LESSON 1:

KINDS OF REPORTS

Reports are essential to keep an updated account of an event, situation, and

organization. These are documents that wish to inform, analyze, or recommend.
Reports are often expressed through oral presentations or written. The common
mediums of these reports are speeches, televisions, radios, and films.

Report writing is making a detailed statement about the company, an event,

a situation, and/or an occurrence which is based on an observation, investigations,
and inquiries.

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS REPORTS

Formal Report – is a complex account either written or oral that uses formal
and structured language and is usually applied in major projects and
organizations.

 Informational - presents result, information, and updates and

explains

Examples:
 attendance reports
 annual budget reports
 monthly financial reports 

 Analytical - presents, analyzes, and draws conclusions from

reports and shows the why and the how of an
occurrence

Examples:
 scientific research
 feasibility reports,
 employee appraisals
 Recommendatory- presents recommendation based on the
results and conclusions

Example:
 recommendation report

Informal Report – communicates, updates information using free-flowing,

casual and short formats usually about routines and everyday business
 Examples:
 progress reports
 feasibility report
 literature review
 personnel evaluation
 report on sales

BASIC STRUCTURES OF REPORTS

I. Title page
II. Abstract
III. List of Figures and Tables
IV. Introduction
V. Body (varies according to type of report)
VI. Conclusions
VII. Recommendations
VIII. References
IX. Appendices

LESSON 2:

DESIGNING THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

A survey is a general view, examination, or description of someone or

something. It also refers to looking carefully and thoroughly at (someone or
something), especially to assess them. When you want to do a survey, you need a
questionnaire to help get the information that you need. A good questionnaire
should be valid, reliable, clear, and interesting. When we say,

Valid - it asks what it intends to ask.

Reliable – it gets the same answer if the

same question is posed repeatedly in a
short time.

Clear – it is easily understood.

Interesting – it is completed by the

respondents and gets better response rate

The design of the questionnaire should not be

https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1570335

taken for granted to be able to get accurate data. A bad questionnaire may lead to
wrong conclusions since data collected may not be correct.

Remember these when you create a survey questionnaire:

 Ask the right questions
Use appropriate format
Arrange the questions logically
Design Make instructions clear

Do pilot testing
Detect flaws
Test

Make necessary changes

Improve the questionnaire
Revise

Let us discuss each thoroughly.

DESIGN

 Ask the right questions

Questions may be “close-ended” or “open-ended.” You can use either

depending on the data that you want to get from your respondents.

“Close-ended” questions provide options to the respondents and require them

to choose one or more items from the list. This is used if the range of answers are
well known and the options are limited.

For example: Do you have a computer at home? ___yes ___no

“Open-ended” questions allow the respondent to express their opinions freely

and they are not restricted by the options. This is used if the answer options are
multiple and unknown. The answers to the open-ended questions require re-
grouping before analysis.

For example: What are the reasons why students do not have
computers at home? (You can list one or two reasons)

The options available should be comprehensive so that the respondent can

find an option which best suits his/ her answer. You can include an “Other: please
specify ________” category as one of the options. You can also let them check as
many items as applicable but be sure to mention it in your options.

For example: Why do you want to have a computer? (You can choose
more than one)

I need it for my projects in school.

 I want to play online games.

My friends have computers.

I want to use it for business.

Others: Please specify: ___________________________

For example:

Questions Strongly Agree Neutra Strongly Disagree

agree l disagree
4 1
5 3 2

We should have a computer

at home.

In a questionnaire which has many parts, some of which need not be

answered by the respondent, filtering is used to guide the respondent to answer
only the relevant questions. However, you should avoid using too much filtering as
this may confuse the respondents and make the questionnaire complicated.

For example:

Do you have a computer at home? ___ Yes ___ No

If your answer is no, proceed to question no. 4.

Avoid double-barreled questions. It is a common mistake that refers to asking

two things in one question.

For example: Do you have a computer and a laptop at home?

Avoid ambiguous questions. Be clear and specific in constructing your

question.

 Use Appropriate Format

This is important because the “look” of the questionnaire may decide whether
the respondent is going to fill it up or not.
 The title should be highlighted and should reflect the main objective of the
research. If possible, divide the questionnaire into sections according to the content
(e.g. boxes with bold headings) and it should flow smoothly from one section to
another with appropriate filtering.

If your respondents involve older persons, a bigger font size should be used.
Finally, include a cover letter stating the objective of your study, and your affiliations.
Most importantly, it should include a confidentiality clause. This is to inform your
respondents on how you are going to use the collected information.

Arrange the questions

logically

The order of the questions

should flow in a logical
sequence. Start with simple
questions and move to more
complex questions. You can
start with the demographic
profile like age, address, and
others.

 Make

instructions clear

Instructions should be very clear and introductory comments should be

appropriate. Short instructions help the respondents understand easily and help
them set their mind on answering the questions.

The respondents should be told exactly what is wanted.

 For example:

Place a check mark in the box if you experienced pain on the particular back
or X it doesn’t.

From:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/
Musculoskeletal_survey_Nordic_questionnaire.png

TEST

A pilot test is a crucial step in the design of questionnaire before data

collection begins. It will help detect flaws in the questionnaire in terms of content,
grammar, and format.

You can ask your colleagues, family, or friends to comment on the

questionnaire. By doing so, mistakes in terms of content, grammar, and or format will
be lessened. This should be followed by asking the potential respondents to answer
the questionnaire and provide their feedback. For those questions which you feel
may be confusing or sensitive, it is important to ask the respondents to comment
specifically during the pilot test.

REVISE

You will evaluate for general content, organization, and tone, by adding,
deleting, and organizing information if necessary. When revising, it can be helpful to
answer these questions:

Who is your audience?

Are your objectives enough?

Have you included enough information?

Do you have more information than you need?

Have you chosen the proper words to express your ideas?

Are you wordy, repetitive, or inconsistent?

When you have done all of these, you have crafted a good survey
questionnaire. It does not seem easy at first but when you start doing it, you will find
it very helpful.

LESSON 3:

CONDUCTING THE SURVEYS/ EXPERIMENTS/ OBERVATIONS

How will you conduct your survey?

 You can conduct a survey in many ways. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages. You have to choose well which of the methods
would fit your purpose. Aside from the way it is administered, other factors can also
affect the response rates and results. It is your decision to choose which you will
sure as long as it is appropriate to what you are conducting.

Here are the different methods:

1. Personal Approach

A. Face-to-Face Structured Interview

Pros: When respondents are asked directly, the

response rates are actually good especially if
visual materials are required during the survey.
The researcher can also observe the participants
in this method.

Cons: There might be bias because of the

interaction. There is also no anonymity involved.
This is also not good if the participants live in
different locations.
https://www.needpix.com/photo/489096/interview-job-icon-job-interview-
conversation-business-work-application-recruitment

B. Telephone Survey

Pros: This is applicable for asking consequential

questions. Unlike face-to-face interviews, there is
anonymity in this approach.

Cons: This method is not good if the participants

need to see visual materials and if the questions are
long.

https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-
image.php?image=266255&picture=money-transfer-
banking-icon

2. Self-Administered Approach

A. Paper-and-Pencil Survey

Pros: This is a traditional survey method and this is good

for those who do not know how to use the computer or
access the internet.
 Cons: This requires bigger budget in terms of reproduction. This also involves
distribution of the questionnaires which can be exhausting. The researcher must
also be present during the administration.

https://www.needpix.com/photo/95463/checklist-check-marketing-project-survey-
B. Online Survey tick-pencil-approved-ok

Pros: This is best if the sample size is huge and they live on different locations.
There is less expense compared to mail
survey. There are also survey companies
that can help conduct the survey online with
accuracy.

Cons: The respondents must know how to

use the computer to be able to answer this
method. There might even be incentives to
be given to the respondents.

C. Mail Survey
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Online_Survey_Icon_or_logo.svg

Pros: This method can be easily administered and you

can even review the mails before you send them so that
the visual quality is good. There is also anonymity in this
kind of survey method.

Cons: Mail surveys are less chosen by many because

only a few responses are collected. People also have
more access to the internet so they no longer prefer the
mail survey.
https://www.needpix.com/photo/27007/envelope-mail-letter-communication-message-business-
postal-correspondence-postage

To encourage your respondents to answer and complete the survey,

remember these tips:

1. Follow the KISS principle which stands for “Keep It Short and Simple". Better
response rates are associated with concise, simple, and easy-to-answer survey
questionnaires.
2. Ensure confidentiality (and anonymity, if it applies). Give the participants an
assurance that their answers will be kept confidential and will only be used for the
purpose of the survey.
3. Be professional, courteous and polite. Saying “please", and “thank you" as well as
guiding the respondent politely can motivate the participants to finish the survey.
 In an observational study, the sample population being studied is
measured, or surveyed, as it is.  The researcher observes the subjects and measures
variables, but does not influence the population in any way or attempt to intervene in
the study.   There is no manipulation by the researcher.  Instead, data is simply
gathered and correlations are investigated. Since observational studies do not control
any variable, the results can only allow the researcher to claim association, not
causation (not a cause-and-effect conclusion). Surveys are one form of
an observational study, since the researchers do not influence the outcomes. 

For example:

Is there a correlation between attending a review class and scores achieved on

the Examination for this school year?  In an attempt to investigate this possible
correlation, a group of students who took the Examination are surveyed. The scores
from students who took a review class are compared with the scores of those that
did not take review class.  A statistical analysis is performed on the data. This is an
observational study since the researcher did not manipulate the sample set.

An experimental study has the researcher purposely attempting to influence

the results. The goal is to determine what effect a particular treatment has on the
outcome. Researchers take measurements or surveys of the sample population.  The
researchers then manipulate the sample population in some manner.  After the
manipulation, the researchers re-measure, or re-survey, using the same procedures
to determine if the manipulation possibly changed the measurements. Since variables
are controlled in a designed experiment, the results allow the researcher to
claim causation (a cause-and-effect conclusion).

Here is an example:

Does the color of a basketball influence the number of times a shooter

sinks a basket? A random group of students is chosen and asked to shoot a series
of baskets using a regulation normal-colored basketball.  The data is recorded.
The same group is then given a blue colored basketball and the same number of
shots is repeated. The data is again recorded. A statistical analysis is
performed. This is a designed experimental study since the researcher
manipulated the conditions of the study by changing the color of the ball.

https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/Statistics/STSurveys.html
 You will learn more of this in your research subject where you apply the
observational and experimental study.

LESSON 4:

GATHERING INFORMATION AND SUMMARIZING FINDINGS

It is time to gather the information and summarize your findings. What you
have gathered are now considered as data. Data collection is very important in any
type of research study. (Burchfield,1996), (Tim ,1997), (Matt, 2001).

Data is referred to as a collection of facts, such as values or measurements,

observation or even just descriptions of things. Data can be classified into Primary
and Secondary Data.

Primary data are those that you have collected yourself or the data collected
at source or the data originally collected by individuals, focus groups, and a panel of
respondents specifically set up by the researcher whose opinions may be sought on
specific issues from time to time (Matt, 2001), (Afonja, 2001).

Secondary data research project involves the gathering and/or use of

existing data for which they were originally collected, for example, computerized
database, company records or archives, government publications, industry analysis
offered by the media, information system and computerized or mathematical models
of environmental processes and so on (Tim ,1997), (Matt, 2001)

There are two kinds of data, although not all evaluations will necessarily include
both.

1. Quantitative data are mainly numbers. It refers to the information that is

collected as, or can be translated into, numbers, which can then be
displayed and analyzed mathematically. Quantitative data are Structured
and Unstructured in nature. Structured data can be produced by closed
questions; unstructured data can be produced by open questions.
(Checkland et al 1998), (Matt, 2001), (Burchfield, 1996), (Anyanwu, 2002)

2. Qualitative data is data that is mainly words, sounds or Images. Unlike

numbers or “hard data”, qualitative information tends to be “soft,” meaning
it can’t always be reduced to something definite. That is in some ways a
weakness, but it’s also a strength. A number may tell (Matt, 2001), (Afonja,
2001), (Burchfield, 1996)
 There are many ways of summarizing your findings based from the data you
have collected. It depends on the type of data you collected. The most common is
the tally and frequency table.

Tally marks are often used to make a frequency distribution table. For

example, let’s say you survey a number of families and find out how many gadgets
they own. The results are 3, 0, 1, 4, 4, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3. The
frequency distribution table will make the data easier to understand.

Number of Gadgets Tally Frequency

0 IIII 4

1 IIII-I 6

2 IIII 5

3 III 3

4 II 2

You can also present your data using tables and charts. Pictograph is a way
of showing data using images. Each picture represents a certain frequency.

Month Computers Sold

January

February

March

April

Legend: - 10 computers - 5 computers

Bar graph is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights.

Number of Computers Sold

APRIL

MARCH

FEBRUARY

JANUARY

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Pie graph is a special chart that uses "pie slices" to show relative sizes of data.

Computers Sold

January February March April

There are more ways of summarizing findings. After summarizing your

findings, ask yourself, “What did you learn from the data gathered? What do they
mean?” Analyze and make a generalization about it. Draft a paragraph or two each
finding in your study.  State the finding. Tell the reader how the finding is important or
relevant to your aim and focus.

LESSON 5:

WRITING VARIOUS REPORTS

There are many different types of reports, including business, scientific and
research reports, but the basic steps for writing them are the same. These are:

1. Decide on the 'Terms of reference'

To decide on the terms of reference for your report, read your

instructions and any other information you've been given about the report, and
think about the purpose of the report:

 What is it about? 
 What exactly is needed?
 Why is it needed? 
 When do I need to do it? 
 Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?

2. Decide on the procedure

This means planning your investigation or research, and how you'll

write the report. Ask yourself:
  What information do I need?
 Do I need to do any background reading?
 What articles or documents do I need?
 Do I need to contact the library for assistance?
 Do I need to interview or observe people?
 Do I have to record data?
 How will I go about this?

3. Find the information

Make sure the information you find is relevant and appropriate. Check
the assessment requirements and guidelines and the marking schedule to
make sure you're on the right track. If you're not sure how the marks will be
assigned, contact your teacher.

What you will find out will form the basis, or main body, of your report –
the findings. You have already done this in the previous lessons.

4. Decide on the structure

Reports generally have a similar structure, but some details may differ.
How they differ usually depends on:

 The type of report – if it is a research report, laboratory report, business

report, investigative report, etc.
 How formal the report has to be.
 The length of the report.

Depending on the type of report, the structure can include:

 A title page
 Executive summary
 Contents
 An introduction
 Terms of reference
 Procedure
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 References/Bibliography
 Appendices
 The sections, of a report usually have headings and subheadings,
which are usually numbered
5. Draft the first part of your report

Once you have your structure, write down the headings and start to fill
these in with the information you have gathered so far. By now you should be
able to draft the terms of reference, procedures and findings, and start to work
out what will go in the report’s appendix.

As you are writing your draft decide what information will go in the
appendix. These are used for information that:

 is too long to include in the body of the report, or

 supplements or complements the information in the report. For
example, brochures, spreadsheets or large tables.

6. Analyze your findings and draw conclusions

The conclusion is where you analyze your findings and interpret what
you have found. To do this, read through your findings and ask yourself:

 What have I found?

 What's significant or important about my findings?
 What do my findings suggest?

For example, your conclusion may describe how the information you
collected explains why the situation occurred, what this means for the
organization, and what will happen if the situation continues (or doesn't
continue).

Don’t include any new information in the conclusion.

7. Make recommendations

Recommendations are what you think the solution to the problem is

and/or what you think should happen next. To help you decide what to
recommend:

 Reread your findings and conclusions.

 Think about what you want the person who asked for the report should
to do or not do; what actions should they carry out?
 Check that your recommendations are practical and are based logically
on your conclusions.
 Ensure you include enough detail for the reader to know what needs to
be done and who should do it.

Your recommendations should be written as a numbered list, and

ordered from most to least important.
 8. Draft the executive summary and table of contents

Some reports require an executive summary and/or list of contents.

Even though these two sections come near the beginning of the report you
won't be able to do them until you have finished it, and have your structure
and recommendations finalized.
An executive summary is usually about 100 words long. It tells the
readers what the report is about, and summarize the recommendations.

9. Compile a reference list

This is a list of all the sources you've referred to in the report and uses
APA referencing.

10. Revise your draft report

It is always important to revise your work. Things you need to check

include:

 If you have done what you were asked to do. Check the assignment
question, the instructions/guidelines and the marking schedule to make
sure.
 That the required sections are included, and are in the correct order. 
 That your information is accurate, with no gaps.
 If your argument is logical. Does the information you present support your
conclusions and recommendations?
 That all terms, symbols and abbreviations used have been explained.
 That any diagrams, tables, graphs and illustrations are numbered and
labelled.
 That the formatting is correct, including your numbering and headings are
consistent throughout the report.
 That the report reads well, and your writing is as clear and effective as
possible.

You might need to prepare several drafts before you are satisfied. If
possible, get someone else to check your report.

From: https://www.openpolytechnic.ac.nz/current-students/study-tips-and-techniques/assignments/how-to-write-a-report/

Let us take a look at this sample report:

This is a report made by a maintenance personnel for the head of the

department. This is an example of a very simple and basic report which you would
also make someday when you work. Check whether these have the essential parts.
To: Mr. June A. Cartie Receiver
From: Ms. Maria M. Sabuer Sender
Date: 27 July 2020 Date
Report on Safety Hazards in the School Subject Heading
1. Purpose Reference to the original
You asked me to prepare a report on actual and potential hazards instructions
in the school. I was asked to present my findings by July 27.
2. Procedure What was done to
2.1 I inspected the school campus at three different times of the investigate the topic
day.
2.2. I interviewed the teachers and students in the campus.
2.3. I examined previous reports on the topic
3. Findings What information was
3.1 Electrical hazards discovered
3.1.1 The power plugs in the office do not have protective cover.
3.1.2. Some fluorescent bulbs are no longer functioning.
3.2. Other Hazards
The tiles in the corridor have small cracks. It has already
caused some passers-by to slip. (See accident report form filed
January 12, 2019)
4. Conclusion What the information
4.1. Electrical hazards are easily resolved. suggests.
4.2. The tiles are the only hazards in the corridor.
5. Recommendations Clear and precise list of
5.1. Solve the electrical hazards. Replace what must be changed. suggestions
5.2. Canvass for the replacement of the broken tiles.
References List of References
Actub, A. (2001). Electrical Safety Hazards at J&M Holdings 2001
Safety Reports, 75-80.