Allama Iqbal open university Islamabad

Course code: 6454

Assignment No. 01
Program: Bed 2.5 Science (Autumn 2022)
Name: Sarfaraz Ahmed
Course name: Biology-IV
Roll No/I’D 20BJA00109
Tutor Name: Tanveer Ahmed Sahib

Q.1 Explain Pseudopodia and Amoeboid Locomotion.

Typically, flagellates move through an aqueous medium by the undulatory motions of the
flagella. The waves of movement are generated at the base of the flagellum. The direction
and speed of propulsion and other elements of movement depend on a number of factors,
including the viscosity of the medium, the size of the organism, the amplitude and length of
the waves, the length and exact position of the flagella, and the kind and presence or
absence of flagellar hairs. Some ciliates can move much more rapidly by virtue of having
many though shorter, cilia beating in coordination with each other. The synchronized beat
along the longitudinal ciliary rows produces a metachronal wave. Differences in details
attest to the complexity of the overall process.

Flagella and cilia are also involved in sensory functioning, probably by means of their outer
membranes, which contain different kinds of receptors. Chemoreceptors, for example, can
recognize minute changes in the medium surrounding the organism as well as cues from
presumed mating partners that lead to sexual behaviour.
Pseudopodia

amoeba; pseudopod
In contrast to the swimming movements produced by flagella and cilia, pseudopodia are
responsible for amoeboid movement, a sliding or crawlinglike form of locomotion. The
formation of cytoplasmic projections, or pseudopodia, on the forward edge of the cell,
pulling the cell along, is characteristic of the microscopic unicellular protozoans known
as amoebas. Such movement, however, is not exclusive to the amoebas. Some flagellates,
some apicomplexans, and even some other types of eukaryotic cells make use of amoeboid
movement. Pseudopodia, even more so than flagella and cilia, are widely used in
phagotrophic feeding as well as in locomotion.

There are several different types of pseudopods, including lobopodia, filopodia,

reticulopodia, and axopodia (or actinopodia). The first three of those types are basically
similar and are quite widespread among amoeboids. The fourth type, axopodia, is distinct,
being more complex and characteristic of certain specialized protists. The types, numbers,
shapes, distribution, and actions of pseudopodia are important morphological
considerations.

Lobopodia may be flattened or cylindrical (tubular). Amoeba proteus is probably the best-
known protist possessing lobopodia. Although the precise mechanisms of amoeboid
movement are unresolved, there is general agreement that contraction of the outer,
nongranular layer of cytoplasm (the ectoplasm) causes the forward flow of the inner,
granular layer of cytoplasm (the endoplasm) into the tip of a pseudopod, thus advancing the
whole body of the organism. Actin and myosin microfilaments, adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), calcium ions, and other factors are involved in various stages of this
complex process.

Other pseudopodia found among amoeboids include the filopodia and the reticulopodia. The
filopodia are hyaline, slender, and often branching structures in which contraction of
microfilaments moves the organism’s body along the substrate, even if it is bearing
a relatively heavy test or shell. Reticulopodia are fine threads that may not only branch
but also anastomose to form a dense network, which is particularly useful in entrapping
prey. Microtubules are involved in the mechanism of movement, and the continued
migration of an entire reticulum carries the cell in the same direction. The testaceous, or
shell-bearing, amoebas possess either lobopodia or filopodia, and the often economically
important foraminiferans bear reticulopodia.
Axopodia are much more complex than the other types of pseudopods. They are composed
of an outer layer of flowing cytoplasm that surrounds a central core containing a bundle of
microtubules, which are cross-linked in specific patterns. The outer cytoplasm may bear
extrusible organelles used in capturing prey. Retraction of an axopod is quite rapid in some
forms, although not in others; reextension is generally slow in all protists with axopodia. The
modes of movement of the axopodia often differ; for example, the
marine pelagic organism Sticholonche has axopodia that move like oars, even rotating in
basal sockets reminiscent of oarlocks.
Respiration and nutrition
At the cellular level, the metabolic pathways known for protists are essentially no different
from those found among cells and tissues of other eukaryotes. Thus, the plastids of algal
protists function like the chloroplasts of plants with respect to photosynthesis, and, when
present, the mitochondria function as the site where molecules are broken down to
release chemical energy, carbon dioxide, and water. The basic difference between the
unicellular protists and the tissue- and organ-dependent cells of other eukaryotes lies in the
fact that the former are simultaneously cells and complete organisms. Such microorganisms,
then, must carry out the life-sustaining functions that are generally served by organ systems
within the complex multicellular or multitissued bodies of the other eukaryotes. Many such
functions in the protists are dependent on relatively elaborate architectural adaptations in
the cell. Phagotrophic feeding, for example, requires more complicated processes at the
protist’s cellular level, where no combination of tissues and cells is available to carry
out the ingestion, digestion, and egestion of particulate food matter. On the other hand,
obtaining oxygen in the case of free-living, free-swimming protozoan protists is simpler
than for multicellular eukaryotes because the process requires only the direct diffusion of
oxygen from the surrounding medium.

Although most protists require oxygen (obligate aerobes), there are some that may or must
rely on anaerobic metabolism—for example, parasitic forms inhabiting sites without free
oxygen and some bottom-dwelling (benthic) ciliates that live in the sulfide zone of certain
marine and freshwater sediments. Mitochondria typically are not found in the cytoplasm of
these anaerobes; rather, microbodies called hydrogenosomes or specialized
symbiotic bacteria act as respiratory organelles.
Chlamydomonas
The major modes of nutrition among protists are autotrophy (involving plastids,
photosynthesis, and the organism’s manufacture of its own nutrients from the milieu)
and heterotrophy (the taking in of nutrients). Obligate autotrophy, which requires only a few
inorganic materials and light energy for survival and growth, is characteristic of algal
protists (e.g., Chlamydomonas). Heterotrophy may occur as one of at least two
types: phagotrophy, which is essentially the engulfment of particulate food,
and osmotrophy, the taking in of dissolved nutrients from the medium, often by the method
of pinocytosis. Phagotrophic heterotrophy is seen in many ciliates that seem to require live
prey as organic sources of energy, carbon, nitrogen, vitamins, and growth factors. The food
of free-living phagotrophic protists ranges from other protists to bacteria
to plant and animal material, living or dead. Scavengers are numerous, especially among the
ciliated protozoans; indeed, species of some groups prefer moribund prey. Organisms that
can utilize either or both autotrophy and heterotrophy are said to exhibit mixotrophy. Many
dinoflagellates, for example, exhibit mixotrophy.

Amoeboid movement is the most typical mode of locomotion in adherent eukaryotic cells. It
is a crawling-like type of movement accomplished by protrusion of cytoplasm of
the cell involving the formation of pseudopodia ("false-feet") and posterior uropods. One or
more pseudopodia may be produced at a time depending on the organism, but all amoeboid
movement is characterized by the movement of organisms with an amorphous form that
possess no set motility structures.
Movement occurs when the cytoplasm slides and forms a pseudopodium in front to pull the
cell forward. Some examples of organisms that exhibit this type of locomotion
are amoebae (such as Amoeba proteus and Naegleria gruberi,) and slime molds, as well as
some cells in humans such as leukocytes. Sarcomas, or cancers arising from connective tissue
cells, are particularly adept at amoeboid movement, thus leading to their high rate
of metastasis.
This type of movement has been linked to changes in action potential. While several
hypotheses have been proposed to explain the mechanism of amoeboid movement, its
exact mechanisms are not yet well understood. Assembly and disassembly of actin filaments
in cells may be important to the biochemical and biophysical mechanisms that contribute to
different types of cellular movements in both striated muscle structures and nonmuscle
cells. Polarity gives cells distinct leading and lagging edges through the shifting of proteins
selectively to the poles, and may play an important role in eukaryotic chemotaxis

Q.2 How reproduction take place in Porifera.

Phylum Porifera: Sexual and Asexual Reproducti on in sponges and Regenerati on
in sponges

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN SPONGES

Though some unisexual sponge species are also known, most sponges are monoecious or
bisexual. Although sponges are bisexual (hermaphrodite) cross fertilization occurs as a rule
as the production timing of sperm and ova are
different. The sperm and ova are derived from the undiff erenti ated amoebocytes
called as archaeocytes. The sperm and ova are also known to be derived from
choanocytes which later undergo gametogenesis to form sperm or ova.
Sponges exhibit protandry, production of sperms first and ova late r or protogyny,
production of ova first and sperms later. Both protandry and protogyny facilitate cross
fertilization.

Spermatogenesis
The sperm mother cell or a spermatogonium is the enlarged archaeocytes. This
spermatogonium is surrounded by one or more fl att ened cover cells to form
spermatocyst. These cover cells are derived from other amoebocytes. Now these
spermatogonia undergo two to three maturati on divisions to form spermatocytes
and these spermatocytes later give rise to spermatozoa. A matured spermatozoon
consists of a rounded nucleated head and a tail. The lashing movement of the tail
helps the spermatozoon to reach other sponges.

Oogenesis
The egg mother cell or an oocyte is derived from large archaeocytes which have
disti nct nucleus. Sometimes the oocytes also arise from the choanocytes. This
oocyte moves like an amoebocytes engulfing other cells. These engulfed cells act
as the nursing cells for the oocyte. When fully grown the oocyte undergoes two
maturati on divisions to form ovum which lies in the wall of the radial canal or
spongocoel, ready to be ferti lized by the sperm of other sponge.

Fertilization
Sperms are released out from sponge through the outgoing water from osculum.
The sperms thus releases make their way into another sponge through incoming
water by ostia. Choanocytes act as nurse cells and transport the sperm to the ova
which lie in the fl agellated choanoderm. The ferti lizati on is internal and cross
type.

Development
Early development takes place within the maternal sponge leading to the
formati on of larval stages. The larval stages bear fl agella, which help them to
escape out from the maternal sponge body. The larva thus escaped gets attached
to a suitable substratum, metamorphose and grow into adult sponge. Sponges
have two types of larvae,
Amphiblastula: It is hollow, oval larval stage characteristic of calcareous sponges (Scypha).
Anterior half of amphiblastula bears flagella while the posterior half is free from flagella.
Parenchymula: It is solid, oval or fl att ened larval stage characteristi c of
calcareous sponges, Hexactanellida and most Desmospongia. The entire larva is
covered by flagella.

With the help of external flagella, the motile larvae escapes from the parental
body and swim for a few hours to many days. Finally they settle down, become
attached to some solid object, metamorphose and grow into an adult.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN SPONGES
Asexual reproduction in sponges is by
1. Budding
2. Fission
3. Formation of reduction bodies
4. Formation of gemmules

Budding
By this method the number of individuals in the colony may increase or new
colonies may be formed. An outgrowth from the sponge body wall may arise either
at the base or near the attached end to form bud. This bud is the result of bulging
of pinacoderm to receive numerous archeocytes collected at the internal surface of
the body wall.

The bud so formed grows in size, breaks off an osculum at its free distal end and
thus becomes an adult individual. It either remains attached to the parent sponge
or may get detached to form a new sponge by fixing itself to a suitable
substratum.

Fission
In this type of reproducti on parts of the sponge body are thrown off from the
sponge body. The sponge is hypertrophied over a limited area developing a line
of weakness. Hypertrophy is the non-tumorous enlargement of a tissue or an
organ as a result of the increase in the size rather than the number of consti tuent
cells.
Along this weak line, splitti ng occurs and this part is thrown off. The part of
parental sponge thus thrown off develops into an adult individual, breaks off an
osculum at its free distal end and gets attached to a suitable substratum. This
new individual develops a new colony by budding.

Formation of reduction bodies

It is very unusual method of asexual reproducti on found in sponges. Some fresh
water and marine sponges get disintegrated during adverse conditi ons. During
unfavourable conditions, the sponge collapse leaving small rounded balls called
as reducti on bodies.

Each reduction body consists of internal mass of amoebocytes covered externally

by pinacoderm. When the favourable conditi ons return, each reduction body
develops into a complete new sponge. It gets attached to a suitable substratum and
breaks off an osculum at its free distal end.

Formation of gemmules
Gemmules are internals buds formed within the sponge body. It is the characteristic
feature of all fresh water and some marine forms like Ficula and Tethya. Gemmules
eventually get detached when the parent sponge is decayed.
Gemmules help the sponge to tide over unfavourable conditions. Gemmules can withstand
freezing and considerably greater degree of desiccation than the adult sponges.

A gemmule is a small, round, hard ball consisting of i nternal mass of food laden
archaeocytes surrounded by chitinous double membrane. The outer protective membrane
may be strengthened by siliceous amphidisc spicules (Ephidatia) or by monaxon spicules
(Spongilla).
In autumn fresh water sponges suffering from cold and food scarcity get
disintegrated leaving behind number of gemmules which remain inert throughout
the winter. Gemmules are set free after the decay of the parent sponge. The
gemmules thus formed may sink to the bottom or may flow away with the water . In
spring, when the conditions become suitable, the gemmules begin to hatch.
The living contents of the gemmules escape out through the micropylar opening
and form the new sponge. These new sponge gives rise to summer generati on by
producing spermatozoa and ova. The summer generati on dies off in autumn living
behind gemmules which hatch in spring. The life history of such sponges illustrates
alternati on of generati on.

Q.3 Explain important characteristics of class Turbellaria keeping in view body wall,
locomotion, digestion, nutrition and execution and nervous system.

1. True bilateral symmetry.

2. Dorso-ventral flattening of the body.
3. Unsegmented.
4. Ciliated epidermis.
5. System of sheathed nerve fibers.
6. Parenchyma between the epidermis and the gastrodermis.
7. Some cephalization.
 8. Blind ending gut.
9. Flame cells for excretion.

Turbellarians are mainly free-living and aquatic, but some are terrestial and live in moist,
humid environments. They range in size from a few millimeters to a half meter long. Small
turbellarians use cilia for their propulsive force, and some very small forms swim through
fluid. A lot of energy is used for the production of mucus to lubricate and protect the surface
of the body and to help capture prey. Flatworms have several muscle layers of circular,
longitudinal, diagonal and transverse fibers. Most are hermaphroditic and reproduce
sexually, but assexual reproduction by fission is also possible. They are also capable of
regeneration.

Some Interesting Facts:

 If a flatworm is starved it is capable of shrinking to hatching size and when fed it has
the ability to grow back to original size.
 Temnocephalidae are ectoparasites on the body surfaces of some crustaceans.
They have an adhesive disc and tentacles, but lack cilia.

the external surface of the animal body consisting of ectoderm and mesoderm and enclosing
the body cavity

The nervous system is a control system of the body and is a bit like a computer. The brain is
similar to the software and is responsible for making decisions and the nerves are like the
hardware or wiring that communicates those decisions with the rest of the body.

What does the nervous system do?

The nervous system along with the endocrine (hormonal) system works to control all
activities within the human body. It does this by communicating messages between the
brain and the body very quickly using nerve impulses (action potentials).

The four main functions of the nervous system are:

1. Control of body’s internal environment to maintain ‘homeostasis’

An example of this is the regulation of body temperature. As we exercise we create heat, in
order to maintain a relatively constant core temperature the nervous system sends
messages to the blood vessels to dilate (expand), increasing blood flow to the skin, and
increasing sweating to help disperse the accumulating heat.

2. Programming of spinal cord reflexes

An example of this is the stretch reflex. This reflex functions to protect us from injury. If we
were out jogging and accidentally ran into a pot-hole and rolled our ankle, the stretch reflex
would instantly sense the stretch in the muscles around the ankle and send messages to
those muscles telling them to contract and resist the stretch. This reflex serves to protect the
ankle from breaking and results in a minor sprain rather than a severe break.

3. Memory and learning

You didn’t learn to read or write overnight did you? A certain amount of repetition
was required to learn and memorise these key functions. The same applies with exercise.
New movements, especially complex ones, take time for the nervous system to learn.
Remember this when teaching new exercises to people – a certain amount of repetition will
need to occur before their nervous system gets it right!
4. Voluntary control of movement
Every voluntary movement that a person performs is under the direct control of the nervous
system as the nervous system sends the messages to the particular body parts to move. If
the movement has been repeated numerous times (walking for most of us…) the
movement will be very efficient. If however the movement is new and still requires some
repetition then we would expect the movement to be less efficient and in some cases look
awkward and ungainly (such as a person learning the squat for the first time).

Why is the nervous system important?

The nervous system is integral to our ability to function in

everyway. As we know muscle creates movement by contracting and pulling on our
bones. However it is the nervous system that is responsible for stimulating the muscles and
causing them to contract. Without the neural impulses of the nervous system, muscle would
simply not work.

When someone experiences a severe trauma to their spinal cord, it will often result in
paralysis of their body below the point of trauma. For example if the spinal cord is damaged
above the nerves that stimulate their lower body (legs etc), then they will not be able to walk
again. This is because the messages which are intended for the legs can no longer reach
them. In essence it is like the power cable to your house being cut and the lights going out.

The nervous system is not just responsible for stimulating muscle; it stimulates every tissue
and organ within the body. It is therefore important that you understand the nervous
system so that you can train clients safely and effectively.

The nervous system and fitness

The nervous system and fitness go hand in hand. Completing an activity that you have done
thousands of times like running, learning a new skill such as squatting or simply thinking
about the activity you are about to do all utilise the nervous system.

For example when a client learns a new exercise, such as the dumbbell bench press, you
may find that the movement is quite awkward and difficult for them. This is because their
nervous system is trying to learn something new. However the more they repeat and refine
the same movement the more efficient and smooth it becomes, until it is second nature.

When working with clients, a lot of the initial gains come from improvements in the nervous
system as it learns new movement patterns and becomes more efficient at doing its job. It is
also worth noting however, that if you give a client an exercise that is too advanced for them
they may be deterred from exercising. This is because the experience of not being able to do
the exercise, feeling vulnerable while lifting weights or being excessively sore the next day
may put them off.

Ensuring your client is challenged sufficiently and appropriately to achieve their goals is
fundamental when working in fitness. To help you do this understanding the nervous system
and your clients ability is important. This is because it will help you pick the correct types of
exercise and intensities for clients, as well as know when to progress or regress an exercise.

How is the nervous system organised?

The nervous system has many divisions, each division has their own distinct purpose. The
diagram that follows represents the nervous system and its various divisions, followed by a
explanation of each division.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The structures of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. Their job is to integrate information
coming back from the peripheral nervous system and to respond automatically or make
decisions on actions that should be taken. You can think of the CNS as the ‘head
office’ of the body, it works consciously and subconsciously to control all activities within
the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The structures of the PNS include the cranial nerves (nerves of the head) and spinal nerves.

Their job is to communicate information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Sensory (afferent) division

The sensory (also known as afferent) division of the nervous system contains nerves that
come from the viscera (internal organs) and the somatic areas (muscles, tendons, ligaments,
ears, eyes and skin).

These nerves conduct impulses to the PNS/CNS providing information on what is happening
within and outside the body. The senses include; hearing, sight, touch, and proprioception
(the awareness of where you are in space and what position you’re in).

Motor (efferent) division

The motor (also known as efferent) division of the nervous system contains motor nerves.

These nerves conduct impulses from the CNS and PNS to the muscles, organs and
glands’ effecting what happens in those tissues.
Somatic nervous system
The somatic division of the nervous system contains nerves which end in the skeletal
muscles.

These nerves conduct impulses which control the skeletal muscles in response to a directive
that comes from the brain. This conscious control means we call the activity of this division
‘voluntary’.

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic division of the nervous system contains nerves which end in the viscera
(internal organs). They are therefore called visceral motor nerves.

These nerves conduct impulses which control the heart, lungs, smooth muscle in blood
vessels, digestive tract and glands. These nerves are active without conscious input from the
brain so are said to be ‘involuntary’.

Sympathetic division
The sympathetic division of the nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system. It
works ‘automatically’ to mobilise the body’s systems during activity (for example the fight
or flight response).

If you have ever had a fright and afterward realise your heart is still beating
rapidly, you’re tense and your palms are sweating, then you have experienced the
activity of the sympathetic portion of the autonomic nervous system.
Parasympathetic division
The parasympathetic division of the nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system
as well. It works ‘automatically’ to inhibit or relax the body’s systems. It promotes
digestion and other ‘housekeeping’ functions when the body is at rest. The following
diagram highlights how the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions have different
effects on various organs.

Central Nervous System – what does the brain and spinal cord do?

The brain
The brain is organised into areas responsible for processing information, making decisions
and then carrying out the appropriate task. As you know from the previous section it can do
this consciously and subconsciously. Examples of some of these tasks are:
1. maintaining homeostasis
2. interpreting sensory information
3. creating motor responses (movement)
4. learning
5. thinking
6. talking
By looking at the following diagram you can see that the brain has distinguishable
anatomical divisions that operate simultaneously. Essentially the brain is modular by design,
with each module responsible for a particular function, but the brain also has the ability to
integrate information in a split second between modules.

Q.4 Write important Characteristics of Phylum Rotifera.

Taxonomic History of Phylum Rotifera:
1. Leeuwenhock (1703) first discovered rotifers with his newly invented microscopes.

2. Linnaeus and Lamarck regarded rotifers as protozoa.

3. Ehrenberg (1838) also placed rotifers in a distinct class under Infusoria.

4. But recent workers like Remane and Myers (1933) placed the rotifers under a
separate and independent phylum.

Characteristics of the Phylum Rotifera:

1. Phylum Rotifera are microscopic animals, mainly found in freshwater, rarely in marine or
parasitic.

2. Body wall of Phylum Rotifera generally lacks a cuticle and thickened into stiff plates or
lorica into which the head may retreat.

3. Anterior end with a ciliated organ called corona helps in swimming and feeding.

4. Posterior foot of Phylum Rotifera has two toes; foot with cement glands.

5. Cuticle secreted within epidermis and never moulted.

6. Digestive system with a highly muscular pharynx called mastax lined internally with cuticle
and within mastax is a rigid structure or jaws called trophi used for grasping and grinding
the prey.

7. Pseudocoelomate animals.

8. Eutelic condition is seen in Phylum Rotifera.

9. Excretory organs are protonephridia with flame cells. The protonephridia function in
osmoregulation.

10. Nervous system includes cerebral ganglion with longitudinal nerve cords.

11. Sexes in Phylum Rotifera are separate (gonochoristic).

12. Parthenogenesis is largely present in Phylum Rotifera.

13. Spiral cleavage.

14. No larval stage in the life cycle.

Classification of Phylum Rotifera:

The phylum rotifera is divided into 3 classes:
(i) Seisonidea

(ii) Bdelloidea and

(iii) Monogononta.

Class 1. Seisonidea:
1. Elongated body with reduced corona.

2. Lateral antennae and toes absent.

3. Males fully developed and with little sexual dimorphism.

4. Gonads paired in both sexes.

5. Ovaries without vitellaria.

6. Epizoic marine rotifers.

Example:
Single genus Seison.

Class 2. Bdelloidea (Digononta):

1. Anterior end retractile and usually with two trochal discs.

2. Mastax adapted for grinding with ramate trophi.

3. Cylindrical body with very small forked tail.

4. Ovaries with vitellaria.

5. Males are absent.

6. Parthenogenesis only.

7. Creeping movements by the contractile body.

It includes the following families:

Family Habrotrochidae:
Trochal discs are present. Corona can be retracted into mouth Oviparous.

Example:
Habrotrocha.

Family Philodinidae:
Body is divided into several segments. The foot is retractile. The corona has trochal discs
which look-like two wheels. The members are oviparous or viviparous.

Examples:
Philodina, Rotaria.

Family Adinetidae:
The cilia are not on trochal discs but are on the corona. Rostrum is imperfect. They are
unable to swim.

Example:
Adineta.

Class 3. Monogononta:
1. Females with a single ovary.

2. Males occur in some species.

3. Parthenogenesis common.

4. Sexual dimorphism well-marked.

5. Body either naked or covered with a lorica.

6. Mastax mostly grinding type but not as in the bdelloids.

The class is divided into three orders:

(1) Ploima

(2) Flosculariacea and

(3) Collothecacea.

Order 1. Ploima:
1. The posterior foot with two toes.

2. Body with or without a lorica and sometimes sac-like.

3. The ciliated disc acts as locomotor organ.

4. The tail is usually forked and retractile.

5. Mostly free-swimming.

It includes the following families:

Family Notommatidae:
Cilia may be arranged uniformly on the corona or may form a ring-like around the corona.
Most rotifers are either illoricate or with a fragile lorica. The foot bears two toes. The trophi
is virgate type.

Example:
Scaridium.

Family Synchaetidae:
The conical shaped bodies bear either literal appendages or three to four sensory bristles.
Foot may be present or absent. The trophi is of virgate type.

Examples:
Polyarthra, Synchaeta.

Family Asplanchnidae:
Rotifers are pelagic, flattened sac-like bodies. Corona has only one circumapical plate. Foot is
without toes. The mastax is of incudate type.

Example:
Asplanchna.

Family Brachionidae:
They are freshwater animals and having a broad and flattened body. The foot is ringed with
two toes in some (e.g., Brachionus) but absent in Keratella. The mastax is malleate or
submalleate type. Other examples are Epiphanes, Macrochaetus, etc.

Family Coluridae.

Example:
Colurus.

Family Lecanidae.

Example:
Lecane.

Order 2. Flosculariacea:
1. Some are free swimming and the rest are sessile.

2. Foot is without toes.

3. Many sessile species live in protective tubes.

4. The larger bodies are provided with lobed corona.

Examples:
Lacinularia, Sinantherina, Floscularia, Hexarthra, Testudinella.

Order 3. Collothecacea:
1. They are sessile rotifers with funnel- shaped anterior end.

2. Corona is large and the mouth is situated at its centre.

3. The margin of the infundibular corona is lobed and is provided with long bundles of setae

4. The mastax is of uncinate type.

Examples:
Collotheca, Stephanoceros.

Affinities of Phylum Rotifera:

Since their discovery, rotifers have a very uncertain systematic status. Rotifers exhibit
superficial similarities with many invertebrate groups, namely Arthropoda, Annelida and
Platyhelminthes

A. Affinities with Arthropoda:

Resemblances:
(i) Body covered by a cuticle.

(ii) Superficial metamerism.

(iii) Presence of two jaws (trophi)

(iv) Movable bristle bearing arms of pedalia suggest the appendages of a crustacean larva.

Remark:
As the similarities are superficial, that the relationship can’t be drawn.

B. Affinities with Annelida:

The annelidan relationship of rotifers as advocated by Hatschek (1878) is based on structural
resemblance between Trochophore larva of annelids and a peculiar rotifer, Trochosphaera.
The ciliary girdle, bent intestine and excretory organs of Trochosphaera are similar to the
corresponding parts of trochophore.

Remark:
For the above resemblances Hatschek propounded his famous ‘Trochophore theory’
which proposes that living rotifers are closely related to the ancestral Mollusca, Annelido
and certain other groups. The annelid theory concludes that the rotifers are simply annelids
that have remained in a larval condition.

But this theory fails because Trochosphaera is merely a peculiar rotifer with a modified gir-
dle-type corona.

It is assumed that such similarities are regarded as a case of coincidence without having any
phylogenetic significance.

C. Affinities with Platyhelminthes:

Similarities:
(i) Primitive type of corona may have been derived from a complete or ventral ciliation in
turbellarians.

(ii) Formation of trophi is also common in turbellarians.

(iii) The protonephridial system with flame cells is identical with that of rhabdocoels.

(iv) The retrocerebral organ is probably homologous with the frontal organs of turbellarians.

Dissimilarities:
(i) Presence of an anus in rotifers.

(ii) Lack of sub-epidermal continuous muscles.

(iii) Lack of epidermal nerve plexus.

Q.5 Give a detailed account of maintenance function in

Gastropods. The Gastropod Shell
Gastropods are not only one of the most diverse animal groups, but the morphology of their
shells is extremely varied (Figures 1 and 2). During more than 500 million years of evolution,
they developed shells with various shapes and ornament, ranging in size from about 1 mm
up to more than 1 m (Eocene Campaniloidea, Caenogastropoda). The shell and its ornament
may be broadly linked to the mode of gastropod life (e.g., origin of limpet-shaped shells in
unrelated gastropod groups). Generally, the most ornate shells occur in tropical marine
environments, but freshwater and terrestrial gastropods are often less ornate.
Gastropods
Gastropods represent another diverse group of organisms. To simplify the captive care of
these animals, it is best to separate them into one of two categories: aquatic or terrestrial. It
is important to identify into which group a particular species fits to ensure that they are
provided the most appropriate captive conditions.
Aquatic species of gastropods exhibit a great diversity in size, shape, and habits, but most
can be kept by following the same basic husbandry practices used for other aquatic animals.
The most important aspect of husbandry for aquatic gastropods is the water environment in
which they live. The water parameters important to these animals are the same as those for
other invertebrates and fish—that is, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, pH, hardness, alkalinity, and
temperature. Gastropods should be maintained in systems that have less than 0.1 ppm
ammonia, less than 0.1 ppm nitrite, less than 10 ppm nitrate, a neutral pH, and moderate
alkalinity and hardness. Hardness can be especially important to developing gastropods, as
this is an important source of calcium and magnesium. The water temperature of an aquatic
gastropod aquarium should be based on the animal's natural climate. Temperate species are
more tolerant of temperature fluctuation (e.g., seasonal) and may require a reduction in
temperature for aestivation. Most gastropods can derive sufficient oxygen from a
nonaerated aquarium; however, aeration may be needed in systems with mixed species
(e.g., gastropods and fish) when animal densities are high. Live plants may serve as an
important substrate for some aquatic gastropods, especially for those species that lay their
eggs on plant leaves.
Aquatic gastropods are generally opportunistic feeders. Most species will consume both
animal and plant material. A number of species are detritivore specialists, which endears
them to aquarists, whereas others are plant specialists and are not well liked. Invertebrate
zoology or gastropod biology texts can provide specific foodstuff recommendations for
particular species. Vegetable material, such as romaine lettuce, squash, and zucchini, or
animal material (e.g., frozen-thawed silversides) are appropriate offerings.
Gastropods spend the majority of their time in contact with a fixed surface. Because of this,
any substrate (surface) in an enclosure should be kept clean. Flat surfaces, both horizontal
and vertical, are preferred for gastropod vivaria because they do not impede the movement
of the animals. These surfaces are also easier to clean.
Terrestrial species are easily kept in terraria of different sizes; however, vertical enclosures
are preferable for arboreal species and horizontal cages for terrestrial species. A moist
substrate, such as damp sphagnum moss, should be used to provide moisture and will help
to maintain a relatively high humidity level in the enclosure. The substrate should be
changed periodically to reduce the likelihood of opportunistic pathogens. Gastropods left on
“dirty” substrate are more prone to dermatitis and shell lesions. The frequency of
substrate changes will depend on the number of animals, size of the vivarium, and
frequency and types of food offered. Cork bark can be placed in the enclosure to provide
hiding places for the
animals. Because of gastropods’ ability to climb perpendicular surfaces, a tight-
fitting, solid lid is recommended (e.g., glass top). This will also help to maintain the high
humidity level. Although humidity is important, it is just as important that the air in the
enclosure does not become stagnant. Stagnant air can lead to the overgrowth of certain
pathogens that can affect gastropods. Gastropods are most comfortable and active with
low-intensity lighting. Temperature requirements will vary depending on species; for some
species, temperatures exceeding 23° C (73.4° F) should be avoided. 8 Again, knowledge of
where an animal originates can help a veterinarian determine the most appropriate
temperature range.
The nutritional requirements for most terrestrial gastropods can be met by offering fresh
fruits and dark green, leafy vegetables. These items can be fed to gastropods even if they
have slightly passed their expiration point for human consumption; however, these food
sources can be contaminated with opportunistic pathogens and should be offered only if the
food is properly washed. Terrestrial gastropod diets can be supplemented with limited
amounts of dry dog food, as well. Captive animals should be offered food ad lib, as these
animals can consume large amounts of food on a regular basis.