QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible
that may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink
writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or photographed; to
maps or plans; to seals, plates, or even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its
plural form, “documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and other written
instruments used to prove a fact.
 Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example (in Medieval Latin “instruction,
or official paper”), OR
 French word “docere”, means to teach.

According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):

1. formal piece of writing
2. object containing information
3. computer file

As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:

1. record information in or on media
2. support a claim with evidence

B. QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
C. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and
are contested either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be
a deed, contract, will, election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form, check
writer, certificates, etc.
D. DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the
document, and strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage,
however, “disputed document” and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to signify a
document that is under special scrutiny.
E. STANDARD a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT - Are condensed and  compact  set  of
authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper, should contain  a  cross  section  of  the
material  from a known source.
"Standard" in questioned documents  investigation,  we mean those things whose origins
are known and  can be  proven  and  which can be legally used  as examples  to compare with
other matters in question. Usually a  standard consist  of the  known handwriting of a person
such  case, "standard"  has  the same meaning as is  understood  by  the word "specimen" of
handwriting.
F. EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known
material. Standard is the older term.
G. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely written and signed by one person;
also known as a holograph. In a number of jurisdictions a holographic will can be probated
without anyone having witnessed its execution.
H. REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to
assist him in answering special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing
specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are frequently maintained.
LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS

A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:

1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G.  119: any written document by which a right is
established or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed  by
person by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or setforth.
3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical embodiment of
information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an X-ray
plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).

B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary  public or  competent public official with
solemnities required  by law.(Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents or its officers having the
authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to
issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private  person without the intervention of a notary
public or  of  any person legally authorized, by which documents, some  disposition or agreement
is proved, evidenced  or  set forth (US vs Orera, 11 Phil. 596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any
Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.

Take Note:

A private document may become a public or official document when it partake the nature of a
public or official record. So if the falsifications committed on such document that is, when it is already a
part of the public record, falsification of public or official document is committed. However, if such pri-
vate document is intended to become a part of the public record, even though falsified prior thereto,
falsification of a public document is committed.

WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on some Supreme Court

Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs.
Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not documents but
are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Documents with questioned signatures.
 2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public with 3
witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted
pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.
a. anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation may be referred to
as addition.

CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results form relating observed facts by logical, common-

sense reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in
legal term is referred to as "opinion".

DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in
order to identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often
referred to as handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter title and
involves other problems than merely the examination of handwriting.

ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an erasure. It maybe
accomplished by either of two means. A chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or
bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator); and an abrasive erasure is where the writing is
effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp with implement.

EXAMINATION - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with
questioned documents, it is the process necessary to discover the facts about them.  Various types are
undertaken, including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultra violet and infra-red
examination.

EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special training or
experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which
is involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information in his particular specialty
in order to assist the court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an
expert witness.

INSERTION  OR  INTERLINEATION  -  The  term  "insertion"  and "interlineations"  include the
addition of writing and  other material  between  lines or paragraphs or  the  addition  of whole page to a
document.
 NON-IDENTITIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text it means that the source or
authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens is different.

OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original invisible to as an
addition.

OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner's conclusion. Actually in Court, he
not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout this
text, opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.

QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability of a document examiner.

Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

REASON FOR QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific Comparison” which

means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification or forgery lies on the availability of
known standards for comparison. After thorough comparison, the following principle of identification
is applied:

“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented

characteristic of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by
mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted for differences, it may be concluded that they
are same in their characteristics attributed to the same cause.”

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration or

obliteration of documents.

Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents said that an intelligent
police investigator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspection of a document with
simple magnifiers and measuring tools.

B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused in determining the author of writing.

It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.

FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

1. examination of signatures and initials
2. examination of anonymous letters
3. hand printing examination
B. Examination of Typewritings and typeprints.
C. Examination of Inks
D. Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
1.Detection of alteration
 2.Decipherment of erased writings
3.Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

A. VALUE -
1. In the commission of a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one or more
documents in furtherance of his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is an integral part of the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against government, documents often play an important part in
proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual may show that:
a. He committed the crime.
b. He had knowledge of the crime.
c. He was present in a certain locality at a specified time.

B. PURPOSE - A document may be examined to know the following:

a. Identity of the author.
b. True contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures which have been made.
e. Authenticity of the document.

THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS: to select "QUESTIONED", "DENIED" or "ADMITTED",

"AUTHENTIC", and "DOUBTFUL" documents.

1. Concerning the Document in Questioned.

a. Is only one signature in questioned?
b. Is any part of the document in question?
c. Is the date of the document in questioned?
d. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in questioned? Etc.

2. Regarding the Standards:

a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for comparison
submitted. If there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
b. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can be built for
admitting them in evidence.
 B. SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS: Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances, conditions,
technical problems and the like.
1. The examiner after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the
circumstances of the document in questioned, the condition of an alleged writer, or of any
condition that may have affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part of the
technical problem with the document that is submitted to the expert.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such as; was
the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting on bed, lying on his
back or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a moving automobile or while
having a drink at the bar.

C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE:

1. How much time is needed for the examination?
2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make special
photo-enlargements for proper examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it advisable to do
so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion is
based, especially in Court.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Analysis (Recognition) - properties or characteristics, observed or measured.

B. Comparison  -  Properties or characteristics  of  the  unknown determined  thought  analysis  are
now  compared  with  the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain
value for identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence.  The weight or significance of
each must therefore be considered.

The criteria of scientific examination of documents are:

A. Accuracy – correspondence between results obtained and the truth.

B. Precision – measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or experimentation.

“In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic facts and then reason carefully
and logically from these facts according to established and recognized rules in order to form an
opinion or conclusion as to whether a questioned signature/handwriting is genuine or forged”

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

It is the initial examination conducted on a document to determine whether it is genuine or not. It

is not a misnomer, for in reality it consists of painstaking analysis more than looking at a document and
expressing an off-hand opinion.

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED

DOCUMENT:
1. ensures preparedness;
2. avoidance of delay; and
 3. ensures success of the case.

B. Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of questioned

documents. Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the signature of
other writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Is the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and alterations/substitutions of
any kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted
light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs or pages written on a different
typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size, position, and arrangement of
matters with original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing and opening of
envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed above the
paper examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal and is it made
in proper sequence?

C. Who Conducts the Preliminary Examination? – It should be conducted by a QUESTIONED

DOCUMENT EXPERT.

D. Who is a Questioned Document Expert? A Questioned Document Expert is one who has:
1. Attained the appropriate education and training;
2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document examinations;
and
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.

E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. Assurance of preparedness;
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently, they do not
possess the knowledge of the documents expert's ability of the various methods that exist for
determining forgeries.
 3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.

F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not based
on thorough scientific examination.

G.THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS - It has happened in some cases that an off-hand
opinion, has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer was given a chance to escape.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

A. MAGNIFYING LENS – Bank personnel and other people involved in currency examinations
usually use and ordinary hand-lens; the maximum diameter of which is four inches, and this
appears big with its wide frame it has a magnifying power of two times the original only.
Magnifying lenses of five times or more magnifying power, with built-in-lighting are more useful.
B. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, usually of the hands, upon a
rightful surface or screen.
C. STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is
possible.
D. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) – those used for signatures and
typewritings.
E. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck Lamps) – used for controlled
illumination; needed in sidelight examination wherein light is placed at a low-angle in a position
oblique to plane or document.
F. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device where light comes from beneath or behind glass
on document is placed.
G. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP – this is usually used in the detection of counterfeited bills but can
actually be used to detect security features of qualified documents.
H. INFRARED VIEWER – primarily used to decipher writings in a charred document.
I. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.

TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examination or study which is made with the

microscope in order to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low and
high power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in signature
analysis. With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in the decipherment of erasures,
some minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye and the sequence of entries
done by different writing instruments.

B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – In this examination, the document is viewed with

the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper. Documents
are subjected to this type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching
of serrations and some other types of alterations.

C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - An examination with the illumination so controlled that it

grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle. Decipherment of
faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed impressions, etc. are
subjected to this type of examination.

D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION - This type of examination is very essential in every

document examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.
 E. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION - Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave
lengths just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow).  These visible rays react on
some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as FLOURESCENCE. This
type of examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a
maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-violet light should be to the
minimum duration in order to avoid fading of some writing ink and typewriter ribbon.

F. INFRARED EXAMINATION - This examination of documents employs invisible radiation

beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a specially
sensitized photographic emulsion.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN QDE:

1. serve as record of the initial condition of a disputed document;

2. make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. enlarge a writing in question so that every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly and
properly interpreted whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery;
4. enable any number of accurate reproductions of document, thus affording unlimited opportunity
for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners, which would not be
possible by using the document alone;
5. allow cutting apart as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparisons;
6. can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes, which
may otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted;
7. can show very clearly any erasures by abrasions made by ordinary rubber eraser and it can
record in permanent form with the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens and plate and
inclined at just right angle of reflection so as to show differences in the reflected light from
different portions of the paper surface; and

8. with transmitted light, photographs is useful in:

a. examination of watermarks
b. determining the identity, or the differences in paper by showing arrangement of the fibers
and the markings of the wire gauze and dandy roll
c. showing the continuity of strokes and
d. determining retouching or patching of a writing by showing clearly the presence of added
ink film and the uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS

A. ERASURES - One of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not an erasure
was actually made on a document. In cases like this, the following examinations are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with light striking the surface at a sharp
angle, and observation under the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in most instances not the slightest
semblance of a stain remains.

B. INDENTED WRITING - Indented writing is a term usually applied to the partially visible
depressions appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the visible writing appears.
These depressions or indentation are due to the application of pressure on the writing instrument
 and would appear as a carbon copy if a sheet of carbon paper had been properly inserted.
Indentation may also appear on a blank sheet of paper if such is used as a backing sheet while
typing out a message on a typewriter. Methods of examination are:
1. Physical methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost
horizontally over the surface of the paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the document.

C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER - A piece of paper maybe subjected to the action of a limited
amount of heat, causing it to become scorched and retaining a certain amount of its identity or it
maybe subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and losing its identity. However, if the
combustion is incomplete, a certain amount of success maybe realized provided the pieces are large
enough to form a coherent message.

The following methods maybe applied to decipher the original message contained thereon:

1.Photographic methods, using various types of filters and different angles of illumination may
determine the writing contained thereon without changing the appearance of the charred
fragments.
2.Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing charred pieces with solutions of
different chemical reagents.
3.Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred paper to remain in contact with the
emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two weeks.

D. ADDING MACHINES - The construction of an adding machine differs greatly from the
typewriter but the methods and principles of identification are related.

Manufacturers use different types of numerals and from time to time change their design. The
spacing between columns is also not standardized for all machines. Those factors form the basis of
determining the make of the machine and for estimating the period in which it was built. Another kind of
approach is the ribbon impression, for the ribbon is made and operates very similarly to the typewriter.

HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed and deposited in court or  with
the  attorney, in order to  maintain  its original condition,  it  should be kept UNFOLDED AND
IN  A  SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER. This is true not only for the
disputed documents, but for many other important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right  after  the document becomes disputed, or questioned, it is
important to make not only the usual photo static copy (Xerox),  but also a proper photograph or
photo-enlargement, done if possible  by the document expert or under the supervision  of  the
document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often necessary  for the lawyer or court to
handle repeatedly  the disputed  document.  Should this be necessary, instead of handling and
working with the original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document, can change the
physical condition of the case.  For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create
 smearing in the ink, pointing with a pencil can leave marks that create a suspicion of previous
pencil marks, or experiments as proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, can cause slight damage
which although it can not be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks under the
microscope or on the enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the old-fashioned
ink test, which was used to determine the age of the ink-writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of a chemist, or in
court, or in front of both parties involved the case.

B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

1. “DO’S”
a. Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at the First Opportunity.
b. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelope or
evidence preserver.

2. “DONT’S”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps, sticker, write
on, or otherwise alter any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case on grounds of
interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long time.
e. Do not  marked  disputed  documents  (either  by   consciously writing instruments or
dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching for
filing purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests; do no treat or
dust for latent finger prints before consulting a document examiner.

C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS

1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and transporting them to the
laboratory requires extra-ordinary care. With forethought and caution they can be brought from
the distant fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found whenever possible. When
the fragments are not packed tightly, they should be padded with lightweight absorbent cotton. If
jarring can not be entirely eliminated jarring the box must be kept to a minimum.
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling and transporting the charred residue in order to
prevent the large pieces from becoming unnecessarily and badly broken. The fragment must be
held firmly without crushing and prevent movement or shifting when finally packed in a sturdy
container.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as whole,

combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued
painstaking effort. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:

A. Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

B. Script – separated or printed writing.
C. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.

II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. In Wignore's Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily

movement which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed
mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of these
muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts
stimulated by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other person
cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from the habit of the
first writer.

Take Note:

Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”?

In the hand of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by means of
handwriting/signature is certain. Proper conditions include:
1. sufficient questioned writing
2. sufficient known writing
3. sufficient time
4. use of scientific instruments

III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper, the
directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the nature of tie writer's nervous
organization occur during the act or writing. This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible
for the finger movement involved in handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes
diseased as in a graphic, one loses the ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen
or pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be
said to emanate from its cortical center.

Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:

1. extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes

2. flex muscles which push the pen to from the downward strokes.

Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing - those which operate the
joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in
writing work together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.
IV. VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING

A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the hand does
not always produce a stereotyped duplicate of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of
precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform. The
greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there will be in the form of individualize
letters as well as in the writing as a whole.

CAUSES OF VARIATION

1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.

2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation's, emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter - all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of a
different position, especially in combination with another and particular letter, may modify any
of them in some way or another.

IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION

1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important
element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its extent.
It becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly
duplicated in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible and this
multitude of possible variations when combined is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral spacing
and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in
superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care given to the act, design, slant, shading,
vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.

Take Note: “The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to the fact that
the evidence of actual forgery is executed on the ground that there is variation in genuine writing.”

V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.

2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
4. In the course of trial and error, modification are made, simplification and elaborations, addition
and omissions occur.
a. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviation from the
standard letter forms or school model, and becomes his personal habits.
b. Although  thousands  learn the same system and that  the  natural result  is identity, but facts
show that it is not because  those who  were  taught  the same system or school copy  a
class  of writers, but such impairs does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity.
c. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues until each writer in the way that
seems best and easiest to him.

VI. SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) - refers to the standard of handwriting instruction
taught in particular school. Classes of copybook depend on the standard school copy adopted by a
writer.
 A. SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting

1. Old English round hand - an Italian hand popular in 1840.

2. Modified round hand - early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and Scribners
copybook - 1840 -1860.
3. Spencerian - there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And a general
tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were very ornate -
1860-1890.
4. Modern Vertical writing 1890-1900
5. The arm movement writing - the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone is
especially emphasized.

Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems developed.
This is characterized by free movement.  And the forms adopted are best suited to easy rapid writing.
These are the Zaner and Blozer system of arm movement writing and the Palmer system of American arm
movement. The last great revolution in American handwriting was the adoption of vertical writing which
was in fact a reversion to the old system of slow but legible writing. The connecting stroke is based on
the small circle and is the most distinctive "round hand" ever devised. It was very slow compared with
writing based on the narrow ellipse like the Spencerian in which all connections were almost points
instead of broad curves. Most commercial handwritings tend toward straight connecting strokes and
narrow connections.

B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

1. Palmer Copybook
2. D’Nealian Copybook
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook

C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis in the

Identification of Handwriting

1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual form or what are
termed deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such
similarities exist only in letters which are normal in form, the fact bears no significance.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class or genus or the difference that
does not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of writing have an important
bearing on the question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases, the presence of European
characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.

D. IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System of Writing)

1. To the nationality of the writer.

2. To the system learned.
3. To the date when the writing was acquired and
4. To some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND
EXAMINATIONS

ALIGNMENT - Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of individual letters in words
to the baseline. It is the alignment of words or the relative alignment of letters.

ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and changing
direction before continuing.

ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the bottom.

CHARACTERISTICS - any property or mark which distinguishes and in document examination

commonly called to as the identifying details.

COLLATION - side by side comparison; collation as used in this text means the critical comparison
on side by side examination.

COMPARISON - the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental  act in which the element of one item are
related to the  counterparts of the other.

DISGUISED WRITING - A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes of
hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised writing.

DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.

FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is copybook,
elaborated, simplified or printed.

GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the bottom.

GESTALT – The German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good gestalt needs nothing
added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting analysis that looks at
handwriting as a whole picture.

GRAPHOANALYSIS - the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental strokes, the curve
and the straight strokes.

GRAPHOMETRY - analysis by comparison and measurement.

GRAPHOLOGY - the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person from the
study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of handwriting, especially with
reference to forgeries and questioned documents.

HANDLETTERING. Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately;
also called handprinting.

LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.

LINE DIRECTION – Movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight across the page.
LINE QUALITY - the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending strokes.
There are two classes: Good Line quality and Poor Line quality. The visible records in the written
stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding the writing instrument is characterized by the
term "line quality". It is derived from a combination of actors including writing skill, speed rhythm,
freedom of movements, shading and pen position.

LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.

MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of

writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to write.

MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any study or examination which is made with the microscope
in other to discover minute details.

MOVEMENT – It is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors which are
related to the motion of the writing instrument skill, speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis,
tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is move that is by finger, hand,
forearm or whole arm.

NATURAL WRITING - Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control
or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or execution.

NATURAL VARIATION - These are normal or usual deviations found   between repeated
specimens   of any individual handwriting.

PEN EMPHASIS - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against   the paper surfaces.  When the
pen-point   has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more rigid  writing points  heavy
point emphasis  can  occur  in writing w/out any evidence of shading; the act intermittently forcing
the pen  against  the paper with increase pressure.

PEN HOLD – The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which he holds
it.

PEN POSITION - relationship between the pen point and the paper.

PEN PRESSURE - the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen pressure as
opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of average force involved in the writing rather than the
period increases.

PRINTSCRIPT – A creative combination of printing and cursive writing.

PROPORTION or RATIO - the relation between the tall and the short letter is referred as to the
ratio of writing.

QUALITY. A distinct or peculiar character. Also, “quality” is used in describing handwriting to

refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.
RHYTHM – The element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the flourishing
succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity, alternation of movement.

SHADING - Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
the use of a stub pen.

SIGNIFCANT WRITING HABIT – Any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently

uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.

SIMPLIFICATION – Eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.

SIZE – May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.

SKILL - In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of handwriting
usually contains evidence of the writer's proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a write proficiency.

SLOPE/SLANT - the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline. There are
three classes: Slant to the left; Slant to the right; and Vertical Slant.

SPEED OF WRITING - The personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper.

SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING - Not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of the
speed of writing may be a significant identifying element. Writing speed cannot be measured pre-
cisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate, or rapid.

SYSTEM (OF WRITING) - The combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through use diverges from the
system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training.

TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of relaxation.

THREADY FORM – An indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy.

VARIABILITY – The degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.

VARIATION – The act or process of changing.

WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.

WRITING CONDITION – Both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and the
factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It includes the writer’s
position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the writing instrument;
writing ability may be modified by the condition of the writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of
intoxication.

WRONG-HANDED WRITING. Any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally used;
a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand.” It is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a right-
handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the common terminology for
this class of disguise as "left-hand writing".
 WRITING IMPULSE – The result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving across the
page, until it is raised from the paper.

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING

A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion.
Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as the
center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting. i.e., blackboard writing.

B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid

C. SPEED - Slow and drawn; Deliberate; average; and rapid

D. DIFFERENT MOVEMENTS EMPLOYED AFFECT WRITING IN – Smoothness; Directness;

Uniformity; Continuity of strokes; and Connecting or curves between letters

MOTOR COORDINATION

It is the special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to produced
written forms.

The Characteristics of Motor Coordination are:

1. Free, smelt rounded curves

2. Speed and gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
4. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas in writing
produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the shading often has a "bunchy"
appearance, in which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.

Faulty motor coordination’s are characterized by the following:

1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady progress. There is no
freedom of movement along the strokes of the letter-forms. The writing is obviously very slow
and is typical of the writing of a young child or for any one who painstakingly draws a picture of
an unfamiliar form.
2. Angular Line - a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small are not smoothly
rounded and there is no gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle marks almost
 every change are direction in the line.  Investigation has disclosed that angles are accompanied by
a lessening of writing speed.

RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING

Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in full coordination. This is

manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes, which increase and decrease in which like perfect cones.
Pressure is always in a state of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.

A. LACK OF RHYTHM - Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly directed

and disconnected motions.

B. IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM - By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can
determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with hesitation as if he is attempting to
for another signature.

C. LETTER OF CONNECTIONS - Determine the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a

mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by connection letters to one
another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and downward strokes. These types of
connections are:

Arcade - a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of connection resulting from
controlled movements.
Garland - Links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a flowing curve swinging from left
t right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
Angular connective form- When the downward strokes and upward strokes meet directly,
angular connection is formed.  This type of connection imposes a check on the continuity of
movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each turning point.
The threadlike connective form - the joining of downward and upward strokes is slurred to a
threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom produce a double curve.
These forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.

HANDWRITING STROKE

STROKE is a series of lines or curves written in a single letter; one of the lines of an alphabet or
series of lines or curves within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.

1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. ARCH - any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches.
3. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. BASELINE - maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing; is the
ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
5. BEADED - Preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters.
6. BEARD - is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. BLUNT - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation).
8. BODY - The main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes, terminal strokes and the
diacritic, of any.  Ex: the oval of the letter "O" is the body, minus the downward stroke and the
loop.
9. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into "O".
 10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT - A loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in
small letter "k & b", or in capital letters "A", "K","P"; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often
used to complete a letter.
11. CACOGRAPHY - a bad writing.
12. CALLIGRAPHY - the art of beautiful writing.
13. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
14. DIACRITIC - "t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j".  The matters of the Indian script are
also known as diacritic signs; an element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a
dot.
15. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE - the end stroke of a letter.
16. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP - a small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur
inside the oval of the letters "a, d, o"; the small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent
direction as in small letters.
17. FOOT - lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter "m" has three feet, and the
small letter "n" has two feet.
18. HABITS - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing.
19. HESITATION - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when writing
slows down or stop while the pen take a stock of the position.
20. HIATUS/PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen. Such
as occurrence usually occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen
lift distinguish in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and  appear in the writing.
21. HOOK - It is a minute curve or a ankle which often occurs at the end of the terminal strokes. It
also sometimes occurs at the beginning of an initial stroke. The  terminal curves  of the letters
"a", "d", "n", "m", "p", "u", is the hook. In small letter "w" the initial curve is the hook; the
minute involuntary talon like formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke or the
end terminal stroke.
22. HUMP - Upper portion of its letter "m","n","h" ,"k" - the rounded outside of the top of the bend
stroke  or curve in small letter.
23. KNOB -the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of
the pen from the paper (usually applicable to fountain pen).
24. LIGATURE/CONNECTION - The stroke which connects two stroke of letter; characterized by
connected stroke between letters.
25. LONG LETTER - those letters with both upper and lower loops.
26. LOOP - A oblong curve such as found on the small letter "f", "g", "l" and letters stroke "f" has
two. A loop may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the
open space.
27. MAJUSCULE - a capital letter.
28. MINUSCULE - a small letter.
29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES - this refer to the continuity of stroke, forged writing is usually
produced by disconnected and broken movements and more motion or movement impulses
than in genuine writing.
30. PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. Careful
patching is common defect on forgeries.

Take Note:

1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the same
direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing action.
 3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES - The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is
referred to as their sequence.
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially covering the previous down strokes. Originally
taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school o handwriting analysis that assigns personality trait manners to
individual writing strokes.

QUALITIES OF THE STROKES

1. Expansion - whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both
vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination - whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky,
continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed - whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been steady or
variable.
4. Pressure- whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and downward reach.
5. Direction-  Left ward and right ward trend of they movement and its upward and downward
reach.
6. Rhythm - in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain similar phases recur
at more or less regular intervals.

HANDWRITING PROBLEMS

1. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality is genuine  and corresponds

perfectly to  the  ordinary,  and habitual signatures of that person.
2. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written  by him but in a
way which was different  from  the ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the
common genuine signatures of that person.
3. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by a third person and
which is a forgery written in an attempted imitation of a model.
4. A spurious signature/handwriting written by somebody who did not attempt to imitate the
signature of a person and who uses a fictitious name and this to give his work the appearance of a
signature.
5. An uncontested signature/handwriting, in fact, genuine but written by an unknown person whose
name must be deciphered by the document examiner.

GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING

1. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to discard one’s own writing and
assume the exact writing personality of another person.
2. Those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to hide his own personality
without adapting that of another.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Writing Habits - Writing by all its thousand of peculiarities in combination is the most personal
and individuals thing that a man does that leaves a record which can be seen and studies. This is what
constitutes individuality in handwriting.
 A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These  characteristics  refer to those habits  are
part  of basic writing system or which are modifications of the system of writing found among so
large a group of writes that  have  only slight identification value.

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which are the result of the writer's
muscular control, coordination, age, health, and nervous temperament, frequency of writing,
personality and character. They are found in Writing movement, Form and design of letters, Motor
Coordination, Shading, Skill, Alignment, Pen pressure, Connection, Pen hold, Rhythm,
Disconnections or pen lifts between letters, Speed, Slant as a writing habit, Proportion of letters as
an individual characteristic or habit, Quality of stroke or line quality, Variation and Muscular
control or motor control -
a. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of
regulation. This is noticed especially in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements.  It gives you the
impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty.  This writing is small. There is
distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.

Indications of speed (speedy) writing

a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c. Marked uncertainty as to the location of the dots of small letters "I", "j" & crosses of small
letter "t".
d. Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected with the following words.
e. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.
f. Wide writing - width of letters is greater than the connecting spaces adjoining it.
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down strokes.
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.

Indications of slow writing

a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small letters "I","j","or "t" crosses with
scarcely perceptible deviation from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters and retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke
h. Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines

C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

1. Ordinary copy-book form
2. Usual systematic slant
3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
4. Conventional spacing

D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Permanent characteristics - found always in his handwriting.
 2. Common or usual - found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
3. Occasional - found occasionally in his handwriting.
4. Rare - special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one hun-
dred individuals.

E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by education,
by environment and by occupation.

F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of Greek "e"

PRINCIPLE IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination of corresponding or similar and
specifically oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the
possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are no unaccounted for difference,
it may be concluded that they are similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one
and the same person.
2. Handwritings are fixed habits.
3. These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and unconscious that even by the
most strenuous effort, it is almost impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of
human habits.
4. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals.

CORRECT CONCLUSION

1. To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the same hand, characteristics or "dents"
and scratches" should be in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence; to
reach the conclusion that writings are by different hands, we may find numerous likeliness in
class characteristics but divergences in individual characteristics or we may find divergences in
both but the divergence must be something more than mere superficial differences.
2. If the conclusion of identifying is reached, there must not remain significant differences that
cannot reasonably be explained. This ignoring of the differences or the failure properly to
account for them is the cause of the errors in handwriting identification.
3. Although there is no specific approach, the document examiner always observed: Analysis;
Comparison; and Evaluation.
POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING (Anonymous, threat, poison
letters)

1. Uniformity- Does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing appearance?
2. Irregularities  - Does the questioned writing appear  awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn
3. Size & Proportion- Determine the height of the over-all writing as well as the height of
the individual strokes in proportion to each other.
4. Alignment - Are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
5. Spacing - Determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between words. Width of the
left and right margins, paragraph indentations.
6. Degree of Slant- Are they uniform or not.
7. Formation and Design of the letters, "t" (-) bars, "i" dots, loops, circle formation.
8. Initial, connecting and final strokes.

HANDPRINTING

The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive handwriting. In block capital
and manuscript writings, personal individual rests principally in design, selection, individual letter
construction, size ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting examination is to
determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were accomplished with:

1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a

measure or skill in handwriting of conversely.
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or
disguise in the subject’s handwriting.

STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS

STANDARD - They are known writings, which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests
fixed habits in his writings that identify him.  This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion
regarding any writing identification problem.

EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term
standards is  a general  term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while  exemplars  refers
more especially to a  specimens  of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or  request for
comparison with the questioned writing.

SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text,
the term "sample" follows closely the statistical usage.

TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"

1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as  signature  and
endorsements  on  canceled checks,  legal papers letters, commercial, official,  public and private
document and other handwriting such as  letters, memoranda,  etc. Written in the course of
daily life, both business and socials.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an
individual upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or for specimen
purposes.
3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have
come into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.
TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST
COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual case.
2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in questioned:
a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both victim and suspect's (as much
standards writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) - at least 3 writings by the
suspect/s and in some instanced by the victim.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL

TYPES OF QUESTIONED-DOCUMENT PROBLEMS

1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned writings,
lie; paper should be same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document:  if questioned
document is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no
assistance in spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will produce the
subject  natural writing habits.  
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in consequence, date, time and
identify by initiating each, and request subjects to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and whether subjects
appears to be normally right or left handed, etc.

SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE

CHECKS FORGERY IS CHANGED OR SUSPECTED

1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned check/s.

2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a. Date - Same as shown on questioned check
b. Payee - - do -
c. Amount- - do -
d. Signature- - do -
e. Any other handwriting shown on questioned check
3. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.

MISCELLANEOUS

1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and physical condition of the time
standards are written.
2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handle questioned documents with care.
3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature of writer as well as witness of
the handwriting.

SOME SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1. Canceled Checks
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.
3. Credit applications and cards
 4. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and purchase slips.
5. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings, divorce
papers. Probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, etc.
6. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
7. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications
8. Application   for gas, electricity, water and   telephone services
9. Loan application and receipts
10. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop
11. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
12. Barangay registration, petitions
13. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
14. Church, club and professional society record
15. Veteran records
16. Fingerprint records
17. School or University class records and cards
18. Application for firearm and licenses
19. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
20. ID cards

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS?

Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards

A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN

B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get
hand printed standard or exemplar.
C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the standards writing standard signatures or writing
must be those written five (5) years before or five (5) after the date of the questioned signature or
writing.

The importances of contemporaneous standards are:

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s handwriting or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation

D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE
PREPARED. Look for standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested
on the knee; standing; sitting; lying down; and/or while on moving vehicle.

E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of the

questioned document must be obtained in the standards

HANDWRITINGS/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems are

complicated and harder to solve that includes:

Type of Signature Remedy (Required Standards)

1. Signature of the careless or highly erratic Collected standards
writer.
2. Receipt Signature. Other receipt signatures
3. Near - Illiterate Writer. Requested standards if writer is still living
4. Signatures of Physical Impaired Writer a. Collect standards written in the same
a. The intoxicated signature situation
 b. Old age deterioration
c. The sick bed signature.
5. Disguised signature or writing
b. Collect 2 or 3 times more standards
c. Similar to old age deterioration
Specimen written in normal condition
could not be used therefore consider
collected and requested standards.

DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING

A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing.
2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in a single signature).
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.

B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice-versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one's handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS - Intoxication affects the physiological being of an

individual hence, the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING - Bizarre letter forms,
Greatly enlarged writing, Illegible forms and writing generally, Uneven baseline, Meaningless
blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing, Inconsistency in slant of writing, Inconsistency in the
form of repeated letters.

ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS

The following are standard writings which are admissible for comparison purposes:

Standard writings witnessed, Standards writings admitted, Record  Maintained in Regular Course of
Business as Standard Writings, Government Document as standard Writings, Ancient writings, Other
Writings Standards - Among writings admissible as standard are signature on spelling motion or other
instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may without further proof of genuineness be used as a
standard. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings.

Take Note
 Opinion  Evidence - The court seem to be in general agreement that  proof  of the genuineness of a
standard cannot be established by the  opinion of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing
sought to be used as standard with another writing.

Genuineness of standard decided by court - The sufficiency of the proof of the genuineness of a
standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of

acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he
is its author or that he ratifies its contents. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about
signature: signed name, signing of name, distinctive characteristic.

SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X.
This authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally
stand for a signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of the common
practice of marking with an X.
B. EVIDENTIAL  SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a particular
time  and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular
physical and mental condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and
purpose for recording his name.
C. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a
signature by someone other than the person himself, without his permission, often with some
degree of imitation.
D. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather
than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
E. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in
any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document
provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly
written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
F. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
G. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery.
H. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature  in  an inverted position
to  weigh their  identifying significance,  the  reason being that those we fail  to see under  normal
comparison  may readily be  seen  under  this theory.

THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:

1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production and
is written automatically.
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.
TYPES OF SIGNATURES

A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete correct signature for

an important document such as will.

B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.

1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized

C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.

FORGERY

Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but
also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with fraudulent signa ture or spurious
document.

CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES)

A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY – executed purely by simulation

rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as freehand imitation or
simulated forgery. Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.

1.SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER

a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE - forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT - forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with ink.
2.SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) - used by forgers who have a certain
skill in writing? After some practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model quickly.

B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)

1.DIRECT TRACING - tracing is made by transmitted light.

2.INDIRECT TRACING - forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which he will trace
the forged signature under the document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper
between the two.

The types of Traced Signatures are:

1.CARBON PROCESS
2.INDENTATION PROCESS
3.TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS

C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) - Forger does not try to copy a model but
writes something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a false (spurious)
name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called
disguise.

D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR MODEL

E. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING

SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE

STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or slide-by-side for
simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature
and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth,
fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.
STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether the
appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity
and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are the
often changed according to the whim of the writer.

CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

1. Pen pressure
2. Movement
3. Proportion
4. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
5. Inconspicuous characteristics
6. Repeated characteristics
7. Characteristics written with speed

INDICATIONS OF GENUINENESS

1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
4. Speed
5. Simplification
6. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
7. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
8. Rhythm
9. Good line quality
10. Variation

INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED FORGERIES

1. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at which the
writer has temporarily struck.
2. no rhythm
3. carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. no contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. slow writing- angular writing
6. blunt beginning and endings
7. placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
 8. absence of spontaneity - lack of smoothness of letters
9. restrained writing - there is lack of freedom or "inhibited" movements THAT gives the
impression that every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
10. no variation

INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY

1. Writing habits of the writer (forger) is evident in the forged signature.

INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE

SIGNATURE

1. flat strokes
2. no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
3. deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
4. no variation - All signature will superimpose over each other.

PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMS

A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine. Generally presence of
tremors, remnants of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the probability of
genuineness

B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this kind of signature is confidently

discover that the modification is only on the prominent features of the letter designs that are pointed
out by the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are unnatural tremors and
retouching. The minute details in genuine signatures are present.

FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

A. COUNTERFEITING - It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and banknotes.
Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of, as money or
stamps, with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is something made to imitate the real
thing used for gain.

B. FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended
content.

C. FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing
which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.

Take Note: In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name  of another person,
or of fictitious person,  knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters, forges  or
counterfeits any - checks, drag - due  bill  for the payment of money or property - or counterfeits or forges
the  seal forged, or counterfeited, with intent the same  to be  fake, altered forged, or counterfeited, with
intent  to prejudice,  damage  or defraud any person.... is guilty  of forgery.

MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

 A. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal by
hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the extra ink
wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the holes to be lifted on
the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised above the surface. The engraving
process is used for the production of all genuine bank notes.

B. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of printing books, magazine, letterheads
and the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are made on raised pieces of
metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the same form as a rubber
stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note are usually added by this letterpress process
after the note has been produced by an engraving.

C. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a photograph is taken of the desire material and a print is
made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with water. When ink is
applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminum plate is then
put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the papers. The offset process is quite
used in small printing plants. Because it was photographic process, it is the most common modern
used by counterfeiter to make false paper money.

BANK NOTE PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they would soon
wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso bill usually wears out and
has to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government buy the very best grade of paper they can get, in
order that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter
to duplicate it. It is usually the use of wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected
by ultraviolet light.

Take Note: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added to make look whiter. These
chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have this filler
and does not show.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE/BILL

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
MAIN PRINT

Distinctive feel & embossed effect Generally smooth

1. The fingers will readily feel the the main 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main prints of
print on the front & back on fairly new the front & back even on new notes.
notes. 2. This is brought about by offset print the most
2. This is due to the measurable thickness of common process employed by counterfeiters
the ink deposited on the paper which gives 3. The prints are mere stains on the coating of the
the prints an embossed effect. sensitized paper which is glossy.

PORTRAIT

1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead.

 2. The eyes sparkle.
3. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette)
forming the details of the face, hair, etc.
are clear, sharp and well defined.
4. Each portrait stands out distinctly from
background. This is noticeable along the
shoulders.
5. The background is composed of multi-
colored fine pattern of lines in varying
tones and shades interlacing with each
other. These shadings or toning are
intricately printed in such a way that the
contrast or shifting of colors creates the
impression of life & vividness to the
notes.
WATERMARK
1. The watermark underneath the
security lacework on the right hand
side of the note is the same on the
colored portrait.
2. The design is placed by means of
dandy roll during the manufacture of
the paper.
3. Sharp details of the outline or the light
& shadow effect are discernible when
viewed with the aid of transmitted
light.
4. The relief of the features can be felt
by running the finger on the design.
METTALIC THREAD
1. This is a special thread placed
vertically on the paper during
manufacture.
2. On the surface of the paper where this
thread is located are patterns of short
vertical lines.
COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS
1. These fibers are scattered on the
surface of the paper (front & back) at
random & can be readily picked off
by means of any pointed instrument.
2. The colors of these fibers are red &
blue.
2. The eyes do not sparkle.
3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly
printed.
4. Hair is lifeless.
5. The face and/or forehead are often naturally
white or pale due to absence of most of the
details.
6. The concentric lines depicting the eyes often
merged into solid printed areas.
7. The background often blends with the portrait
and is usually “scratchy.”
8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
9. The multi-colored prints on genuine notes are
extremely difficult to duplicate and as a result,
counterfeit notes are usually off-color & not of
the right shade or tone.
1. This is imitated by printing white ink or dry block
on the finished paper.
2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is stamped
to give transparency to the portion where the
designing appears.
3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheet where
merely a paper cutout is placed inside. As a result
course or harsh and occasional irregular lines &
sometimes-opaque areas are very obvious.
1. Counterfeit by means of printing on the back of
the note, on the inner side of the paper, insertion of
twin thread or simply folding the note vertically
where the thread appears on the genuine bill.
On counterfeit, this is simulated by printed lines,
cannot be picked off, but can be easily erased with
ordinary rubber or by agitating with wet fingers.
LACEWORK DESIGN

The geometric pattern which looks On counterfeit, these geometric patterns are often
like a delicate lacework along the border blurred, round on the edges & blotch on the joints. Its
on both surfaces, embellishing the continuity could not be traced. The color appears faded.
portraits, value panel & vignettes are
multicolored & composed of harp lines,
which are, continuous & traceable even at
the joints.

COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for each denomination.
You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.
PhP 1,000.00 - Blue - Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
500.00 - Yellow - Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another side)
100.00 - Mauve - Manuel A. Roxas
50.00 - Red - Sergio Osmena
20.00 - Orange - Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 - Brown - Apolinario Mabini & Andres Bonifacio
5.00 - Green - Emilio Aguinaldo

SERIAL NUMBERS
1. The prefix letter/s & numbers (Six of
them except on replacement note) are
clearly printed.
2. They have peculiar style & are
uniform in size & thickness.
3. Spacing of the numbers is uniform &
alignment is even.
1. On counterfeit, the letters & numbers are poorly
printed. They are usually of different style.
2. Most often, they are evenly spaced & poorly
aligned.
3. The numbers are too big or too small, too thick or
too thin & in certain cases shaded on the curves.

VIGNETTE
1. The lines & dots composing the
vignettes are fine, distinct & sharp.
2. The varying color tone gives a bold
look to the picture that makes it stands
out of the paper.
1. On counterfeit usually dull & poorly printed.
2. It appears dirty.
3. The lines are comparatively thicker with rough
edges.
4. There is no variation in color tone so that the
picture appears flat.

CLEARNESS OF PRINT

The registry of the different printed
features is perfect. The lines are very
clear & sharp. There are no Burrs clinging
to the sides.
In general, a spurious not exhibits a Second hand
look. It is dirty due to the sputtering of ink on the
interior area. Over-inked areas are visible instantly.
The shadings & ornamentations of the letters & figures
are thick & usually merged.
EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE

1. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light, the investigator should look at the banknote with a
hand lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in the bank note. This is the one
extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color of a genuine banknote. It is very difficult
for counterfeiter to match exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine manufacturer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY

A. TYPES:

1. Federal Reserve note – with GREEN treasury seal and serial number.
2. United States Note – with RED treasury seal and serial number.
3. Silver Certificate – with BLUE treasury seal and serial number.

B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES - Each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional seal at the left of the portrait on the
face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and bears the name of the Federal Reserve Bank of issue. Numbers and
letters representing the Federal Reserve District in which that bank is located, are:

1 - Boston - “A” 7 - Chicago - “G”

2 - New York - “B” 8 - St. Louis - “H”
3 - Philadelphia - “C” 9 - Minneapolis - “I”
4 - Cleveland - “D” 10 - Kansas - “J”
5 - Richmond - “E” 11 - Dallas - “K”
6 - Atlanta - “F” 12 - San Francisco - “L”

C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: Portrait – every denomination has the following

$1 - Washington $50 - Grant

$2 - Jefferson $100 - Franklin
$5 - Lincoln $500 - McKinley
$10 - Hamilton $1000 - Cleveland
$20 - Jackson $5000 - Madison

COINS

These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or collectively referring to metal
currency.

MAKING OF COINS

CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an image of gold coins are filled
(within a low temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used for high temperature metal such as copper or
silver alloy.

STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or metal blank by pressure.

COIN CHARACTERISTICS
 A. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile, the seal of the Republic of the
Philippines, letterings & numerals are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on
theses features. The beadings are regular & the readings are deep & even.

B. Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny round dots surrounding the genuine coin
appear irregular & elongated depressions & are not sharp & prominent as in the genuine. The letterings & numerals
are low & worn out due to the lack of sharpness of details. The readings are uneven & show signs of filing.

COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN

1. Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. Government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars
called bullions and then issue papers for the value of gold.
2. Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face value. In most countries, the possession of
gold coins is now forbidden except for coin collectors.

EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – should be examined by a magnifying lens; comparing it with a known coin

DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY: formation of air bubbles, or removal of small parts of the sole along
with the coin. The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually special milling marks or designs
which are added to a genuine coin by machinery.

COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT

Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and manufacture. The most usual
method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety features are incorporated in passport and
are easily detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very useful in this type of examination. The investigator should look
particularly at the photograph in any passport as identification card. This is always necessary because sometimes forgers
remove and change or substitute the picture. Hence, the position of perforation caused by staples and another pasting device
should be studied carefully.

LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes against Public Interests)

A. FOREGERIES - What are the crimes called forgeries?

1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive (Art. 161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164).
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166).
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172).
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171).
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art. 173).
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174).

B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161: Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines; Forging the signature
of the President; Forging the stamp of the President.

C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are: Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art. 163);
Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164); and Selling of false or mutilated coin, without
connivance (Art. 165).

D. Reason for punishing forgery - Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the integrity of the currency and thus
insure the credit standing of the government and prevent the imposition on the public and the government of worthless
notes or obligations.
E. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;

2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they did not in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other than those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts; Altering true dates;
5. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning;
6. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original document when no such original
exists, or including in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from, that of the genuine original; or
7. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry, or official book.

WRITING MATERIALS

A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the forger has trouble matching the
paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or
other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.
C. WATERMARK - Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks impressed in them during the
course of their manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing or recording such as papers, cardboard, board papers,
Morocco paper, etc.

WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS - The common (probable) questioned on paper is its age, whether the
actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the questioned document.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

A. PAPYRUS - This came into use about 3,500 B.C. - people of Egypt.  Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith
(soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as
PAPYRUS.

B. PARCHMENT - writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats - was probably developed
in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in
the city of PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.

C. VELLUM - writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was often used for all kind of
parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for
special manuscripts. Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a
writing material during the early period.

D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING

1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in
about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old
fish nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7th century A.D.
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was  attacked  by marauding  Chinese and some Chinese  taken  as
prisoners  were skilled  in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor  to build  and  operate a paper mill and
Samarkand soon  became the papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain
led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European paper mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA.
5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th century, paper was manufactured throughout most of Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.
7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis Robert. The machine reduced the
cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.
 9. Robert's machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, who in
1803 produced the first of the machines that bear their name.
10. The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by the introduction of the
groundwood process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical pulp processes approximately ten years
later.
11. CHLORINE - This was introduced in the 19th century for bleaching and colored linen could already be manufactured
for paper.
12. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first introduced in England in 1861.
13. STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800.
14. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called SULPHITE (modern type) was
first used between 1880 and 1890.
15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT - Letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on
cotton paper dated AD 1890.

TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)

The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases were reported by Lucas where the age of the
document was established from the compositor/composition of the paper. In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H.
(A.D. 1798) was found to be written on paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this
type of paper was not introduced not until about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake one.

WATERMARKS

1. Definition – It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and appearing lighter than
the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of
the paper is by the WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper by the manufacturers.

2. How watermark is made? The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of cotton or other fibers)
was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain (woof) wires. Fine wires forming the desired design were tied on
top of the grid and impressed into the pulp. This impression made the paper thinner, and therefore, more transparent,
where it appeared.

3. Origin. Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years after the art of
papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in the 19th century, papermakers
began to solder the watermark wires to the grid frame, thus insuring uniformity of impression and aiding in the
detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first British postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the
United States were not so marked until 1895. When paper began to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was
simply transferred to the grid cover of the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.

4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.

a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the earliest
known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called “DANDY ROLL” that make the paper,
and these designs are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper. However, the questioned
documents examiner's finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of the watermark in
question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the manufacturer is determined, then
consideration is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark
design in order to date their products.
 h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark that was not in existence at the time the document
purports to have been executed.

5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:

a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged.  This damage is also known as caused by
WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper manufactured or
all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll's damaged surface, will
coordinate with the paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on the dandy roll used.

DISCOLORATION

One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its physical characteristics partic-
ularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as
moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case of papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While
RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.

CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION

1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.

2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both in appearance and distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.

DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and compare. Consider the physical
characteristics of both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the thickness, the surface (glossiness,
opacity, etc.) and the general texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing material used in the
questioned document.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding test, bursting test, etc.

WRITING INSTRUMENTS

A. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT - One quality of the nib pen is its pliability. This quality varies which different pens and can
be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or a given degree of shading.
B. FOUNTAIN PEN - A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber.
After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without refilling.
C. INK - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.
D. PEN - A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper
is a pen. It came from the Latin word "PENNA", meaning feather.
E. PEN NIBS - The tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. QUILL PENS - It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for writing on parchment.
Poland, Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.
G. WRITING INSTRUMENTS (WRITING IMPLEMENTS) - Writing Implements, manual devices used to make alphanumeric
marks on or in a surface.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A. REED PENS/SWAMP REED

1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the
Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
2. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush. About 2,000 years B.C., this reed pen
was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.

B. QUILL PEN
1. Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of goose, swan, crow and (later)
turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens was made by the Spanish Theologian
ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is
then cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18th century, the width of the edge had
diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible point that produced thick and thin strokes by
pressure on the point rather than by the angle at which the broad edge was held.

C. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)

1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of "BRAZEN PENS" was in 1465.
The 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548
writing manual, but the use of metal pens did not become widespread until the early part of the 19th century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN in 1803.
3. The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND
JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.

D. FOUNTAIN PENS
1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing
its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink
to flow evenly while writing.
2. By the 1920's, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and remained so until the introduction of
the ball point pen after WORLD WAR II.

E. BALL POINT PEN:

1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool.  A ball point pen has in its point a small rotating metal
ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube
(reservoir) inside the pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938
did Hungarian inventor brothers LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink that could be used
with such a pen. Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
4. Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil-based ink smudged easily.
However, the ball-point pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
a. the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
b. the ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces;
c. could be hold in almost any position for writing; and
d. the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.

5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point replaced the fountain pen
as the universal writing tool.

F. FIBER TIP PENS -

 1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since challenged the ball point as
the principal writing implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally suited to the
strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide
range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers
drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary mechanism.

G. Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with a dye. These markers can be cut to a
variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a
metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS

1. Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water to
which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are still  on the market mostly in the shape of
sticks or cakes.
2. Log wood Inks - These inks which were used extensively about a century ago, have now because obsolete and are no
longer manufactured.  They were made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate. These
inks will be found only on old.
3. Iron Gallotanate Inks - This ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it was made of a
fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was composed of suspension of the black,
almost insoluble ferric tannate.  
4. Fountain Pen Inks - These inks are regarded as special fountain pen  inks,  and consisting  of ordinary iron
gallotannate inks with a lower  iron content  in  most cases but with a higher dyestuff  content than normal inks.

5. Dyestuff Inks - These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a preservative and a flux
are added.  
6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks - These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of a pigment
paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate.
7. Alkaline Writing Inks - These are quick drying inks which possess a ph of from 9 to about 11. They penetrate quickly
through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of
acid dyes, sometimes combined with phthalo cyanide dyes.
8. Ballpoint Pen Inks - The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before 1945. The development of the
present pen was accomplished during World War II because the Army and the Air Force needed a writing
instrument which would not leak at high altitude and which supplied quick drying water resistant writing.
a. In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the same.  The differences are in the finish, the
precision with which the instrument is made, the size and the material of the ball, and the composition of the
ink.
b. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lies between 0.6 and 1.0 mm, the cheapest makes having the largest
diameter. The ball is made of steel while the more expensive makes of sapphire.
c. The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing angle.  The best writing angle for a ballpoint pen
is 90 degrees, but a normal hand of writing seldom uses this angle.
d. The cheaper makes have a minimum writing angle of 55-60 degrees. If one writes at too small an angle, the
brass socket holding the ball will scratch a lined into the paper, parallel with the ink line.

9. Stamp Pad Inks - They are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol and
water. Airline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad inks, more volatile organic solvents are
used as acetone, ethanol, etc.  As a vehicle, dextrine, gum arabic, or tannin is sometimes added. Through
the addition of tannin, the stamp impression becomes water resistant after drying.
10. Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made with basic dyes. To the
dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.
11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks - These inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and oil such as
olein or castor oil.  The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments suspended in oil base. This is
necessary because aniline dyes tend to bleed and would cause the sharp division between the differently col ored
halves of the ribbon to merge.
 12. Printing Inks - Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black and a "base" which may
consist of oil, resins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove printing ink from a document by
scrubbing the document with an aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface
of the ink and the detergent facilitates the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients by the
water.
13. Canceling Inks - These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it is required to decipher
faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied
upon to improve the legibility of any marking affected by a carbon containing canceling ink. Erasure of canceling ink on
valuable stamps is usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the surface of the stamp and it is
to be regretted that many canceling  inks are manufactured with media which offer  resistance  to attack so that the
resistant carbon can simply be swabbed  off. This can be usually be detected by infrared photography which will
reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the stamp.
14. Skrip Ink - These are manufactured by W.A.  Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The inks contain a substance that is
colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink
eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.

THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK

1. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination centers on the question
as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is identical with the ink found in  the
possession of the suspect.
2. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative examination of certain proper-
ties of these inks. However the examination carries with it certain difficulties as the quantity of material available
for examination is small and the examination can be done only one.
3. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a partial destruction of writing, an
exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.
4. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of a binocular microscope as
well as photographic examination.  They should be used first before any chemical examination is resorted to.
5. It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composition and developmental history, method of manufacture
of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by identifying a component of the
ink, which was not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the document.

THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE INK

1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also possible to identify one or more
of the components of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of the various dyes used in the
manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out by paper chromatography.
5. Procedure:
a. Collection of the ink material
(1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke. Dyestuff inks can as a rule can
be extracted with water. Ball point ink can be extracted with organic solvent such as ethanol, acetone or
butanone. Pyridine is the best solvent for ball point inks.
(2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the chromatographic paper into which the ink
fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly pressed.
b. The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled with the solvent; then the filtered paper strip containing the ink
material is lowered into the vessel with the ends just touching the surface of the solvent and let it hang on the
side of the vessel for 15-20 minutes.
c. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.

B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

 1. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of different writings, the document
examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which changes in the course of time. This selection of
properties will be determined by the composition of ink and the circumstances under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
a. Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the writing in question is bound to date in all probability
from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without exception based on oleic acid. These inks will flow out when a
drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols, which are resistant to treatment with
benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in question is old for oleic acid is
sometimes also used in modern ballpoint inks.
(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow out with the petroleum ether because these inks, no
water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in
petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink produced later than 1954-1956.
(8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible to determine the
relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if they are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly
because the base is absorbed by the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use the copying power for age
determination.

b. Dyestuff Inks
(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but the presence of an obsolete or
modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the document to be dated prior to 1953.

c. Iron Gallotannate Inks - These inks show a remarkable change of color in maturing. This based on the chemical
change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The following are the methods used to show the gradual change
of inks:
(1) Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink – This method is useful in those cases where the ink
writing received for examination is too recent that the process of maturing can be observed visually. The
kind of ink must be known and one or more writings of known age must be available for comparison.
(2) Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The solubility of iron gallotannate ink decreases considerably as
the ink matures. As with the color change, it can only be applied successfully to a very recent writing. This
method can establish a difference in the age of writings on one and the same document. The solubility is
determined by a visual estimate of the quantity of ink which can be withdrawn with a drop of water from a
stroke. It is necessary however that the drop of water be applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.
(3) Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – In iron gallotannate ink, the iron is mainly present in
the complex bound ferrous form. As the manufacturing process goes on, the ric gallotannate is formed. A
drop of aa1-dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa1-dipyridyl in 0.5N HCL (normal hydrochloric acid)) is applied to the ink
stroke. The reagent is left in contact with the ink for 1 minute and then recovered with a piece of filter paper.
If ferrous iron is still present in the ink, the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-dipyridyl around the
stain of blue dyestuff. By repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the ferrous iron in
the ink by the changes in the coloration of this red zone. However, this method is applicable when the
questioned writing is not more than a few days old.
(4) Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes – Iron gallotannate inks contain an organic dye,
(soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes insoluble complete or partially as the ink ages. It is
claimed that the organic dye becomes completely insoluble in four to five years. However, the application of
this method appears to yield results in practice.

TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

 TYPEWRITER - A writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures, symbols and other
resembling printed ones; a machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that can produce printed letters and
figures on paper; a machine designed to print or impress type characters on paper, as a speedier and more legible substitute for
handwriting. .

SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. ALIGNMENT - Alignment defects include characters which write improperly in the following respects:  A twisted letter,
horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and a character "Off its feet".
B. ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write improperly in the following respects: A twisted letter, horizontal
mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a character special adjustment to the types block.
C. CARBON  IMPRESSION-  Any typewriting which is placed  on  the paper  by  the  action of the type  faces  striking
thought carbon  paper is classed as a carbon impression.  Generally, carbon impressions are "carbon copies", but
sometime original typewriting is made directly through a carbon ribbon.
D. CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the term "Character" is used to include letters, symbols,
numerals, or points of punctuation.
E. CLOGGED  (DIRTY) TYPEFACES - With use the type  faces  becomes filled  with lint, dirty and ink, particularly  in
enclosed letters  such  as  the o,e,p, and g.
F. DEFECTS - The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter which is reflected in its works
and which leads to its individualization or identification.
G. NATURAL VARIATIONS - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any individuals
handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
H. OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than over the remainder of its out-
line.
I. PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a type-writer which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning
the type face or replacing the ribbon is classified as a permanent defect.
J. PLATEN - The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the blow on the type face is known
as a platen.
K. PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - A modern form of typewriting which resembles printing in that all of
the horizontal space as they do with the conventional typewriter.  For example, the "i" occupies two units. The "o" -
three and the "m" - five. A typewriter of this design is known as a proportional spacing machine.
L. REBOUND - A defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly offset to the right or
left.
M. RIBBON IMPRESSIONS - Typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon is called ribbon impression.
N. RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of determination is a measure
of the ribbon condition.
O. TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter characteristics  which  can be eliminated by cleaning  the
machine  or replacing  the ribbon is described as a transitory defects. Clogged type is the most common defects in this
class.
P. TWISTED  LETTER  - Each letter and character is  designed  to print  a certain fixed angle to the base line, due to
wear, and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters become  twisted  so that they lean to the right or
left  of their correct slant.
Q. TYPE  FACE - The printing surface of the type block is  known as the type face, with most modern typewriter this block
is attached  at  the  end of a movable arm or  type bar  which propels  the type face against the ribbon and paper to
make the typewriter impression.
R. TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type face metal is known as
type face defect. These defect may be actual breaks in the outline of the  letter where the metal has been chipped
away  sometimes referred  to as broken type, or they may be distorted  outlines  of  the letter where the type face metal
has  become bent or smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type block.

EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS

1. The first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL in 1714 for a machine designed
to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
2. In 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit, invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
 3. In 1833 a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier Progin for a machine that embodied for the first time
one of the principles employed in modern typewriters: the use for each letter or symbol of separate typebars, actuated
by separate lever keys.
4. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a typewriter which prints through a metal ring that
revolved horizontally above the platen and was equipped with a series of vertical keys or plungers having pieces of
type at the bottom. The machine was operated by revolving the wheel until the correct letter was centered over the
printing position on the platen, and then striking the key.
5. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to make embossed impressions that could be read
by the blind. One such machine, developed by the American inventor Alfred Ely Beach in 1856, resembled the modern
typewriter in the arrangement of its keys and typebars, but embossed its letters on a narrow paper strip instead of a
sheet.
6. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and patented by him in 1856, had a circular
arrangement of typebars, a moving paper holder, a bell that rang to signal the end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The
keyboard arrangement of Francis's machine resembled the black and white keys of a piano.
7. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER LATHAM SHOLES and was
patented in 1868. He developed the first practical typewriter in cooperation with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS
GLIDEN and SAMUEL SOULE'.
8. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered an agreement  with ELIPHALET REMINGTON AND SONS,
GUNSMITHS &  SEWING MACHINES MANUFACTURERS, the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I
9. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower and upper case of the alphabet.
10. MARK TWAIN (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a typewritten
manuscript to a publisher.
11. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he became the first playwright to use it
as a stage prop in Candida in 1897.
12. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that typewriters would one day
be operated by electricity.
13. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made the machine cumbersome
and too expensive to be marketed.
14. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F. SMATHERS of Kansas City.
15. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM), introduced the first commercially successful electric type -
writer to the business world.
16. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type bars and movable carriages but  can
use six interchangeable type of type faces.
17. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961.  Despite of the revolutionary advances in typewriting
capabilities, one essential element has remained unchanged since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement,
nicknamed QWERTY for the top line of letters, was designed to make it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
18. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK. The process of
changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never even begun.

IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

HAGAN in 1894, made the first comment on typewriting examination. He wrote that all typewriter machines even when
using the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them. These
peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the machine.

This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900 by AMES who wrote that the identity
of writing by different operators as well as that done on different machines can be done with considerable degree  - Different
operators have their own peculiar methods which differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation, spacing,
signing as well as impressions from touch.

In several articles written between1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the foremost document examiner of the early
20th century, defined the principles of typewriting identification used today. He called it “ THE LANDMARKS IN
TYPEWRITING IDENIFICATION.”

THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

 1. The type faces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated on the basis of design and have
dating significance.
2. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve to identify the typewriting of a particular typewriter.
3. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface. Cleanliness can be used to
date a document of fix it written a period of time.
4. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack of uniformity of impression (off-footedness); type-face score,
breadths, defects and deformities all serve to identify the type writing of a particular machine.
5. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement, punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be used
to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
6. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous typing done on the sheet of paper.

TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS

A. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE BARS

1. Pica Type - 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type - 12 Letters/inch
3. 6 Letters/inch
4. Teletype Machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch - specials typewriters

B. TYPEWRITER  USING  SINGLE  ELEMENT  OR  BALL  -  A machine,  capable of typing 10 or 12 characters per inch.
Change of horizontal spacing is done easily by the flip of a switch.

C.TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER) –This has a disc type device called a print wheel,
The printwheel contains all of characters represented on the typewriter keyboard. This machine has the capability of
typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per inch.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEWRITERS BASED ON LETTER DESIGNS

A. The small “w” – depending on the presence or absence of a center serif, height of central peak and design of the two
central diagonals.
w-1 – central peak is the same height as the top of the outside stroke and is capped by serif.
w-2 – same with w-1 but has no central serif.
w-3 – central joining is below the top of the sides.
w-4 – low center but the two central diagonals join the sides well above the base of the letter.

B. Crossbar of small letter “t” – cross bar is either longer on the right or on the left side and or equidistant on each side. The
curved lower extension of the “t” is either turn upward at a point the left of, to the right of, or about even with the right
terminus of the crossbar of the “t”.

C. The small letter “g” – upper oval is either much smaller or the same and/or different or the same in shape than the lower
oval. Upper and lower ovals are either very closely spaced or not.

D. Small letter “r” – right arm is either long with very small curve at its end or a long right arm with full curve at the end and/or
the right arm is short with its curve moderate to full.

E. Small letter “y” – has three distinctive designs:

lower stroke has a broad turn which forms a very shallow trough.
lower stroke has a deep full curve which clearly curves right ward.
Lower stroke turns sharply upward like forming a narrow trough.

F. Small letter “i” – has two distinctive designs:

center of the dot is aligned with the central line of the vertical staff.
Center of the dot is set off to the left of the central line of the vertical staff.
 G. Upper and Lower Strokes of Capital Letter “E” – maybe equal or the bottom stroke maybe longer than the upper stroke.
The serif is either vertical or oblique. The small “e” may have its straight stroke either horizontal or oblique.

H. Figure “7” – horizontal stroke is either straight or curve.

I. Figure “5” – horizontal stroke is either straight or slightly or fully curved.

J. The comma “,” – tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very slightly to the left of the dot.

K. Parentheses – may vary in curvature.

Take Note: Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one and the same typewriter if they agree in type face
style, design, spacing, alignment and three or four scars or damaged type faces.

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER BY THE DEFECTS OF THE STROKE

Each typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one to differentiate the typed characters from a similar
machine of the same make. Typewriter of the same make and model but of different age have differences attributed to wear.

WHAT TO CONSIDER?

1. A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some defects which give its own personality. Whatever the
quality of the manufacture, a typewriter is never absolutely perfect.
2. Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter will acquire a stronger individuality by new defects
which become more and more prominent and in time, progressively overcome the initial ones.

PROCEDURE

1. Conduct preliminary examination of the questioned document to determine the make and model of the typewriter.
2. Then study the defects of the stroke which will distinguish the suspected typewriter from the others.

The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congenital deformation while its translation
on the paper be compared to symptoms of the defects. This comparison has the advantage of sorting out the
exact conditions of the control of questioned typewritten documents as follows:

1. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and consequently that the aspect of the stroke is not immutable but
evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent
period.
2. The health of a typewriter tends to change and the defect become more and more numerous and characteristics.
From time to time, an overhead or repairs may help the ailment definitely or at least give a temporary or partial
healing.
3. It will show that the expert does not see the defect of the typewriter right away but only its  translation on the paper by
a writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause
4. Lastly it will explain that certain anomalies are not even ascribable to an organic cause of the type writer but to a
phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by the typist may give some anomalies of the stroke
and have no connection with the mechanism of the typewriter itself. Others are due to a temporary sickness such as a
torn ribbon which will give an incomplete impression of the character or dust which may choke the mechanism of the
stroke.  It is only the permanent faults which permit of a positive identification.

DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER

Defects of the Character

a The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a "break" which is shown by an alteration of the design.
Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often, the break occurs when the machine is working.  The
metal is locally damaged by the continued striking of the letter against hard surfaces and according to the general
 direction of the striking will dented or deviated. In  the first case the altered sign will print an incomplete  design
with  broken  or interrupted lines, in the second  case  it prints a deformed sign. The predominant cause of the
defect is that corresponding bars one behind the other; the character of corresponding bars strikes the back of the
first and crashes on it.
b Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing. Irregular tempering gives an abnormal
contraction of the metal for the bearing of the character again the plated and gives a local impression more
intense and more heavily inked.
c Misalignment of the two signs engraved on the same character so that they are not set exactly one under the
other.  This defect may be due to a bad engraving of the mold.

Positioning of the Character on the Type-bar

a A bad position of the bar on the plate of the soldering apparatus, results in a bad portioning of the character. It
will be bent forward, backward or sideways.
b Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing.  The character turns over the slides along its support.  The
changes of alignment become grater and greater growing in frequency in proportion with the collar of the solder.
This defect  is detected in the writing by the fact that the  top and  the bottom of the letter are not printed with the
same intensity and mostly, the vertical misalignment has a  tendency  to vary at each stroke and becomes so
important  that often  a part of both signs of the deficient characters  are impressed at the same time.

Defects of the Type-bar - The deformations of a type-bar modify the position of the character in connection with the
platen and alter the originally correct writing.

a Any error of place position of the bar in the basket  gives an incline to its head and to the character.
b The type-bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect of an intensive working, the bends are modified, so that the
type-bar elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or backward. This deformation causes a
misalignment of the character and no longer allows a uniform impression of its surface.
c Twist of the type-bars is caused by mistakes of the typist. In depressing, by error, two neighboring keys, two
corresponding bars are moved towards the type-bar guide 1, each bar undergoes the lateral strike of the
other and bends along its longitudinal axis. One error in manipulation does not great damage but its repetition
certainly develops the defect. The type-bar thus bent no long offers a perfectly vertical surface to the axis of the
platen and the character strikes the paper more or less off its feet.

Defects of the Ring - On a worn type writer it is not exceptional to find that the more active type-bars have depressed
the metal of the ring at their point of contact. It no longer has any effect on the type-bars corresponding to the depression, it no
longer stops them in their travel and it does not send them back to their original position.

These bars strike directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and fall back by their own weight giving by this very
slow motion  a vibration to the character in the vicinity of the  platen.  At this time the escapement has already moved and the
character gives two impressions instead of one.  The second impression, displaced in connection with the first and much paler
seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is 'veiled stroke'.

Disorder of the Type bar guide - If the position of the type bar guide is modified for some reason, the result is a
complete disorder of the writing. A guide moved to the right will raise all signs on the right of the keyboard and will lower all the
signs on the left. If it is moved to the left, it will cause the opposite effect.

Alteration of the Platen - The rubber of the platen gets old and hardens, the surface formally smooth becomes more
and more irregular and rough and does not offer anymore intimate contact with all surface of the sign. The writing becomes
inconsistent and the same sign will print itself partially or entirely and with a greater intensity and more intensively on the tight or
the left, on the bottom or the top.

General Wear of a Typewriter - The typebars are subjected to a lateral play particularly felt at the top. This gives poor
accuracy at the point of impact of the character. The same signs print themselves on the right or on the left of their theoretical
point of impact.

TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS – synonymous to “alignment defects:

 1. Vertical Misalignment - A character printing above or below its proper position. Possible causes are:
a. a character soldered too high or too low on the typebar;
b. an unsoldered character;
c. a typebar having lost its correct curvature;
d. a type bar having an oval of axis bearing;
e. misalignment of the typebar guide to the right or to the left; and
f. disorder of the capital letter shift lock.
2. Lateral or Horizontal Misalignment - An alignment defect in which the character prints the right or left of its proper
position is known as horizontal alignment.
3. Oblique Misalignment – The character leans towards the right or towards the left.

TYPEWRITING STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS – the procurement of typewriting exemplars are grouped as follows:

1. Study of the questioned document by the investigator;

2. Procurement of the regular course of business typewriting;
3. Preparation of exemplar typewriting by the suspected writer;
4. Preparation of typewriting exemplar by the investigator on suspected typewriter; and
5. The procurement of the suspected typewriter itself by the investigator.

OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS - Properly prepared known typewriting samples not only facilitate the
examination in the laboratory but they aid immeasurably in the demonstration in the court room.

HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING?

1. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove it from  the typewriter and send it to the laboratory with the
typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon.(the text of  the material in question may still be discernible of the
ribbon)
2. Use  paper of about of about the same size as  the  questioned material, type out a full word for word copy of the
message in question, typographical errors, using as nearly as possible  the  same degree of touch as that used  in
typing  the questioned material.
3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the  cloth ribbon, obtain samples of each character  on  the
keyboard  by  typing  through carbon paper  which  has  been inserted carbon side down over a piece of white bond
paper.
4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the typewriter from which it
was produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
5. Typewriter   specimens   should   be   taken   from   suspected typewriter/s.  It is usually not necessary to forward the
typewriter to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are obtained.
6. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspected typewriter, the investigation should  insure that
the typewriter is kept in its current condition.
7. With  evidence thus obtained from typewritten  documents,  the laboratory  experts is in position to lend valuable
assistance  to  the solution and subsequent  prosecution  of many cases.

PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS

METHODS OF PRINTING

A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)

In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above the level of the non-printing areas. The ink is applied
to a raised surface that in turn is applied to paper. The letterpress process is the oldest of all printing procedures. It prints
with cleaner and sharper letters.
After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing which is made on one of three principles:
1. The platen or “flatbed press” opens and closes like a clam shaft; it has raised type on one flat surface and paper on
another flat surface and the two are pressed together. Small hand presses are generally platen presses.
2. Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder and then across the flat surface of inked type.
 3. Rotary presses pass the paper between two cylinders, one of which holds the curved printing plates.

B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING) – There are four types of printing which employ the Intaglio principle of placing ink in an
area, which has been cut out or etched.

1. Gravure – This is a process in which the ink in recessed or sunken letters is drawn out or sucked out under pressure.
The process produces high quality reproduction of photographs and half-tone illustrations, but the letters of type
reproduced have slightly fuzzy edges. The printing is done from large copper plates or copper covered cylinders on
presses of two kinds; sheet-fed gravure presses and web-fed rotogravure presses for longer runs. The copper plates
or cylinders are produced by making film positives of the art work to be reproduced.
2. Engraving – The paper her is forced into the sunken areas of a metal plate where the ink is. A special plate is made by
the artist who removes or scratches areas in the metal itself into which the ink is placed. The actual printing process is
very slow, and after the paper is removed from the plate, time must be allowed for the drying of the ink to prevent
smudging.
3. Planographic – Lithography is the most well known printing process which employs the principle of putting ink on a
chemically treated surface. The commercial application of lithography is known as offset. In this process, the copy is
placed in front of a big camera and photographed so that the film is the exact size that the final result is to be. The film
is in turn placed over a sensitized plate make of paper, albumen or chemically treated metal) and exposed to a strong
light.
4. Stencil – Stencil sheets on which the copy is typed or drawn are made of a porous lease tissue, covered with a coating
which is impervious to ink. The typing or drawing pushes the coating aside and exposes the porous tissue. This
stencil wrapped around an inked cylinder and the cylinder is rolled across the paper, forcing the ink through the porous
parts of the stencil.

C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING) – In planographic printing, the image characters are in the same general
plane as the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a dead level plate which has been chemically treated such as
lithograph and offset.
D. STENCIL – It is a process where the letters or image are holes cut in a sheet, or a sheet is made more porous in the area
of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes or porous areas such as mimeograph.
E. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING – This is offset-related and is used for the reproduction of pictures and illustrations in little
covers. To prepare a halftone block, the model is photograph and its image is transferred to a metal surface by photo-
printing.

IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

A. LETTERPRESS
1.
Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more sharply defined than offset printing.
2.
Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different “runs” of letterpress printing which have been made
from the same set-up; the “y” type face may exhibit evidence of damage and the spacing and alignment may be
different due to pressure applied by the frame.
B. OFFSET
1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of the same density; and
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed letters as is sometimes found in letter press printing.

IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING – The identification of printing is based on the general principles which consider the existence
of an adequate combination of class and individual characteristics exceeding the limits of an accidental coincidence.

A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – maybe grouped under body size and type face designs.
1. Body size of a type – responsible for the width of a line and depth of a column.
2. Unit measurement – six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – varies from six points up to seventy points, larger ones being made mainly in wood.
4. According to the type face – there are eight main designs
 B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – These come into existence as a result of:
1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of type faces; or
2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

HANDWRITING

Graphology, the study of handwriting to determine one's personality traits, is not handwriting analysis.  It's not even
considered a science; more like a parlor trick.  True handwriting analysis involves painstaking examination of the design, shape
and structure of handwriting to determine authorship of a given handwriting sample.   The basic principle underlying handwriting
analysis is that no two people write the exact same thing the exact same way.    Every person develops unique peculiarities and
characteristics in their handwriting.  

Handwriting analysis looks at letter formations, connecting strokes between the letters, upstrokes, retraces, down
strokes, spacing, baseline, curves, size, distortions, hesitations and a number of other characteristics of handwriting.  By
examining these details and variations in a questioned sample and comparing them to a sample of known authorship, a
determination can be made as the whether or not the authorship is genuine. 

Graphology systems tend to be one of three (3) types: (1) those based on individual letter formations; (2) those based
on stroke analysis; and (3) those based on an holistic/gestalt method. Over 3000 private business companies use it routinely (to
screen employees), and it enjoys a growing sense of scientific respectability.  The courts appear to be waiting to see college
psychology courses on it. It probably has the most validity with the following domains: (1) intelligence; (2) attitude toward work;
and (3) interpersonal skills. Recent developments have focused on "profiling" of uncaptured criminals and sex offenders (where
handwriting analysts say they can spot a "perversion", not exactly the best word for it). 

There's some precedent in art therapy and projective psychological testing for graphology.  Many convictions of child
sex offenders have occurred because of what the child victim portrayed in a drawing, and with psychological testing, there's the
famous "Draw a Pig" assignment, which apparently contains everything you need to make a subjective personality assessment
from: where placed on paper; the size of the pig; the pressure applied; the direction the pig is facing; attention to details; line
quality; angular or curved strokes; and emphasis on head of pig.
TYPEWRITING

All typewriters of a particular make and model are pretty much the same but, through use, the develop defects that
translate to paper when the machine is used.  These defects on the typed page can be matched back to the typewriter that was
used to create it.  

These defects in the type face are revealed in a number of ways.  If the type bar is bent (the bar on which the letter
element is attached and hammered down to the page) the letter is misaligned or 'off its feet.'  Misalignments can also cause non-
printing areas of a specific letter, such as losing the loop on the bottom of a ‘g.’ The letter can be displaced horizontally or
vertically.  Little clumps of plastic can adhere to the type key during manufacture and are made permanent by the coating
process.  This defect is called 'flashing.'  As wear and tear increases, the defects become more exaggerated.

Just looking at the type style, or font, the spacing (horizontal and vertical) and type size allows for determining the
make and model of the typewriter. Ribbons are a major evidentiary component.  It is possible to read a ribbon to see what it has
been used to type.

HANDWRITING AND FINGERPRINT EXPERTS

 Illustrations Concerning Forged Signatures in thumb impressions, typed matter, alleged alterations & interpolations etc.

The upper disputed signature marked Q is a forged signature in 'Devnagari Script' of Hon'ble Ex-Prime Minister " Sh.
Chandrashekhar" on a cheque as compared with his admitted signature marked A-1.

The disputed signature marked Q-3 across the revenue stamp is a forged signature as compared with the genuine
signature marked A-1.

The upper signature marked Q-2 is a forged signature as compared with the admitted signature marked A-2.

The upper signature marked Q across the revenue stamp is a forged signature in 'Telugu Script' as compared with the
specimen signature marked S-4.
The upper fingerprint marked Q is a latent fingerprint developed from the object of burglary and found to be identical
with the specimen fingerprint (S-78) of the suspect on scientific comparison.

The fingerprint marked X developed with Chemical Powders from the object of burglary was found to be identical with
the specimen fingerprint D-5 of the suspect.

A highly enlarged photograph of a clear rolled fingerprint