosclerosis, where fatty
materials build up in the blood vessels.
Harmful Effects of Mutations
● Genetic disorders can be caused by the mutation
of one or more genes. Cystic fibrosis is one such
genetic disorder caused by the mutation in one
or more genes. Cancer is another disease caused
by the mutation in genes that regulate the cell
cycle.
Types of Genetic Disorders
1.Mendelian Disorder
- These disorders occur due to mutations in a
single gene and can be easily detected by
pedigree analysis. These disorders can be
autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive,
sex-linked dominant, sex-linked recessive, and
mitochondrial.
a.cystic fibrosis (autosomal recessive),
b.hemophilia (sex-linked recessive),
c.albinism (autosomal recessive),
d.sickle cell anemia (autosomal recessive).
2.Chromosomal Disorder
- These disorders are caused by any alteration in
the number or structure of the chromosomes.
Sometimes the whole chromosome is gained or
lost. This type of disorder is usually fatal and
affects many genes.
a.Down’s syndrome- the addition of a chromosome on
chromosome 21,
b.Turner’s syndrome-absence of an X chromosome,
c.Kleinfelter’s syndrome-addition of an X chromosome, etc.
3.Multifactorial Genetic Inheritance
- This is also known as polygenic inheritance.
These are caused as a result of environmental
factors and gene mutations. Some of the
examples of this kind of disorder are:
a.heart disease d. obesity g. arthritis
b.high blood pressure e. diabetes
c.Alzheimer’s disease f. Cancer
Lesson 3
➔ Evolution is the change in the physical
characteristics of species over numerous
generations. It depends on the process of natural
selection. The theory of evolution is based on
the idea that all species are related and
progressively change over time.
➔ Evolution relies on genetic variation in a
population which affects the physical
characteristics of an organism. Certain physical
characteristics may give advantage to the
individuals which can be transferred to their
offspring.
Evidence of Evolution (BYJU’s)
- The evidence of evolution is one of the
fundamental keystones of modern biological
theory. It is the only way which can prove all the
proposed theories of evolution. We have number
of evidences to prove the biological evolution
namely fossils, comparative anatomy, and
embryo development pattern.
Fossils
- They are the remains of the non-degraded parts
of living beings found within rocks. The layer
from which the fossil is recovered decides the
age of the fossil. The fossils found deeper down
are older compared to the ones found in the
upper layers. They give an idea of the condition
of the earth in that specific era. The study of
fossils is called palaeontology. Thus, fossils are
called paleontological evidences.
Comparative Anatomy
- It explains that many organisms have the same
ancestor and many different organisms evolved
as a result of natural selection or genetic drift.
Two types of comparative anatomy were
observed, namely homologous organs and
analogous organs.
1.Homologous organs:
These organs have the
similar structure in different organisms but perform
different functions. Thus, it clearly shows a common
ancestry. One species gave rise to many other species. This
type of evolution is called divergent evolution. For
example, the limbs of human, cheetah, whale, and wings
of a bat. They all have different functions but have a similar
structure indicating a common ancestor.
2.Analogous organs:
These organs have different
anatomy but perform similar functions. This shows
that different species evolved and adapted to a particular
environment. This type of evolution is called convergent
evolution. For example, the wings of different birds and
bats. The wings of birds have feathers for flight whereas,
bats have wings made up of stretched skin and lack
feathers. But, both serve the function of flight.
Vestigial Structure
- Vestigial structure or vestigial organ is an
anatomical feature or behavior that no longer
seems to have a purpose in the current form of
an organism of the given species. Often, these
vestigial structures were organs that performed
some important functions in the organism at one
point in the past. The coccyx or the tailbone:
Obviously, humans no longer have visible
external tails, because the current version of
humans do not need tails to live in trees as
earlier human ancestors did.
Embryonic Development
- The embryos of various species show similar
structure till a certain period of gestation. For
example, the embryos of humans, pigs, reptiles,
and birds show similar embryonic development.
They develop into the respective species as they
grow. This again shows common ancestry.
Comparative Biochemistry
- Due to the advancement of technology,
biotechnology becomes a part of evidences of
evolutionary theory. It predicts that species with
common ancestry tend to show similarity in the
amino acids sequences. Organisms that are more
closely related tend to share more similar amino
acid sequences than those that are not related.
For example, based on DNA sequencing, it has
been confirmed that chimpanzees are more
related to humans since only around 1-2% of the
DNA in man is different from chimpanzees.
Geographical Distribution
- It refers to the natural arrangement and
apportionment of the various forms of animals
and plants in the different regions and localities
of the earth. Darwin’s discovery about the
distribution of tortoise and birds in the mainland
and those in the Galapagos Islands would show
that originally, they came from one ancestry and
only diverged into the other accessible areas
more favorable for them.
Importance of Species Diversity
➔ In a healthy ecosystem, diverse and balanced
number of species exist to maintain the balance
of an ecosystem. In an ecosystem, all the species
depend on each other directly or indirectly. So to
make a more efficient, productive, and
sustainable ecosystem, it is important to
maintain a high species diversity.
• More diverse ecosystem tends to be more productive.
E.g. the ecosystem with a great variety of producer species
will produce a large biomass to support a greater variety of
consumer species
• Greater species’ richness and productivity make an
ecosystem more sustainable and stable
• The more diverse the ecosystem, greater is the ability to
withstand environmental stresses like drought or invasive
infestations
• Specie’s richness makes an ecosystem able to respond to
any catastrophe
• In Species-rich communities, each species can use a
different portion of resources available as per their
requirement. E.g. plants with smaller roots can absorb
water and minerals from shallow soil and plants with
deeper roots can tap deeper soil
• Rich diversity is important for the survival of mankind
• Healthy biodiversity has innumerable benefits like
nutrients storage and recycling, soil formation and
protection from erosion, absorption of harmful gases,
climate stability
• Humans get lots of product from nature like fruits,
cereals, meat, wood, fibre, raisin, dyes, medicine,
antibiotics, etc.
• Amazon forest is estimated to produce 20 percent of
total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere through
photosynthesis
• Pollinators, symbiotic relationships, decomposers, each
species perform a unique role, which is irreplaceable
• Diversity in large numbers help in large scale interaction
among organisms such as in the food web
• In the nitrogen cycle, bacteria and plants have a crucial
relationship; earthworms contribute to soil fertility
• Apart from these, there are other benefits such as
recreation and tourism, education and research
Ecosystem with High Species Diversity
• Tropical Rainforests:
They contain half of the world’s species. There are about
5-10 million insect species present. 40% of the world’s
2,75,000 species of flowering plants are present in the
tropical regions. 30% of total bird species are present in
tropical forests. The species richness of tropical forests is
mostly due to relatively constant environmental
conditions.

• Coral Reefs:
Colonies of tiny coral animals build the large coral reefs
ecosystem. The clarity of the water in the coral reef
systems allow the sunlight to penetrate deep, resulting in
the high level of photosynthesis in the algae present
inside the coral. Adaptation to various disturbances and
niche specialization gives rise to specie’s richness.
maintain sustainable development is becoming a
major challenge to mankind today.
Factors that Influence Population Fluctuation
- The fluctuations in the population in a given area
are influenced by four major factors, which
include the following:

Threats to Species Diversity • Natality – It is the number of births in a given period of

- The world is facing an accelerated rate of
extinction of species largely due to human
activities. The four major causes of loss of
diversity are known as “The Evil Quartet”.
• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Due to pollution,
urbanization and various other human activities, habitat
loss and fragmentation is a major cause of loss in species
diversity and driving plants’ and animals’ extinction.
• Over Exploitation: Over-exploitation of natural resources
leads to the extinction of many species.
• Alien species invasions: When alien species are
introduced deliberately or unintentionally, some of them
become invasive, leading to the extinction of indigenous
species.
• Co-extinctions: When species become extinct, the
species that are associated with it also becomes extinct.
time in a population
• Mortality – It is defined as the number of deaths that
takes place in a population at a given period of time.
• Immigration – It is defined as the number of individuals
which come from another population and add to the
population in consideration during a period of time
• Emigration – It is defined as the number of individuals
from a population who leave the habitat and go to a
different habitat at a given period of time.
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National Geographic defines carrying capacity as a species’
average population size in a particular habitat. The species
population size is limited by environmental factors like
adequate food, shelter, water, and mates. If these needs
are not met, the population will decrease
until the resource rebounds.

Population Growth and Carrying Capacity

➔ Population ecology is the study of the processes

that affect the distribution and abundance of
animal and plant populations.

➔ A population may exhibit certain characteristics

such as population density, population
dispersion, population range and growth rate.

➔ However, this time our focus will only be on

population growth. Population growth is one of
the major concerns of the present world as the
human population is not a static factor. Rather, it
is growing at a very alarming rate. In spite of the
increasing world population, the resources of the
earth remain constant. Thus, the ability to