Applsci 09 01653 v2

applied
sciences
Article
Experimental Verification of Methods for Converting
Acceleration Data in High-Rise Buildings into
Displacement Data by Shaking Table Test
Heuisoo Han 1 , Mincheol Park 1, *, Sangki Park 2 , Juhyong Kim 2 and Yong Baek 2
1 Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi-si 39177, Korea; hanhs@kumoh.ac.kr
2 Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, 283, Goyang-daero, Ilsanseo-gu,
Goyang-si 10223, Gyeonggi-do, Korea; skpark@kict.re.kr (S.P.); haitink@kict.re.kr (J.K.);
baek44@kict.re.kr (Y.B.)
* Correspondence: parkmincheol84@gmail.com; Tel.: +82-54-478-7618

Received: 23 January 2019; Accepted: 16 April 2019; Published: 21 April 2019
Abstract: When diagnosing damage to high-rise buildings during earthquakes, it is necessary to

measure the displacement of each story. However, with respect to accuracy and cost, it is most
reasonable to convert acceleration into displacement. In this study, shake table testing was carried
out to verify the conversion methods, converting the acceleration data measured in a high-rise
building into velocity and displacement. In the shaking table test, the displacement of a 10-story
model building under strong motion was measured using high-speed imaging devices. High-speed
images were taken at 1000 frames per second, reflecting the dynamic behavior of the model building.
Then, this displacement was compared with the displacement obtained by processing the acceleration
data. This study applied three methods for correcting and converting acceleration into velocity and
displacement. Method 1 used the transfer function, H2 (ω), which reflects the dynamic characteristics
of the system. The displacements converted by this method showed the lowest accuracy, because the
transfer function depends on the dynamic characteristics of the structure. Method 2 used the cosine
Fourier transform for baseline correction, and the discrete input data are calculated as the sum of
the cosine functions. Method 3 used the least-squares fitting in the first step to remove the linear
drift in the acceleration and applied the high-pass Butterworth filter. The displacements converted
by Method 2 were the most reliable, and were close to the displacements measured in the shaking
table test. However, the response of high-rise buildings is affected by low- and high-frequency noise.
It is necessary to further investigate the limitations and applicability of the conversion methods for
providing reliable displacement of the building.
Keywords: high-rise building; acceleration data; shaking table test; conversion method; baseline
correction
1. Introduction
The raw ground motion signals recorded by seismologists are always preprocessed before any
engineering and seismological analysis takes place. Strong-motion data processing has two main
objectives in making the data useful for engineering analysis: (1) correction of the strong motion sensor
itself (analogue or digital sensors can be used), and (2) reduction of random noise in the recorded
signals [1]. Different authors and agencies around the world have used a variety of steps in data
processing. The three major organizations in the United States for seismic analysis, the USGS (US
Geological Survey), PEER (Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Centre), and CSMIP (California
Strong-Motion Instrumentation Program), also use different signal processing techniques to process
records [2]. Other European countries have also reported the specific data processing steps that
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653; doi:10.3390/app9081653 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 2 of 25
they have adopted [3]. Mollova (2006) presented the application of digital filtering in the data
processing of acceleration records from earthquakes, whereby Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bessel
filters with different orders were employed to eliminate noise. One dataset under investigation included
accelerograms from three stations located in Turkey, Dinar, Izmit, and Kusadasi, withal of which use an
analogue seismograph, SMA-1 [2]. Jones et al., (2018) presented the Processing and Review Interface
for Strong Motion data (PRISM) software, developed by the National Strong Motion Project (NSMP) of
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) [4]. Corrected acceleration, velocity, and displacement time series
could be obtained by applying baseline correction methods and filtering to ensure that the spectral
content of the resulting products was within the sensors’ frequency response range, and exhibited
a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) significantly improved with respect to the expected background noise
level [5,6]. In the United States and Europe, much research has been done on strong-motion data
processing with the aim of accurately evaluating ground motion [7–10]. Seismometers are able to
measure the vertical and horizontal components of earthquakes. Analogue filters can be used for the
data processing of analogue seismometers, with Butterworth [11] and Chebyshev filters being the most
typical analogue filters used. The resulting frequency characteristics are thus referred to as Butterworth
and Chebyshev characteristics, respectively [12].
This signal processing can be carried out for the seismological analysis of ground motion by
seismologists. However, to perform a diagnosis of the structure, an accelerometer is installed in
high-rise buildings [13]. In order to carry out the diagnosis and health monitoring of high-rise
buildings, the raw data measured by the accelerometer must be analyzed by seismologists directly,
without preprocessing. This is because noise is generated due to the dynamic characteristics of the
structure, as well as artificial factors such as walking and machine operation. Noise needs to be
removed from the measured acceleration data, and the displacement should be calculated with baseline
correction. Then, the converted displacement can be used to evaluate the baseline drift of the high-rise
building. Therefore, acceleration must be converted into velocity and displacement through filtering
and baseline correction.
The causes and characteristics of noise and baseline drift are as follows. Low-frequency signals,
including acceleration, velocity, and displacement waveforms, are as crucial as high-frequency signals
for many areas of study in the fields of seismology and earthquake engineering. For example, velocity
signals are associated with the kinetic energy of seismic waves, and low-frequency seismic waves
contribute substantially to the responses of high-rise buildings, as well as huge structures such as
dams and bridges. Unfortunately, these low-frequency seismic waves are easily contaminated by
baseline errors. Most baseline errors in seismic signals are negligible with respect to acceleration,
but become larger with respect to velocity and displacement waveforms. A displacement waveform
based directly on the integration of the raw accelerograms, without applying any preprocessing,
may deviate greatly from the baseline. Most of these baseline errors are much larger than the ground
displacement itself, and as such, they are larger than the limits for the usefulness of low-frequency
signals. Therefore, baseline correction is an essential step in extracting more low-frequency information
from strong-motion accelerograms [14].
Figure 1 shows the results of the numerical calculation of velocity and displacement from
acceleration without baseline correction or filtering, measured by means of the shaking table test.
The figure shows that the converted displacement is unreliable. In this paper, the abbreviation AVD
(Acceleration-Velocity-Displacement) is used to refer to the conversion of acceleration into velocity and
displacement. Velocity can be obtained by integrating acceleration, while displacement can be obtained
either through the integration of velocity or a double integration of acceleration. However, this basic
principle of physics is not valid for disseminated data acquired from various strong-motion data
providers [15]. Chiu (2012) examined several examples, which included three sets of three-component
waveforms disseminated by the Berkeley Digital Seismic Network (BDSN), the National Strong-Motion
Program of the US Geological Survey (USGS), and the California Strong-Motion Instrumentation
Program of the California Geological Survey (CGS). The displacement waveforms were different from
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 3 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25

the corresponding velocity waveforms, which showed a significant linear baseline drift. Therefore,
baseline
the initialdrift.
dataTherefore,
for velocitythe initial
and data for velocity
displacement and displacement
were assumed to be zero in were
order assumed
to remove to be
thezero in
linear
order to remove
baseline the This
drift [15]. linearincompatibility
baseline drift [15]. This incompatibility
appears appears notdata,
not only in displacement only but
in displacement
also in data
data, but
derived alsoacceleration,
from in data derivedsuch asfrom acceleration,
in long-period such as
response in long-period
spectra [16]. Pecknold response spectra
and Riddell [16].
[17,18]
Pecknold
also foundand thatRiddell [17,18] acceleration
incompatible also found that mayincompatible acceleration
lead to low-frequency may lead
distortion to low-frequency
in the calculation of
distortion response,
structural in the calculation
and thisof structural
effect becomes response, and this
more serious effect becomes
in nonlinear cases more
[18]. Theserious
ideainunderlying
nonlinear
cases [18].
signal The ideaisunderlying
processing the removal signal processing
of noise is the removal of
from strong-motion noise
data in from
orderstrong-motion
to be able to data in
extract
order to be able to extract valuable information, such as peak ground characteristics
valuable information, such as peak ground characteristics and response spectra. Although noise causes and response
spectra. Although
distortion of the truenoise causes
signal overdistortion of the true
a wide frequency signal
range, its over a wide
influence frequency
is more dramaticrange, its influence
in the low- and
is more dramatic
high-frequency in thewhere
ranges, low- and high-frequency
the signal-to-noise ranges,
ratio tendswhere the signal-to-noise
to be significantly ratio tends in
lower. Nowadays, tothe
be
signal processing of strong motion, frequencies lower than 1 Hz and higher than 20 Hz are regarded as1
significantly lower. Nowadays, in the signal processing of strong motion, frequencies lower than
Hz and
low- andhigher than 20 limits,
high-frequency Hz arerespectively
regarded as[19]. low- and high-frequency
Athanasiou et al. (2018)limits,
removed respectively
low-frequency [19].
Athanasiou
noise using aetsimple
al. (2018) removed low-frequency
baseline-fitting noise using a simple
scheme. The signal-processing schemebaseline-fitting
they developed scheme.
and usedThe
signal-processing
defines the duration scheme
of thethey
maindeveloped and used
event, removes defines the
background duration
noise, of the the
and adjusts main event, removes
distorted baseline
background
drift using a noise, and adjusts
polynomial curve. the distorted baseline drift using a polynomial curve.
Figure 1.1.Results
Figure Resultsof of
thethe
numerical integration
numerical of velocity
integration and displacement
of velocity without baseline
and displacement withoutcorrection
baseline
from the acceleration measured in the shaking table test; (a) Acceleration;
correction from the acceleration measured in the shaking table test. (b) Velocity; (c) Displacement.
Several previous studies

Several previous studies have reported the
have reported the error
error and
and baseline drift in
baseline drift in earthquake
earthquake accelerometer
accelerometer
records; these can be caused by various factors arising from the vicinity of the
records; these can be caused by various factors arising from the vicinity of the location at which location at whichthe
the earthquake accelerometer is installed [14–19]. The frequency band is distributed
earthquake accelerometer is installed [14–19]. The frequency band is distributed over a wide range, over a wide
range, from to
from 0.001 0.001 to several
several tens oftens of Hz.
Hz. Generally,
Generally, low-frequency
low-frequency noise
noise below
below about0.1
about 0.1HzHzisis called
called aa
microseism, and high-frequency noise from 0.5 to several tens of Hz is referred to a
microseism, and high-frequency noise from 0.5 to several tens of Hz is referred to a microtremor [20].microtremor [20].
Generally,
Generally, noise
noise in
in the
the range
range ofof 0.1
0.1 to
to 0.5
0.5 Hz
Hz isis caused
caused byby waves
waves onon the
the sea
sea surface,
surface, and
and becomes
becomes
weaker
weaker as the distance from the coast gets greater. Noise lower than 0.1 Hz is known to be
as the distance from the coast gets greater. Noise lower than 0.1 Hz is known to be the
the main
main
cause
cause of
of changes
changes inin micro-pressure
micro-pressure [21,22]. By contrast,
[21,22]. By contrast, high-frequency
high-frequency noise
noise above
above 11 Hz
Hz is
is typically
typically
caused
caused by
by transportation
transportation and and industrial facilities, other
industrial facilities, other human
human factors,
factors, and
and natural
natural factors,
factors, such
such as
as
wind
wind and waves [23,24]. In particular, high-rise buildings are greatly influenced by natural factors
and waves [23,24]. In particular, high-rise buildings are greatly influenced by natural factors
such
such as
as wind,
wind, as
as well
well asas artificial
artificial factors
factors due
due toto mechanical
mechanical vibration
vibration and
and walking
walking load.
load.
Previous research on strong motion has identified the causes of noise in the frequency domain
of accelerometers [14]. A variety of processing and filtering techniques have been developed to
compensate for seismic accelerometers [15,25]. However, not much research has been done on
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 4 of 25
Previous research on strong motion has identified the causes of noise in the frequency domain
of accelerometers [14]. A variety of processing and filtering techniques have been developed to
compensate for seismic accelerometers [15,25]. However, not much research has been done on
correction and filtering methods for accelerometers installed in high-rise buildings. The data obtained
from accelerometers installed in a free field depend on the characteristics of the ground, and the
artificial influence is relatively small. However, artificial factors have a great influence on the noise
and dynamic characteristics of high-rise buildings. Therefore, it is necessary to verify the method
by which acceleration data of high-rise buildings is converted into displacement data. In particular,
acceleration measured over long periods leads to large error and baseline drift in displacement in the
diagnostic assessment of high-rise buildings. The displacement of high-rise buildings can be measured
by GPS, but high accuracy is required for soundness assessment, and the corresponding GPS is very
expensive. High-speed imaging can measure the displacement of a structure, but it is difficult to
perform measurements at all times, and challenging to apply this technique to high-rise buildings [26].
Therefore, it is most efficient to install an accelerometer in high-rise buildings and convert this data
into displacement.
In this study, the shaking table test was performed to verify the conversion methods. This involves
converting the data from an accelerogram installed in a tall building into velocity and displacement
data. In the shaking table test, the displacement of a 10-story model building under strong motion
was measured using high-speed imaging. High-speed images were taken at 1000 frames per second,
capturing the dynamic behavior of the model building. Then, this displacement was compared with
the displacement obtained by processing the acceleration data. This study applied three methods
for correcting and converting acceleration to velocity and displacement. The characteristics and the
applicability of the conversion methods for carrying out diagnosis of high-rise buildings are evaluated
in this study.
2. Experimental Setup and Processing Methods
2.1. Shaking Table Test

In general, the shaking table test is performed in order (1) to identify the dynamic characteristics
of the target structure system, and (2) to obtain a validated analytical model. It can also be used (3) to
verify the durability of the structure, and (4) to diagnose and maintain the integrity of the structure.
Changes in the vibration characteristics of a structure often indicate a problem related to the structural
integrity of the structure. For example, when a structure is subjected to a load and reaches fracture,
a crack occurs. In this case, the natural frequency is significantly different from the case in which there
is no crack. Therefore, if there is a significant change in the natural frequency, it can be predicted that
the safety of the structure is likely to be a problem [27–31].
In this study, the shaking table test was performed in order to verify the method used to convert
acceleration data into velocity and displacement.
Figure 2 shows the shaking table test of a high-rise building. The shaking table test consists of
a shaking table, a scale model consisting of 10 stories above ground and three stories below, as well
as four accelerometers and a high-speed camera. The displacements of the high-rise building were
estimated by analyzing images taken by a high-speed camera. The acceleration data measured by
the accelerometer were then converted into displacement and compared with the displacement by
image analysis. Figure 2c shows a model of a shaking table and a high-rise building. The height of
the model is 147.2 cm, the height above the ground surface (upper part) is 113.0 cm, and the depth
below the ground surface (lower part) is 34.2 cm. The lower part is a square of 40 cm × 40 cm, and the
upper part is a square of 20 cm × 20 cm. The accelerometer was installed at the base, 4th floor, 7th floor,
and roof. The shaking table test was conducted by KICT (Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and
Building Technology) in May 2018 at Smart C & S (Control & Sensing) in Daejeon, Korea. The model
of the high-rise building was made without scale because there was no actual reference structure.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 5 of 25
The input seismic waves were scaled considering the natural frequencies of the model, 1st = 2.8230 Hz,
Appl. =
2nd Sci.8.7980
2019, 1,Hz, and
x FOR = 14.6990 Hz.
3rdREVIEW
PEER 5 of 25
Figure 2. Shaking table test for verification of displacement conversion method of acceleration
acceleration data;
data;
(a) Photo of experimental equipment;
equipment; (b)(b) 3D
3D drawing;
drawing; (c)
(c) 2D
2D drawing.
drawing.
The
The accelerometer
accelerometerusedusedininthe
theshaking
shaking table testtest
table was iLOG-MEMS-ACC,
was iLOG-MEMS-ACC, which is developed
which and
is developed
sold by Smart C & S as shown in Figure 3. iLOG-MEMS-ACC is a wireless acceleration
and sold by Smart C & S as shown in Figure 3. iLOG-MEMS-ACC is a wireless acceleration sensor sensor system
that rapidly
system sends (115.2
that rapidly sendskbps)
(115.2acceleration signals signals
kbps) acceleration withoutwithout
noise, using
noise,Bluetooth. The sensor
using Bluetooth. The device
sensor
consists of a 2-axis MEMS acceleration sensor, a 16 bit A/D convertor, an 8 bit micro-controller,
device consists of a 2-axis MEMS acceleration sensor, a 16 bit A/D convertor, an 8 bit micro-controller, internal
memory (2.0 MB),(2.0
internal memory a Bluetooth communication
MB), a Bluetooth module,module,
communication and a Li-ion
and arecharge module,module,
Li-ion recharge which allows
which
allows self-acquisition of the acceleration signal, as well as decision-making according to an
embedded algorithm. The detailed specifications of iLOG-MEMS-ACC are shown in Table 1.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 6 of 25
self-acquisition of the acceleration signal, as well as decision-making according to an embedded

algorithm. The
Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, xdetailed
FOR PEERspecifications
REVIEW of iLOG-MEMS-ACC are shown in Table 1. 6 of 25
Figure3.3.Pictures
Figure Picturesof
of(a)
(a)high-speed
high-speedcamera;
camera;(b)
(b)target.
target.
Table 1. Detailed specification of acceleration (iLOG-MEMS-ACC) used in shaking table test.

Table 1. Detailed specification of acceleration (iLOG-MEMS-ACC) used in shaking table test.
Parameter
Parameter Specifications
Specifications
Sensor input channels
Sensor input channels Internal
Internal 2 or axial
2 or 3 MEMS
3 axial MEMS ACCACCsensor
sensor
Resolution
Resolution 16 bit resolution
16 bit resolution
Dynamic range 62.6 dB (typical)
Dynamic range MEMS Accelerometer Requirements 62.6 dB (typical)
Range MEMS Accelerometer Requirements±1.2 g, ±2.0 g, ±3.0 g, ±5.0 g
Range
Sensitivity ±1.2
1000 mV/g, 420g,mV/g,
±2.0 g, ±3.0
300 g, ±5.0
mV/g, g
174 mV/g
Noise Density
Sensitivity 110 µg/rtHz, 250 µg/rtHz,
1000 mV/g, 420 mV/g, 300300
µg/rtHz,
mV/g, 250 µg/rtHz
174 mV/g
Sampling110 μg/rtHz, 250 μg/rtHz, 300 μg/rtHz, 250
Noisesignal
Measurable Densitybandwidth 0 Hz to 50 Hz (custom options available to 400 Hz)
Sampling rate
μg/rtHz
50 to 1200 SPS, 2400 SPS (Via iLOG-RECEIVER)
Sampling
Operating Parameters
Measurable signal bandwidth 0 Hz to 50 Hz (custom options available to 400 Hz)
Sampling rate Outdoor:
50 to 1200 SPS, 2400200 SPSm(Via
(typical)
iLOG-RECEIVER)
Wireless communication range
Indoor: 50 m (typical)
Operating
Radio frequency (RF) transceiver carrier 2.4 Parameters
Ghz to 2.4835 Ghz Bluetooth V2.0 + EDR Class 1
RF communication protocol Outdoor: 200 m (typical)
IEEE 802.15.1
Wireless communication range
RF Power Indoor: 50dBm
Max 18 m (typical)
Power source Internal:
2.4 Ghz to 2.4835 3.7 Ghz
V 280Bluetooth
mA Li-po battery
V2.0 + EDR Class
Radio frequency
Power(RF) transceiver carrier
consumption 0.5 W (Active mode)
1
Duration 2 h (Active mode)
RF communication protocol
Operating temperature −20IEEE
◦ C to 802.15.1
+60 ◦ C
RF Power Max 18 dBm
Physical Specifications
Power source Internal: 3.7 V 280 mA Li-po battery
Dimensions 64 mm × 41.5 mm × 18 mm
Power consumption 0.5 W (Active mode)
Weight 65 g
Duration
Enclosure material 2 hour (Active mode)
Aluminum
Operating temperature
Environmental rating −20 °C to
Indoor +60 °C
use
Physical Specifications
2.2. High-Speed CameraDimensions
Shooting and Image Analysis 64 mm × 41.5 mm × 18 mm
Weight 65 g
Table 2 and Figure 4 show
Enclosure the equipment used for high-speed camera
material shooting and image analysis,
Aluminum
including a high-speed camera,
Environmental targets, and an image analysis program.
rating To estimate
Indoor use the displacements
of super high-rise and complex facilities at the time of excitation, the high-speed camera was used for
the
2.2.image capture
High-Speed at 1000
Camera framesand
Shooting per Image
second and image analysis; (x, y, z) is the coordinate value of the
Analysis
tracker attached to the structure using a TEMA (Telecommunication Engineering and Manufacturing
Table 2image
Association) and Figure
analysis4 program.
show the Theequipment used for
tracked tracker high-speed
comprises the camera
referenceshooting
coordinateandsystem,
image
analysis,
and including
then relative a high-speed
displacement camera, targets, and an image analysis program. To estimate the
is measured.
displacements of super high-rise and complex facilities at the time of excitation, the high-speed
camera was used for the image capture at 1000 frames per second and image analysis; (x, y, z) is the
coordinate value of the tracker attached to the structure using a TEMA (Telecommunication
Engineering and Manufacturing Association) image analysis program. The tracked tracker comprises
the reference coordinate system, and then relative displacement is measured.
Table 2. Equipment and features used in high-speed camera shooting and image analysis.
Equipment Model Name

Special Feature Amount
Name (Manufacturer)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 As a device capable of shooting over 1000 7 of 25
frames per second, it captures moments that

High-speed Phantom V641
Table 2. Equipment and cannot
features used in be observed
high-speed by the human
camera shooting eyeanalysis.
and image and Two sets
camera (Vision research)
analyzes the behavior of the structure using
Model Name these
Equipment Name Specialrecords.
Feature Amount
(Manufacturer)
5 inch
As a device capable of shooting over 1000 frames per
Phantom V641 Easy-to-perceive Quadrant target & linear
second, it captures moments that cannot be observed 3 inch
Target
High-speed camera Two sets
(Vision research) target in TEMA software
by the human eye and analyzes the behavior of 1 inch
the structure using these records.
Linear
Image A program which can analyze length, speed, 5 inch
Target TEMA Easy-to-perceive Quadrant target & linear target 1 EAOne
3 inch
analysis acceleration, angle,
in TEMAangular
software velocity, etc., 1 inch
(Image systems) Linear
ea
program through a captured image or images
A program which can analyze length, speed,
TEMA
Image analysis program acceleration, angle, angular velocity, etc., 1 EA
(Image systems)
through a captured image or images
Figure 4. Pictures
Figure of (a)
4. Pictures ofhigh-speed camera;
(a) high-speed (b) targets.
camera; (b) targets.
TheThe testtest
procedure
procedure for for
the the
image imageanalysis andand
analysis the the
high-speed
high-speed camera
camera setting procedure
setting procedure is is
described here. First, quadrant targets were attached to the corners of each
described here. First, quadrant targets were attached to the corners of each layer in order to measure layer in order to measure
the the
three-axis
three-axisdisplacement
displacement of each layer
of each using
layer a vibrating
using a vibrating tester. TheThe
tester. sizesizeof the target
of the waswas
target chosen to to
chosen
be sufficiently
be sufficiently large to identify
large to identifyandand analyze eacheach
analyze frame for afor
frame high-speed
a high-speed camera
camerashooting.
shooting. To measure
To measure
three-dimensional coordinates using a high-speed camera image,
three-dimensional coordinates using a high-speed camera image, two high-speed cameras two high-speed cameras should be be
should
used usedto start shooting
to start at the
shooting same
at the point
same in time.
point TheThe
in time. target to be
target to observed
be observed (target attached
(target attachedto each
to each
layer) should be captured on each camera image. The position of the
layer) should be captured on each camera image. The position of the camera should be adjusted camera should be adjusted so so
thatthat
the thetarget does not deviate out of the image while the excited structure
target does not deviate out of the image while the excited structure is moving. The camera is moving. The camera
angleangleis adjusted
is adjustedto betobetween
be between 45 degrees
45 degrees andand
180 180
degrees.
degrees.
To correct the distortion caused by the lens
To correct the distortion caused by the lens curvature, curvature, whichwhichis a isproblem
a problem for for
all camera
all cameralenses,
lenses,
it isitnecessary to take certain calibration values (parameter values for distortion
is necessary to take certain calibration values (parameter values for distortion correction) by correction) by shooting
the shooting
calibration theboard severalboard
calibration times. A high-speed
several times. A camera
high-speed withcamera
a shooting
withspeed of over
a shooting 1000offrames
speed over 1000
per frames
second has a limited shooting time, depending on resolution and
per second has a limited shooting time, depending on resolution and frames per frames per second, which depend
second,
on the
which camera’s
depend performance.
on the camera’s Sinceperformance.
the high-speed camera
Since used in thiscamera
the high-speed test requires
used in 50 this
s of test
shooting
requires
per 50
experiment,
s of shooting the per
resolution
experiment,was set 2560 × 1600
theatresolution was pixels.
set at 2560 × 1600 pixels.
TheThe basic concept of image analysis is
basic concept of image analysis is to obtain to obtain a tracking
a trackingshotshot
of the trackers
of the trackers(targets) in each
(targets) in each
imageimage taken by the
taken high-speed
by the high-speed camera,
camera,separating eacheach
separating frame using
frame usingthe the
algorithm
algorithm included
includedin the
in the
image analysis program, and converting the frames into data for easy analysis
image analysis program, and converting the frames into data for easy analysis before finally reporting before finally reporting
it. The
it. Thedatadata
obtained
obtainedby the
by theimage
image analysis program
analysis program include
includethe the
distance,
distance, speed,
speed,acceleration,
acceleration, relative
relative
displacement, angle, and angular velocity
displacement, angle, and angular velocity of the tracker. of the tracker.
2.3. AVD Conversion Method

Method 1 is called the Penzien filter, and it uses DFT and H2 (ω) [32]. Method 2 uses the
baseline correction and cosine correction filter [33]. Method 3 uses a least-square fitting and 4th-order
Butterworth filter [14]. The Penzien filter in Method 1 is a filtering process using the Fourier transform
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 8 of 25
and transfer function, and it removes low-frequency noise by means of a high-pass filter. Method 2
computes the discrete data of the input seismic waves as the sum of the cosine functions by means of a
cosine Fourier transform. In Method 3, the least-squares fitting implemented in the first step removes
the linear drift in the acceleration. In this study, the long-term measurement of the acceleration of the
high-rise building incorporates the error and drift of the baseline. This is the cause of some of the error
in the measuring equipment, as well as the background noise.
At this point, it is instructive to once again solve for the steady-state harmonic response using
the exponential form of a solution. Consider the general case of harmonic loading expressed in
exponential form:
.. . p0
υ(t) + 2ξωυ(t) + ω2 υ(t) = exp[i($t + φ)] (1)
m
where φ is an arbitrary phase angle in the harmonic loading function, $ is loading frequency, and ω
is natural frequency. In dealing with completely general harmonic loads, especially for the case of
periodic loading where the earthquake is expressed as a series of harmonic terms, it is essential to define
the input phase angle for each harmonic; however, this is usually most conveniently accomplished by
expressing the input in complex number form rather than on the basis of amplitude and phase angle.
In this section, only a single harmonic loading term will be considered; therefore, its phase angle is
arbitrarily taken to be zero for the sake of simplicity. Therefore, it need not be included in the loading
expression [32].
The specific solutions of Equation (1) and its first and second-time derivatives are
υ(t) = G exp(i$t) (2)

.
υ(t) = i$G exp(i$t) (3)
..
υ(t) = −$2 G exp(i$t) (4)
where G is a complex constant. To evaluate these, substitute Equations (2)–(4) into Equation (1),
cancel out the common quantity, exp(i$t), in each term, substitute ωk2 for m, and β for $
ω , and solve for
G, which yields " #
p0 1
G= (5)
k (1 − β2 ) + i(2ξβ)
   

p0 p0  p0  p0 ω2
  h i
1 1  2 2 1
G= =  =  =
 
k (1−β2 )+i(2ξβ) k 
 2 k  k ω2 −$2 +i2ξ$ω (6)
1−( $ ) +i2ξ $   ω −$ +i2ξ $ ω
  
ω ω ω2 ω ω
Equation (5) is rearranged as Equation (7).
ω2
" #
p0
∴G= (7)
k ω2 − $2 + i2ξ$ω
Rearranging Equation (4), we similarly obtain Equation (8).

a(t) = −$2 G exp(i$t) = −$2 G · exp(i$t) (8)
R
1 −i$t
where −$2 G is constant and e−i$t dt = i$ ·e . Equations (2) and (3) can be expressed by Equations (9)
and (10), respectively.
1 2
v(t) =
−$ G · exp(i$t) (9)
i$
1 2
d(t) = −$ G · exp(i$t) = G· exp(i$t) (10)
(i$)2
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 9 of 25
The complex constant of Equation (7) can be rewritten as Equation (11).
ω2
" #
p0 p0
G= = ·H2 (ω) (11)
k ω2 − $2 + i2ξ$ω k
By substituting Equation (11) into Equation (10), the displacement in the time domain can be
calculated using Equation (12).
p0
d(t) = ·H2 (ω)· exp(i$t) (12)
k
Here, H2 (ω) is a correction filter in the frequency domain.
ω2
" #
H2 ( ω ) = (13)
ω2 − $2 + i2ξ$ω
Since it is difficult to set the reference point (fixed point) in order to measure the temporal
change, it is necessary to measure the temporal change of the acceleration, and then to calculate the
displacement by integrating it twice. However, when the acceleration, including the measurement
error, is integrated twice and integrated into the displacement, the displacement includes the amplified
additional error, due to the two integral transformations.
In this study, numerical integration, such as Fourier transform, has been used to convert acceleration
into velocity and displacement. The Fourier transform is more simply a numerical integration; it is the
decomposition of a periodic loading into a harmonic series. Here, H2 (ω) is a correction filter in the
frequency domain [32].
Figure 5 shows the flowchart for the conversion of the acceleration data in Method 1.
The acceleration data measured in the time domain should be transformed by the Fourier transform
function in order to convert them into the frequency domain.
A f (ω) = F a(t)

(14)
In addition, A f (ω) is calculated again in order to correct the data in the frequency domain; H2 (ω)
is the correction filter multiplied to obtain the corrected Fourier transformed function Ac (ω).
Ac ( ω ) = H 2 ( ω ) A f ( ω ) (15)
Then, velocity and displacement are calculated in the frequency domain.
V(ω) = iωAc (ω) (16)
D(ω) = (iω)2 Ac (ω) (17)
Finally, to convert them into velocity and displacement in the time domain, the inverse Fourier
transform function is used.
v(t) = F−1 V (ω)

(18)
d(t) = F−1 D(ω)

(19)
In this process, the content of the original signal is modulated on the basis of the transform
function, reflecting the system characteristics. After being passed through the high-pass filter used at
this juncture, the low-frequency components are removed.
This solution, using the time domain method, solves the equation of motion in the time domain
directly. In contrast, solutions that use the frequency domain method are obtained by converting
the equation of motion in the time domain into the frequency domain. Generally, by using a Fourier
transform to convert the equation of motion into the frequency domain, a solution can be found more
efficiently than by finding it in the time domain. Moreover, by applying a discrete Fourier transform
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 10 of 25
(DFT) using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm with a Fourier transform, the integrals used in
the Fourier
Appl. Sci. 2019,transform canREVIEW
1, x FOR PEER be easily and quickly processed. 10 of 25
Figure 5. Flowchart for the conversion of acceleration data using Method 1.
This solution, using the time domain method, solves the equation of motion in the time domain
directly. In contrast, solutions that use the frequency domain method are obtained by converting the
equation of motion in the time domain into the frequency domain. Generally, by using a Fourier
transform to convert the equation of motion into the frequency domain, a solution can be found more
efficiently than by finding it in the time domain. Moreover, by applying a discrete Fourier transform
(DFT) using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm with a Fourier transform, the integrals used in
the Fourier transform can be easily and quickly processed.
The second method is time domain
Figure 5. Flowchart
analysis. Figure 6 shows the flowchart for the conversion of
Flowchart for the conversion of acceleration data using Method 1.
acceleration data using Method 2. The load magnitude after the first load and the end of the measured
The second
load are assumed This to be method
solution, zero. is time
usingThere
the time isdomain
domain analysis. Figurethe
method, solves
zero padding. First,6the shows
equationthe of
flowchart
acceleration motion(𝑎 forthe
in ) the conversion
time
in thedomain
time domain is
of acceleration
directly. data solutions
In contrast, using Method that use2. the
Thefrequency
load magnitude after theare
domain method first load and
obtained by the end of the
converting the
prepared and integrated
measured load are
so as to obtain
assumed to be
the There
zero.
velocity is zero
) and the
(𝑣 padding. displacement
First, the acceleration
(𝑑 (a). )Next,
in the
a baseline
equation of motion in the time domain into the frequency domain. Generally, by using a Fourier 0
correctiontransform
of the
time initial
domain acceleration
is prepared
to convert (𝑎of )motion
and integrated
the equation in the first-order
so into
as tothe
obtain the
frequency linear
velocityequation
domain, and is
theperformed.
(v0a)solution displacement
can be found more 𝑐 0 ).and 𝑐 in
(d
Figure 6 are the
Next,
efficiently coefficients
a baseline
than by of itofthe
correction
finding in first-order
thetheinitial linear
timeacceleration
domain. (a0 )equation
Moreover, in the for the
byfirst-order
applying baseline
linear equation
a discrete Fouriercorrection.
transform Then, the
is performed.
c(DFT)
and c
using
corrected acceleration
0 1 in Figure 6(𝑡) istransform
are
a fast𝑎Fourierthe coefficients
integrated of
(FFT) inthe first-order
algorithm
order with linear equation
a Fourier transform,
to calculate for the baseline
the newthevelocity, 𝑣(𝑡in) , and the
correction.
integrals used
Then, the corrected
the Fourier transformacceleration
can be easily (a(t)) is integrated
and in order to calculate the new velocity, (v(t)), and the
quickly processed.
displacement, 𝑑 (𝑡) .(Finally, the the
(t)). Finally, displacement 𝑑(t())𝑡)is cosine-corrected.
is cosine-corrected. Using the cosine Fourier
displacement,
The second dmethod is time domain analysis.(dFigure
displacement 6 shows the flowchart Using
forthe
thecosine Fourier
conversion of
series transform,
series the
transform, discrete
the input
discrete data
input datais calculated
is calculated as
as the
the sumsumof of
the the
cosine
acceleration data using Method 2. The load magnitude after the first load and the end of the measured cosine
functions.functions.
load are assumed to be zero. There is zero padding. First, the acceleration (𝑎 ) in the time domain is
prepared and integrated so as to obtain the velocity (𝑣 ) and the displacement (𝑑 ). Next, a baseline
correction of the initial acceleration (𝑎 ) in the first-order linear equation is performed. 𝑐 and 𝑐 in
Figure 6 are the coefficients of the first-order linear equation for the baseline correction. Then, the
corrected acceleration 𝑎(𝑡) is integrated in order to calculate the new velocity, 𝑣(𝑡) , and the
displacement, 𝑑(𝑡) . Finally, the displacement 𝑑(𝑡) is cosine-corrected. Using the cosine Fourier
series transform, the discrete input data is calculated as the sum of the cosine functions.


Appl. Sci. 2019, 1,
9, x1653
FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11 of
of 25
The third method uses the least-square fitting and Butterworth filters for digital strong-motion
The third method
data, as proposed by Chiuuses[14].
the least-square
Figure 7 shows fitting
the and Butterworth
flowchart for the filters for digital
conversion strong-motion
of acceleration data
data, as proposed by Chiu [14]. Figure 7 shows the flowchart for
using Method 3, wehreby 𝑎 (𝑡) is the initial acceleration, 𝑎(𝑡) is the corrected acceleration, ω the conversion of acceleration datais
using Method 3, wehreby a ( t ) is the initial acceleration, a ( t ) is
natural frequency, 𝜔 is cutoff frequency, and 𝐺 is a frequency response at zero frequency. The
0 the corrected acceleration, ω is natural
frequency,
least-squares ωc is cutoffinfrequency,
fitting the first step and Gremoves
0 is a frequency
the linear response
trend at ofzero
the frequency.
acceleration. The least-squares
The long-term
fitting in the first step removes the linear trend of the acceleration.
measurement of the acceleration of a high-rise building incorporates the errors and drift of the The long-term measurement of
the acceleration
baseline. These are of acaused
high-rise
by errorsbuilding
in theincorporates
measuring the errors and
equipment, alongdriftwith
of the baseline. error.
background TheseThe are
caused by errors in the measuring equipment, along with background
correction method for their removal consists of the following three steps. First, the baseline drift of error. The correction method
for
the their removalisconsists
acceleration removedofusing the following three steps.
the least-squares First,and
method, the the
baseline drift ofinthe
acceleration theacceleration
time domain is
removed using the least-squares method, and the acceleration in the
is converted into the frequency domain by Fourier transform. Next, low-frequency error is removed time domain is converted into the
frequency domain by Fourier
using the fourth-order transform.
Butterworth Next,
filter. Thelow-frequency
Butterworth filter error does
is removed using the
not generate fourth-order
a ripple in the
Butterworth filter. The Butterworth filter does not generate a ripple
passband; it has better performance than the Bessel filter, and the bandpass filter can simultaneously in the passband; it has better
performance than the Bessel filter, and the bandpass filter
remove low-frequency and high-frequency noise. Because of these advantages, passband can simultaneously remove low-frequency
and high-frequency
Butterworth filters are noise.
used Because
in the PEERof these advantages,
(Pacific passband
Earthquake Butterworth
Engineering filtersCentre)
Research are usedstrong-
in the
PEER
motion (Pacific
databaseEarthquake
[34]. TheEngineering
ButterworthResearch Centre)
filter is also usedstrong-motion
in the Strong database Motion data[34].(PRISM)
The Butterworth
software
filter is also used in the Strong Motion data (PRISM) software developed
developed by the US Geological Survey (USGS) [4]. The accelerometer installed in the high-rise by the US Geological Survey
(USGS)
building[4]. is The accelerometer
an analogue system, installed
and aintypical
the high-rise
analogue building is an analogue
Butterworth filter issystem,
used. The and last
a typical
step
analogue Butterworth filter is used. The last step required is to remove
required is to remove the linear trend that arises from having a nonzero initial velocity. When the the linear trend that arises from
having a nonzero
strong-motion initial velocity.
instrument records When the strong-motion
seismic data, those instrument
data may records come fromseismic thedata, those
effect of data
the
may come from the effect of the background noise. To ensure that
background noise. To ensure that the strong motion records start from zero, the records should be the strong motion records start
from zero,by
processed themeans
records should be
of baseline processed [35].
initialization by means of baseline
Furthermore, motionsinitialization
with very[35].
long Furthermore,
periods must
motions withand
be sacrificed, verya long periods of
combination must be sacrificed,
baseline correction and
anda low-cut
combination of baseline
filtering can be used correction
to produceand
low-cut filtering can be used to produce motions that are accurate
motions that are accurate representations of the true ground motions obtained by many earthquake representations of the true ground
motions
modelersobtained
[36]. by many earthquake modelers [36].
Figure 7. Flowchart for conversion of acceleration data in Method 3.
3. Shaking Table Test

3. Shaking Table Test
3.1. Test Conditions
3.1. Test Conditions
Figure 8 shows the excitation force of the shaking table test. In the test, the accelerations from
Figure 8 shows the excitation force of the shaking table test. In the test, the accelerations from
three different earthquake—the Manjil earthquake, the Superstition Hills earthquake, and the Kobe
three different earthquake—the Manjil earthquake, the Superstition Hills earthquake, and the Kobe
earthquake—were used. These three sets of acceleration data were selected from the 22 earthquakes
earthquake—were used. These three sets of acceleration data were selected from the 22 earthquakes
presented in FEMA P-695, taking place between 1974 and 1999 [37]. The Manjil earthquake occurred in
presented in FEMA P-695, taking place between 1974 and 1999 [37]. The Manjil earthquake occurred
1990 in the city of Manjil in northern Iran. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.4. The earthquake
in 1990 in the city of Manjil in northern Iran. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.4. The
in Superstition Hills in California occurred in 1987, and had a magnitude of 6.6. The Kobe earthquake
earthquake in Superstition Hills in California occurred in 1987, and had a magnitude of 6.6. The Kobe
occurred in 1995. It measured 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale. These three earthquakes had
earthquake occurred in 1995. It measured 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale. These three
in common that they occurred in the lower part of the metropolitan area. Because skyscrapers are
earthquakes had in common that they occurred in the lower part of the metropolitan area. Because
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 12 of 25
skyscrapers
located in big are located
cities, the in big cities, the
acceleration acceleration
data were selected datafrom
were selected from
earthquakes thatearthquakes thatdamage
caused a great caused
atogreat
largedamage
cities. to large cities.
The
The accelerations
accelerations and and displacements
displacements of of the
the structures
structures generated
generated during
during thethe excitation
excitation were
were
measured
measured by both accelerometer and high-speed imaging. The peak of the Manjil earthquake
by both accelerometer and high-speed imaging. The peak of the Manjil earthquake inin
Figure
Figure 8a
8a is
is 0.4272
0.4272 g, and the
g, and the duration
duration isis 53.50
53.50 s.
s. The
The peak
peak of
of the
the Superstition
Superstition Hills
Hills earthquake
earthquake inin
Figure
Figure 8b is 0.45755 g, and the duration is 22.29 s. The peak of the Kobe earthquake in Figure 8c is
8b is 0.45755 g, and the duration is 22.29 s. The peak of the Kobe earthquake in Figure 8c is
0.48557
0.48557 g,
g, and
and the
the duration
duration is is 40.95
40.95 s.
s.
Figure 8. Earthquake input data for the Shaking Table Test; (a) Manjil earthquake; (b) Superstition Hills
Figure 8. Earthquake input data for the Shaking Table Test; (a) Manjil earthquake; (b) Superstition
earthquake; (c) Kobe earthquake.
Hills earthquake; (c) Kobe earthquake.
3.2. Experimental Response with Application of Strong Motion
3.2. Experimental Response with Application of Strong Motion
Figure 9 shows the structural response and roof displacement for the Manjil earthquake,
Figure 9 shows
as measured during the
the structural response
shaking table test. and
Theroof displacement
highest for occurred
acceleration the Manjilatearthquake, as
the top layer,
measured during the shaking table test. The highest acceleration occurred at the top
and the displacement of the top layer, determined by high-speed imaging and analysis, was up tolayer, and the
displacement
141.4 mm. Theofresulting
the top layer, determined
acceleration of the by high-speed
measured imaging
structure was and analysis,
entered was
into the up to
code, 141.4 mm.
converted to
The resulting and
displacement, acceleration
comparedofwith
the the
measured
measured structure was entered into the code, converted to
roof displacement.
displacement, and compared with the measured roof displacement.
Appl.
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Sci. 2019, 9,
1, 1653
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 25
13 25
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Dynamic
Dynamicresponse andand
response roofroof
displacement of theofmodel
displacement for thefor
the model Manjil
the earthquake; (a) base
Manjil earthquake;
Figure 9. Dynamic response and roof displacement of the model for the Manjil earthquake; (a) base
acceleration, (b) 4th floor acceleration, (c) 7th floor acceleration, (d) roof acceleration, and (e) roof
(a) base acceleration, (b) 4th floor acceleration, (c) 7th floor acceleration, (d) roof acceleration,
acceleration, (b) 4th floor acceleration, (c) 7th floor acceleration, (d) roof acceleration, and (e) roof
displacement.
and (e) roof displacement.
displacement.
10 shows
Figure 10 shows thethe response
response ofof the
the Superstition
Superstition Hills
Hills earthquake
earthquake and
and the
the roof
roof displacement
displacement
Figure 10 shows the response of the Superstition Hills earthquake and the roof displacement
measured during the
measured the shaking
shakingtable
tabletest.
test.The highest
The acceleration
highest waswas
acceleration generated at the
generated at top
the layer, like
top layer,
measured during the shaking table test. The highest acceleration was generated at the top layer, like
in the
like in Manjil earthquake,
the Manjil and the
earthquake, andmaximum
the maximum displacement was 142.4
displacement mm, as
was 142.4 mm,measured through
as measured high-
through
in the Manjil earthquake, and the maximum displacement was 142.4 mm, as measured through high-
speed imaging
high-speed and analysis.
imaging The peak
and analysis. excitation
The peak of theofManjil
excitation earthquake
the Manjil was 0.4272
earthquake g, andg,the
was 0.4272 andpeak
the
speed imaging and analysis. The peak excitation of the Manjil earthquake was 0.4272 g, and the peak
excitation
peak of theofSuperstition
excitation HillsHills
the Superstition earthquake was was
earthquake 0.45755 g. The
0.45755 maximum
g. The maximum displacement of the
displacement of
excitation of the Superstition Hills earthquake was 0.45755 g. The maximum displacement of the
Superstition
the HillsHills
Superstition earthquake was was
earthquake almost equal
almost to the
equal todisplacement caused
the displacement by the
caused bySuperstition Hills
the Superstition
Superstition Hills earthquake was almost equal to the displacement caused by the Superstition Hills
earthquake.
Hills earthquake.
earthquake.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Cont.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 14 of 25
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2019,
2019, 1,
1, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14 of
14 of 25
25
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
(e) (e) (f)

Figure
Figure 10.Dynamic
10.
Figure 10. Dynamicresponse
Dynamic response
response and
andand roof
roof roof displacement
displacement
displacement of the
of the of the for
model model
model for the
for the Superstition
the SuperstitionSuperstition Hills
Hills
Hills earthquake;
earthquake;
earthquake; (a) base acceleration,
(a) base (b)
(a) base acceleration, acceleration, (b) 4th floor
(b) 4th floor
4th floor acceleration, acceleration,
acceleration,
(c) 7th (c) 7th floor
(c) 7th floor
floor acceleration, acceleration,
acceleration,
(d) roof (d)
acceleration,(d) roof
roof
and (e)
acceleration,
acceleration, and (e) roof displacement.
and (e) roof displacement.
roof displacement.
Figure 11
Figure 11 shows
11 shows the
showsthe structural
thestructural response
structuralresponse and
responseand top
andtop layer
top displacement
layer
layer displacement
displacement forfor
for thethe
the Kobe
KobeKobeearthquake,
earthquake,
earthquake, as
as
measured
as measured
measured during
during
during thethe
the shaking
shaking
shaking table
table
table test. The
test.
test. highest
The
The acceleration
highestacceleration
highest occurred
accelerationoccurred
occurredat atatthe
the roof,
theroof, like
roof,like in
like in the
in the
previously examined
previously examined Manjil
Manjil andand Superstition
Superstition Hills Hills earthquakes,
earthquakes, and theand the displacement
displacement
examined Manjil and Superstition Hills earthquakes, and the displacement of the of the of
uppermost the
uppermost layer as
layer as determined
uppermost layer as determined
determined
by high-speedby high-speed
by high-speed
imaging and imaging and
analysisand
imaging analysis
wasanalysis wasmm.
up to 99.4
was up to
up to 99.4
99.4 mm.
mm.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure 11. Cont.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 15 of 25
(e)
Figure 11. Dynamic response and roof displacement of the model for the Kobe earthquake; (a) base
acceleration, (b)
(b) 4th
4thfloor
flooracceleration,
acceleration,(c)(c)
7th7th
floor acceleration,
floor (d) (d)
acceleration, roofroof
acceleration, and (e)
acceleration, androof
(e)
displacement.
roof displacement.
3.3. Conversion Process

3.3. Conversion Process of
of Each
Each Method
Method
Three
Three different
different conversion methods were
conversion methods were used
used for
for this
this research,
research, as
as already
already described
described in
in “2.3.
“2.3.
AVD Conversion Method”. The techniques used in each method are shown in Table
AVD Conversion Method”. The techniques used in each method are shown in Table 3. 3.
Table 3.
Table Techniques for
3. Techniques for AVD
AVD conversion
conversion methods.
methods.
Method
Method FilterFilter Technique
Technique
DFT
DFT
1 1 Penzien filter filter
Penzien 2 (ω)
𝐻 H(𝜔)
Frequency-domain
Frequency-domain
Zero
Zero padding
padding
Baseline correction (1st order)
2 Cosine correction filter Baseline correction (1st order)
2 Cosine correction filter Cosine correction filter
CosineTime-domain
correction filter
Time-domain
Least-square fitting
3 Butter-worth filter Least-square
Butter-worth fitting
filter (4th order)
3 Butter-worth filter Butter-worth filter (4th order)
Frequency-domain
Frequency-domain
3.3.1. Method 1
3.3.1. Method 1
The acceleration response measured three times on the basis of the applied force is converted into
Theand
velocity acceleration response
displacement usingmeasured three
the Penzien times
filter on the 12–14.
in Figures basis ofAthe applied force
description of theisconversion
converted
into velocity and displacement using the Penzien
steps and the graphs of the results are provided below.filter in Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14. A description
of theFirst,
conversion stepsload
the applied and is
the graphs of the
discretized. Theresults
durationare of
provided below. (t ) input for the shaking
the acceleration d
table test was 53.50 s for the Manjil earthquake, 22.29 s for the Superstition Hills earthquake, and 40.95 s
for the Kobe earthquake. The measured time interval (∆t) was 0.05 s. The Manjil earthquake had 10784,
the Superstition Hills earthquake had 4764, and the Kobe earthquake had 9784 data points. Therefore,
FFT was applied, and the analysis time (T0 ) was selected in consideration of the period component of
the response and the load, with it duration being longer than that of the excited load. In the case of the
Manjil earthquake,∆t was 0.005 s, and the number of data points (N) was 10784. The analysis time (T0 )
was then calculated using Equation (20). Here, the size of the first load and the magnitude of the load
after the end of the load measurement were assumed to be zero, and zero padding was performed.
T0 = (10784 − 1) × 0.05 sec = 53.915 sec (20)

3.3.1. Method 1
The acceleration response measured three times on the basis of the applied force is converted
into velocity and displacement using the Penzien filter in Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14. A
description of the
Appl. Sci.conversion
2019, 9, 1653 steps and the graphs of the results are provided below.
16 of 25
Figure 12. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration in the Manjil earthquake using Method 1:
(a) discrete Fourier
Figure 12.Transform of the
Analysis process applied
for the load;
10th-story (b) transfer
acceleration function;
in the Manjil (c) using
earthquake acceleration;
Method 1: (d) velocity;
and (e) displacement.
(a) discrete Fourier Transform of the applied load; (b) transfer function; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity;
Figure 13. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration in the Superstition Hills earthquake using
Figure 13. Analysis
Method 1:process for
(a) discrete the 10th-story
Fourier Transform of acceleration
the applied load;in
(b)the Superstition
transfer function; (c) Hills earthquake using
acceleration;
Method 1: (a) (d)discrete Fourier
velocity; and Transform of the applied load; (b) transfer function; (c) acceleration;
(e) displacement.
(d) velocity; and (e) displacement.

Figure 13. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration in the Superstition Hills earthquake using
Method 1: (a) discrete Fourier Transform of the applied load; (b) transfer function; (c) acceleration;
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 17 of 25
(d) velocity; and (e) displacement.
14. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration in the Kobe earthquake using Method
FigureFigure
14. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration in the Kobe earthquake using Method 1:
1: (a) discrete Fourier Transform of applied load; (b) transfer function; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity;
(a) discrete Fourier Transform of applied load; (b) transfer function; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity; and
(e) displacement.
Next, the discrete Fourier transform of the applied load was performed. When the applied load in
the time
First, the domain
appliedisload
converted into the frequency
is discretized. domain of
The duration using
thethe discrete Fourier
acceleration (𝑡 ) transform
input for (DFT),
the shaking
the discrete
table test was 53.50Fourier transform
s for (
the Manjil )
F f isearthquake,
calculated. The (
22.29 )
F f soffor
the the
applied load of the Manjil
Superstition earthquake and
Hills earthquake,
is shown in Figure 12a, that of the Superstition Hills earthquake is shown in Figure 13a, and that of the
40.95 s for the Kobe earthquake. The measured time interval (∆𝑡) was 0.05 s. The Manjil earthquake
Kobe earthquake is shown in Figure 14a. In the discrete Fourier transform F( f ) of the excited load of
had 10784, the Superstition Hills earthquake had 4764, and the Kobe earthquake had 9784 data points.
the Manjil earthquake, the sampling frequency ( fs ), the maximum frequency ( fmax ), and the frequency
Therefore, FFT
interval (∆was applied,
f ) were obtainedand
fromtheEquations
analysis(21)
time (𝑇 ) was selected in consideration of the period
to (23).
component of the response and the load, with it duration being longer than that of the excited load.
1 1
fs = = = 200 Hz (21)
dt 0.005
fs 200
fmax = = = 100 Hz (22)
2 2
1 1
∆f = = = 0.018548 Hz (23)
T0 53.915
Next, the complex frequency response function (or compliance) H( f ) was calculated using
Equation (12). The complex frequency response function H( f ) of the Manjil earthquake is shown
in Figure 12b, that of the Superstition Hills earthquake is shown in Figure 13b, and that of the
Kobe earthquake is shown in Figure 14b. The responses of the displacement (Ud ), velocity (Uv ),
and acceleration (Ua ) in the frequency domain were obtained using Equations (24) to (26) by multiplying
the complex frequency response function and the load by the frequency in the frequency domain.

Ud ω j = H ω j F ω j (24)

Uv ω j = iω j Ud ω j (25)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 18 of 25

Ua ω j = −ω2j Ud ω j (26)
The displacement (Ud ), velocity (Uv ), and acceleration (Ua ) responses in the frequency domain
.
were obtained using the discrete Fourier inverse transform of the response (u), velocity u ,
..
and acceleration u in the time domain. The displacement (u) in the time domain was obtained using
the discrete Fourier inverse transformation of Equation (27), the displacement (Ud ) in the frequency
domain was calculated using Equation (24). The displacement (u) in the time domain of the Manjil
earthquake is shown in Figure 12e, that of the Superstition Hills earthquake in Figure 13e, and that of
the Kobe earthquake in Figure 14e.
u(t) = F−1 Ud ( f )

(27)
.
The velocity u in the time domain is determined by the discrete Fourier inverse transformation,
as in Equation (28), and the velocity (Uv ) by the frequency domain estimated using Equation (25).
The displacement (u) in the time domain of the Manjil earthquake is shown in Figure 12d, that of the
Superstition Hills earthquake in Figure 13d, and that of the Kobe earthquake in Figure 14d.
.
u(t) = F−1 Uv ( f )

(28)
..
The acceleration u in the time domain was obtained using the discrete Fourier inverse
transformation in Equation (29) with respect to acceleration (Ua ), and in the frequency domain
..
this was calculated as per Equation (26). The acceleration u in the time domain of the Manjil
earthquake is shown in Figure 12c, that of the Superstition Hills earthquake in Figure 13c, and that of
the Kobe earthquake in Figure 14c.
..
u(t) = F−1 Ua ( f )

(29)
Here, as mentioned in the discrete Fourier transform of the load, before the discrete Fourier
inverse transformation, the response in the frequency domain needs to be made a symmetrical complex
conjugate with respect to fmax on the right and left sides [33].
The damping ratios of high-rise buildings are related to their shape, dimensions, room size,
etc., and these were determined to be 3.5~21.7%, based on room size [38]. The average value, 10%,
was selected for the Method 1; however, the results of Method 1 were not much affected by the damping
ratios. In addition, the baseline drifts were not corrected in Method 1; therefore, the initial value of the
displacement graphs did not start at zero point, meaning that zero padding is required.
3.3.2. Method 2
Figures 15–17 show the results of converting the accelerations of the Manjil, Superstition Hills,
and Kobe earthquakes using Method 2. Method 2 computes the discrete data of the input seismic
waves as the sum of the cosine functions using the cosine Fourier transform. The load magnitude after
the first load and after the end of the measured load are assumed to be zero. There is zero padding.
First, the acceleration (a0 ) in the time domain is prepared and integrated so as to obtain the velocity (v0 )
and the displacement (d0 ). Baseline correction of the initial acceleration (a0 ) was performed using the
1st-order equation. Then, the corrected acceleration (a) was integrated to calculate the new velocity (v)
and the displacement (d). Finally, the displacement (d) was cosine corrected. Using the cosine Fourier
series transform, the discrete input data were calculated as the sum of the cosine functions.
as to obtain the velocity (𝑣 ) and the displacement (𝑑 ). Baseline correction of the initial acceleration
(𝑎 ) was performed using the 1st-order equation. Then, the corrected acceleration (𝑎) was integrated
to calculate the new velocity (𝑣) and the displacement (𝑑). Finally, the displacement (𝑑) was
cosine corrected. Using the cosine Fourier series transform, the discrete input data were calculated as
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 19 of 25
the sum of the cosine functions.
2019, Figure
Appl. Sci.Figure 1,15. Analysis
15.PEER
x FOR
Analysis process for
REVIEW
process for the
the10th-story acceleration
10th-story during the
acceleration Manjilthe
during earthquake
Manjil using Method using 19 of 25
earthquake
2; (a) acceleration; (b) velocity; (c) displacement.
Method 2; (a) acceleration; (b) velocity; (c) displacement.
Figure 16. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration during the Superstition Hills earthquake
using Method 2; (a) acceleration; (b) velocity; (c) displacement.
Figure
Appl. Sci. 2019,16. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration during the Superstition Hills earthquake
9, 1653 20 of 25
Figure 17. Analysis process for the 10th-story acceleration during the Kobe earthquake using
Figure 17. using Method
Method
3.3.3. Method 3
3.3.3. Method 3
Figures 18–20 show the results of converting the accelerations of the Manjil, Superstition Hills,
Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 show the results of converting the accelerations of the Manjil,
and Kobe earthquakes using Method 3. The Butterworth filter is a type of signal processing filter
Superstition Hills, and Kobe earthquakes using Method 3. The Butterworth filter is a type of signal
designed to have a frequency response that is as flat as possible in the passband [11]. It is also
processing filter designed to have a frequency response that is as flat as possible in the passband [11].
used to refer to a maximally flat magnitude filter. It was first described in 1930 by the British
It is also used to refer to a maximally flat magnitude filter. It was first described in 1930 by the British
engineer and physicist, Stephen Butterworth, in his paper entitled “On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers”.
engineer and physicist, Stephen Butterworth, in his paper entitled “On the Theory of Filter
The filter is a 4th-order Butterworth filter design and a high-pass filter that passes through the 0.1 fc
Amplifiers”. The filter is a 4th-order Butterworth filter design and a high-pass filter that passes
section. In addition, fc is 12 of the sample frequency, and is also referred to as the cutoff frequency or
through the 0.1 𝑓 section. In addition, 𝑓 is 1 2 of the sample frequency, and is also referred to as
Nyquist frequecy.
the cutoff frequency or Nyquist frequecy.
The magnitude of the frequency response G(ω) of an n-order Butterworth low-pass filter is given
in terms of the transfer function H (iω) as
2 G20
G2 (ω) = H (iω) = 2n (30)
iω
1+ iωc
where n is the order of the filter, which is 4 in this study; ωc is the cutoff frequency, which in this study
is 0.03; and G0 is the frequency response at a frequency of zero.
3.4. Comparison of Acceleration Data Converted to Velocity and Displacement

Figure 21 compares the displacements at the roof of the tested model, estimated on the basis
of high-speed imaging and analysis, with the displacements obtained based on conversion from
acceleration data. Method 2 (baseline and cosine correction of the acceleration data) and Method 3
(least-square fitting and Butterworth filter) provided analyzed displacements that were closer to those
measured than Method 1 (Penzien filter) did. Method 1 showed a substantial difference from the
actual displacement. The differences between the analyzed and measured results occurred because
Method 1 analyzed the raw data without zero padding, baseline correction or the least-squares method.
The errors of displacement would have accumulated as a result of integrating the acceleration data
twice, as shown in Figure 21. Also, H2 (ω) is a value that reflects the dynamic characteristics of the
Appl. Sci.
The2019, 9, 1653 of the frequency response G(𝜔) of an n-order Butterworth low-pass filter is given
magnitude 21 of 25
in terms of the transfer function 𝐻(𝑖𝜔) as
structure, and can be calculated differently depending on𝐺the mass and stiffness of the structure.
𝐺 (𝜔) = |𝐻(𝑖𝜔)| =
When it is difficult to accurately calculate the stiffness,1the 𝑖𝜔 (30)
+ converted displacement differs from the
𝑖𝜔
actual value. The output of Method 3 depends on the degree of the Butterworth filter and the cutoff
where n As
frequency. shown
is the orderby
ofthe
the National Disaster
filter, which this study; 𝜔 Institute
is 4 in Management (2012)
is the cutoff [15], it is
frequency, necessary
which in this to
study is the
determine and 𝐺
0.03;cutoff is the frequency
frequency based onresponse
the numberat a frequency
of samplesofper
zero.
second.
Figure
Figure Analysis
18. 18. Analysisprocess for the
process for 10th-story acceleration
the 10th-story during
acceleration the Manjil
during earthquake
the Manjil using Method
earthquake using
3: (a) 2nd-order polynomial equation for correcting acceleration; (b) 4th-order Butterworth
Method 3: (a) 2nd-order polynomial equation for correcting acceleration; (b) 4th-order Butterworth high-pass
filter; (c) acceleration;
high-pass (d) velocity;(d)
filter; (c) acceleration; (e)velocity;
displacement.
(e) displacement.
Figure Analysis
19.19.
Figure Analysisprocess forfor
process thethe
10th-story acceleration
10th-story during
acceleration the the
during Superstition Hills
Superstition earthquake
Hills using
earthquake
Method
using 3: (a) 2nd-order
Method polynomial
3: (a) 2nd-order equation for
polynomial correcting
equation acceleration;
for correcting (b) 4th-order
acceleration; (b) Butterworth
4th-order
Butterworth
high-pass filter;high-pass filter; (c)(d)
(c) acceleration; acceleration; (d)displacement.
velocity; (e) velocity; (e) displacement.
using Method 3: (a) 2nd-order polynomial equation for correcting acceleration; (b) 4th-order
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 22 of 25
Butterworth high-pass filter; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity; (e) displacement.
squares method. The errors of displacement would have accumulated as a result of integrating the
acceleration data twice, as shown in Figure 21. Also, 𝐻 (𝜔) is a value that reflects the dynamic
characteristics of the structure, and can be calculated differently depending on the mass and stiffness
of the structure. When it is difficult to accurately calculate the stiffness, the converted displacement
differs from the actual value. The output of Method 3 depends on the degree of the Butterworth filter
Figure Figure
20.cutoff20. Analysis
Analysis process
process for
thethe
forshown 10th-storyacceleration
10th-story acceleration during
duringthethe
Kobe earthquake
Kobe usingusing
earthquake MethodMethod
and the frequency. As by the National Disaster Management Institute (2012) [15], it is
3: (a) 2nd-order polynomial equation for correcting acceleration; (b) 4th-order Butterworth high-pass
3:necessary
(a) 2nd-order polynomial
to determine equation
the cutoff for correcting
frequency based onacceleration;
the number(b) 4th-order
of samples Butterworth
per second. high-pass
filter; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity; (e) displacement.
filter; (c) acceleration; (d) velocity; (e) displacement.
3.4. Comparison of Acceleration Data Converted to Velocity and Displacement

Figure 21 compares the displacements at the roof of the tested model, estimated on the basis of
high-speed imaging and analysis, with the displacements obtained based on conversion from
acceleration data. Method 2 (baseline and cosine correction of the acceleration data) and Method 3
(least-square fitting and Butterworth filter) provided analyzed displacements that were closer to
those measured than Method 1 (Penzien filter) did. Method 1 showed a substantial difference from
the actual displacement. The differences between the analyzed and measured results occurred
because Method 1 analyzed(a)the raw data without zero padding, baseline
(b)
correction or the least-
(c)
Figure 21. Comparison
Comparison of measured displacement
displacement with displacements
displacements converted
converted from acceleration
data: (a)
(a) Manjil
Manjil earthquake;
earthquake; (b)
(b) Superstition
Superstition Hills
Hills earthquake;
earthquake; (c) Kobe earthquake.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this
In this study,
study, the
the shake
shake table
table test
test was
was performed
performed to to verify
verify the
the conversion methods that
conversion methods that were
were
employed totoconvert
employed acceleration
convert data data
acceleration measured in a high-rise
measured building into
in a high-rise velocityinto
building and velocity
displacement
and
data. Then, the displacement obtained by high-speed imaging during the shaking
displacement data. Then, the displacement obtained by high-speed imaging during the shaking table testtable
was
test was compared with the displacement obtained by processing acceleration data. This study
applied three methods for the correction and conversion of acceleration data into velocity and
displacement data. The resulting characteristics and applicability of the conversion methods for
evaluating the diagnosis of high-rise buildings were derived as follows.
Method 1 used the transfer function 𝐻 (𝜔), which reflects the dynamic characteristics of the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 23 of 25
compared with the displacement obtained by processing acceleration data. This study applied three
methods for the correction and conversion of acceleration data into velocity and displacement data.
The resulting characteristics and applicability of the conversion methods for evaluating the diagnosis
of high-rise buildings were derived as follows.
Method 1 used the transfer function H2 (ω), which reflects the dynamic characteristics of the
system. Displacements converted using this method showed the lowest accuracy, because the transfer
function depends on the dynamic characteristics of the structure. Method 1 did not use the zero
padding and baseline correction methods. Therefore, even if discrete Fourier transformation was
employed, there were a lot of differences between the analyzed and measured displacement values
occurring based on a non-fixed starting point and the integration of acceleration.
Method 2 used the cosine Fourier series transform and baseline correction. Discrete input data was
calculated as the sum of the cosine functions. Method 2 used the zero padding and baseline correction
techniques in order to correct the initial value of the displacement. In this way, the accumulated
displacement errors were corrected. Furthermore, even though the cosine correction filter functions in
the time domain, the displacements were very close to the experimental values.
Method 3 used the least-squares fitting in the first step in order to remove the linear drift in the
acceleration, and applied a high-pass Butterworth filter.
Method 3 did not used a zero padding; however, least-square fitting was used as the first filter.
After that, the corrected acceleration data was passed through a Butterworth filter. The first filtered
data was used to make the second filter efficient. Therefore, the analyzed data obtained using Method
3 are also very close to the experimental data.
For this study, there were a number of reasons for which a scale model was implemented: (1) The
researchers had difficulty obtaining real data for a high-rise building; and (2) if the scale building model
was to be used, the conditions and data related to strong-motion would be simplified. However, if the
AVD methods for this study arweree applied to a real high-rise building, the accuracy would decrease.
Furthermore, the techniques adopted for these three methods could be separated and combined
with each other. Based on Methods 1~3, the application and importance of each method is known.
Based on this research, the analytical method for converting acceleration into displacement can be
summarized by the following three steps:
1. First step: A technique is required to establish a fixed point, so that the integration of acceleration
data will not be subject to accumulated errors.
2. Second step: Methods for eliminating baseline drift are also taken into consideration, including
baseline correction filters and least-square fitting. These could be referred to as a first filter.
3. Third step: After these 2 steps, the noise contained in the real data needs to be eliminated.
This step is the most important step. There are many potential second filters, including discrete
Fourier transformation (Method 1), the cosine correction filter (Method 2), and the Butterworth
filter (Method 3).
The displacements converted by Method 2 proved to be the most reliable when compared with
displacements measured in the shaking table test. In addition, it is necessary to further investigate
the limitations and applicability of the conversion methods for the purpose of estimating the reliable
displacement of high-rise buildings.
Author Contributions: H.H., Y.B., and J.K. conceived and designed the analysis and the experiments; S.P. and J.K.
performed the experiment; M.P. analyzed the data; H.H. and M.P. wrote the paper.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Research Council of Science & Technology (NST) grant by
the Korea government (No. CRC-16-02-KICT).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the four anonymous reviewers, whose constructive comments
improved the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653 24 of 25
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Abstract: When diagnosing damage to high-rise buildings during earthquakes, it is necessary to

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1653; doi:10.3390/app9081653 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25

Several previous studies

2. Experimental Setup and Processing Methods

2.1. Shaking Table Test

self-acquisition of the acceleration signal, as well as decision-making according to an embedded

Table 1. Detailed specification of acceleration (iLOG-MEMS-ACC) used in shaking table test.

Equipment Model Name

frames per second, it captures moments that

2.3. AVD Conversion Method

υ(t) = G exp(i$t) (2)

Equation (5) is rearranged as Equation (7).

Rearranging Equation (4), we similarly obtain Equation (8).

The complex constant of Equation (7) can be rewritten as Equation (11).

Then, velocity and displacement are calculated in the frequency domain.

V(ω) = iωAc (ω) (16)

D(ω) = (iω)2 Ac (ω) (17)

d(t) = F−1 D(ω)

Figure 5. Flowchart for the conversion of acceleration data using Method 1.

Figure 6. Flowchart for the conversion of acceleration data using Method 2.

Figure 6. Flowchart for the conversion of acceleration data using Method 2.

Figure 7. Flowchart for conversion of acceleration data in Method 3.

3. Shaking Table Test

(e) (e) (f)

3.3. Conversion Process

T0 = (10784 − 1) × 0.05 sec = 53.915 sec (20)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25

(d) velocity; and (e) displacement.

3.4. Comparison of Acceleration Data Converted to Velocity and Displacement

Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 25

3.4. Comparison of Acceleration Data Converted to Velocity and Displacement

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