Questioned Document

Examination
Vanessa B. Candao, RCRIM, CSP, CST, CCS
Certified Criminalistic Specialist in Forensic Photography
Certified Criminalistic Specialist in Polygraph Examination
Certified Criminalistic Specialist in Questioned Document Examination
National Review Lecturer
Criminology Instructor
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
Types of Document Evidence
Development of Handwriting
Writing Process, Recognition, Collection and
Preservation of Document Evidence,
Handwriting Comparison, Document Age
Determination, Alteration and Erasures
Analysis
• Document defined: Document refers to any material,
which contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible or
partially visible, which furnish information or ultimately
convey meaning to another person. Document is in the
form of pencil, ink writing or printing on paper.

• Questioned defined: Refers to any material, which

some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

• Questioned Document defined: A document is

questioned because its origin, its contents, or the
circumstances and story regarding its production arouse
suspicion as to its genuineness or ay adversely
scrutinized simply because it displeases someone.
Questioned Document
Timeline
*1609- The first treatise on systematic document
examination was published by Francis Demelle of
France.
*1810- The first recorded use of questioned
document analysis occurred in Germany. A
chemical test for a particular ink dye was applied
to a document known as Konigin Hanschrit.
*1882- Gilbert Thompson, a railroad builder
with the US Geological Survey in New
Mexico, put His own thumbprint on wage
chits to safeguard himself from forgeries.
*1894- Alfred Dreyfus of France was
convicted of treason based on mistaken
handwriting
identification by Bertillon.
*1910- Albert S. Osborne, an American and
arguably the most influential document
examiner, published Questioned
Documents.
 Documents with questioned signatures
such as deed of sale, wills, checks,
contracts, receipts, etc., that includes the
different kinds of forgery.
 Documents containing alleged fraudulent
alterations which may be made by erasure,
addition or substitution or questions may
arise as to whether or not there is a
disturbance in the order and sequence of
writing as shown by the crossed lines,
continuity of writing and age or the folding
of the paper and writing therein.
 Holographic Documents questioned or
disputed. The writing of an entire document is
all questioned: include valuable manuscripts,
certificates, letters of credit, diplomas, marriage
certificate, marriage contracts, court paper, etc.
A document completely written, prepared, and
signed by the person himself without the
assistance of any person even a lawyer.
 Documents questioned as to their authenticities
because their alleged age is not consistent with
their physical facts- include deed of sale,
receipts, contracts, promissory notes, etc.
 Documents that are disputed because of
materials used in their production, including
documents, which have been shown to be
fake, because they were dated before the
paper was manufactured on which they were
written.
 Documents are questioned as to their
typewriting. Typewritten documents
questioned for the purposes of ascertaining
their source, determining their date, or
whether they were typed in one occasion or
two occasions.
 Documents or writings investigated because it
is alleged that they identify some person
through handwriting. It includes; a)
anonymous and disputed letters and b)
Superscriptions, registrations and
miscellaneous writings.
 Genuine document erroneously or
fraudulently attack. Writing such was executed
in an abnormal writing condition such as over
fatigue, under pressure, old age, stress, ill, in
moving vehicle and the likes which may affect
the normal manner of writing.
Handling Evidence
Precautions for the
Investigator:
 Do not fold, cut or tear
 Do not mark or write on questioned
documents
 Do not use pins, staples, clips or tape on
documents
 Do not make perforations in documents.
 Do not punch holes
 Do not make any new folds in documents.
 If you have a jig-saw puzzle of torn pieces
of document, DO NOT paste or tape them
together.
 Do not process for fingerprints until after
the document examination
 Do not submit to an unqualified examiner
 10. Do not carry disputed documents
loosely in the pocket.
11. Do not dust document with fingerprint
powder.
12. Do not allow handling unprotected
document by ANYONE.
13. Send pieces into the document examiner
for reconstruction and she/he will photograph
(or photocopy) the results for you.
14. Hand deliver or mail by registered mail
15. Keep accurate chain of custody records
(that is, date collected, by whom, date sent to
laboratory), store in locked file to prevent
unauthorized access to, etc.
 Precautions for the
Document Examiner:
Preserve integrity of the evidence (do not
mutilate, fold, staple, clip, etc).
Photograph condition of document upon
receipt
Initial and date all documents in all
inconspicuous location; this provides instant
proof that you examined the documents when
providing testimony in court.
Do not make any erasures on document.
Do not trace over questioned document.
Do not tear over questioned document.
Do not underscore or encircle words on
questioned document. If notes are
necessary, make a photocopy band place
notations on photocopy.
Do not touch document with a pencil, pen or
other pointed instrument.
Do not write or otherwise mark on
documents.
If any writing is to be made on protective
cover, it should be done before document is
inserted.
Prevent unauthorized access by storing in
locked vault.
 Prevent undue exposure to light.
Prevent undue handling.
Return documents by hand delivery
or registered mail.
.Keep accurate records.
Classes of
Questioned
Documents
Kinds of Documents
a. PUBLIC DOCUMENT
- It is any instrument notarized by a notary public or
competent public official with solemnities required by the
law.
b. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT
- It is any instrument issued by the government or its
agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the
offices .
c. PRIVATE DOCUMENT
- It refers to every deed or instrument executed by a private
person without an intervention of a notary public.
d. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT
- It is any instrument executed in accordance with the code
of Commerce or any Mercantile Law.
 Instruments, Apparatus, Materials Used in
Questioned Documents
Scientific Instruments
Microscope- As it is well known, microscope is the
instrument, which makes it possible to see physical
evidence directly that otherwise might be impossible but
its application to the investigation of document is not so
well understood.
Kinds of Microscope
Stereoscopic microscope provides a three-
dimensional enlargement which is important when
searching for identifying characteristics in typewriting
samples, crossed strokes, erasures, alterations, and
other problems that require magnification.
Comparison microscope allows side by side
simultaneous comparison of questioned and known
samples under study. This feature eliminates the
reliance on memory to recall the identifying
characteristics when examining questioned and
known material.
Infrared image conversion microscope provides
instant comparison of inks and their ability to absorb
to reflect infrared light and is a valuable tool for the
detection of alterations and comparison of inks.
Camera- A good quality copy camera will suffice for
many document problems. This camera should be
capable of photographing documents from 1 to 1 to 10
to 1 magnification and be able to photograph an entire
document or any portion thereof.
Typewriting Protractor is designed to show the exact
abnormal slant of certain letters in typewriting.
Typewriting Test Plate on Glass for Alignment and
Line Spacing Test- Another useful instrument for
typewriting examinations, which consists of a glass carrying
accurately graduated fine line squares, ten to the inch, the
spacing of ordinary typewriting.
Angle Measure is an instrument devised for the
purpose of measuring angles in handwriting and
typewriting.
Typewriter- A typewriter is a machine that can
reproduce printed characters on paper. It has a keyboard
containing the letter of the alphabet, numbers, common
punctuation marks, and various controls.
Transmitted Light Table- A “flood of light” is
sometimes all at once thrown on a problem when
investigated in this way and every document that is
suspected should be “seen through” in this manner.
Computers- A computer is an apparatus built to
perform routine calculations with speed, reliability, and
ease. In addition to this basic function, the advance of
technology has enabled computers to provide
numerous services for an ever-increasing number of
people.
 Cheque-Writing Machines- It is a device, which is
intended to prevent either erasure or alteration of
entries on cheque is the cheque-writer.
Electrostatic Detection- The modern well-equipped
forensic laboratory employs electrostatic detection to
recover indented writing.
Materials Used in the Production of Document

• Paper- The majority of documents are written,

typed or printed on paper. It is said that paper, was
invented by the Chinese more than two thousand
years ago, but knowledge of its manufacture was
slow to spread unto Europe.

Kinds of Paper
1. Papyrus- From about 2400 or earlier, the people
of Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and southern Europe used
the pith of the sedge Cyperus papyrus to make a
writing material known as papyrus.
To make papyrus, moistened strips of thinly sliced
pith with the rough outer covering removed were laid
side by side on a board, and another layer was
superimposed at right angles to the first layer. The
two layers were then pressed and carefully beaten
with hammers until the plant tissue ruptured; the
exuding sap glued the strips together as the papyrus
was dried in the sun. The resulting sheet, which was
very strong, was rubbed with polished, flat stones
until the surface was smooth. To make a scroll, many
sheets were joined together and rolled on a wooden
rod. In Latin, such a roll was called a volumen (from
voluere, “to roll”).
2. Parchment- A writing material made from the
skins primarily of sheep, calves, or goats, parchment
was probably developed in the Middle East more or
less contemporaneously with papyrus.

Papyrus paper Parchment paper

Ink- The earliest kind of ink was India ink. It was
made from soot or carbon mixed with water. This ink
does not penetrate the paper and can be scraped off
with a knife.
Another kind of ink called logwood was used many
years ago but is not now common.

The first invisible ink is URINE.

Writing Instruments

The ballpoint pen is the newest and most popular

type of ink writing instrument. A very few were made
in Europe before 1935.
• A practical ballpoint pen was first used in Argentina
in 1943.
• Before 1951, most ballpoint inks were made with an
oil base.
• After 1951 there were improved inks using a
different chemical compound, which did not smear
as oil did.
Kinds:
Quill Pens were made from the wing feathers of the
goose and saw, primarily, although feathers from other
birds were also used.

Steel Nibs. Metal pen points, or nibs, had been used

occasionally in Europe, but no efficient manufacturing
method was devised to produce a uniform, reliable, and
inexpensive point until the 1830s.
Fountain Pens. The fountain pen, incorporating its
own link reservoir, is an 1884 invention of an
American, Lewis E. Waterman.

Ballpoint Pens. The first patent of a ballpoint writing

tip was issued in 1888 to an American, John H. Loud.
Loud’s pen was designed to write on rough surfaces;
his concept, coupled with advances in ball grinding
and measuring technology.
Pencil is a hand-held device for writing, marking or
drawing; it consists of a core of solid marking
substance contained in a holder. Graphite is the
marking substance used in “lead” pencils.
Development of Handwriting
Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series
of acts being as a whole, a combination of certain
forms of visible, mental and muscular habits acquired
by long painstaking efforts.

Development of Writing:
• Children learn writing by following the school copy or
model.
• After acquiring some degree of skill, the children no
longer follow the school needed.
• As speed increases, conscious design and regularity
begin to break down.
• In the course of trial and error, modifications are
made simplifications and elaboration, additions and
omissions occur.
System of Handwriting

The combination of the basic design of letters and

writing movement is taught in school.

Systems of Early American Handwriting

• Old English round hand
• Modified round hand- 1840-1860.
• Spencerian- 1860-1890.
• Modern vertical writing
Old English round hand
Modified round hand
Early and Unsystematic Spencerian
Final Spencerian PDS Form
Final Spencerian Small Letters
Other Systems of Handwriting
The arm movement writing- The prevalent present-
day style, taught in a majority of the schools of this
country for about twenty years, is a modification or
adaptation of the “business writing” developed in
American commercial schools.
The angular style of writing - taught to and written
by many women during all of the last century is
entirely distinct from these four systems just described;
and the many foreign hands which have been brought
into American during the same time have necessarily
affected writing in this country to a considerable
extent.
Angular Hand
The identification of Handwriting
Handwriting Defined
Handwriting is a neuromuscular process that originates in
the brain. Some researchers have called it brain writing.

Handwriting Identification Defined

In the legal sense, as it applies to civil and criminal
litigation, handwriting identification seeks to establish
the identity or non-identity of a writer.

Principle of Identification
The identification of handwriting is based on the
proposition that “people are all alike; people are all
different”.
 Movement- This is the manner in which the pen moves in
order to form a letter. Some parts of movement have been
historically referred to as “Garland” if the pen moves overhand,
or clockwise; producing rounded letter formations, or
“Arcade” if the pen moves underhand, or counter-clockwise,
producing saw-toothed letter formations. While correct these
terms are generally found in the speech patterns and report
language of graphologists.
Kinds of Movement
Finger movement
Hand movement writing
Forearm, or muscular movement
Whole-arm movement
Characteristics of Handwritings
The recognition, correct interpretation, and complete
comparison of elements, characteristics and all qualities,
are the essential phases of a scientific handwriting
examination. Every element or quality in handwriting
has same value as a means of identifying it, but these
qualities vary greatly in significance.
2 Categories of Handwriting Characteristics
• Class characteristics- these are properties or marks
of handwriting that are common to a number of
writers
• Individual characteristics- these are properties or
marks of handwritings which are highly personal or
peculiar
Form – This is probably the most basic of individual
characteristics. It is the pictorial representation of a
letter or writing movement.
Skill Level- Skill level can be best described as an
appreciation of beauty as applied to handwriting. An
individual with a high skill level produces writing that is
fluid, rhythmic, perhaps artistically embellished and, in
short, aesthetically pleasing to the eye.
Rhythm is defined as a harmonious recurrence of
stress or impulse or motion.
Alignment- is the relation of parts or the whole line of
questioned writing or line of individual letters in words
to the base line.
Good rhythm showing consistent slant, even
spacing, and an even return to the baseline,
revealing a highly skilled writer.

Poor rhythm showing variable slant and a moderate

skill level.
Movement- This is the manner in which the pen
moves in order to form a letter.
Kinds of Movement
• Finger movement
• Hand movement writing
• Forearm, or muscular movement
• Whole-arm movement
Height Ratios- are a comparison or correlation of the
height of one letter or letter segment to another letter,
usually with the same word or signature.
Pen Lifts- Pen-lift if distinguished from hiatus in that
there is an obvious appearance of a gap in the writing.
Hiatus- Hiatus is a gap between strokes. Speed of
writing, defective writing instruments may have an
influence on the number and position of hiatuses.
Speed- Pen speed is often an essential element of the
examination process. As will be discussed elsewhere fast,
fluid pen movement is difficult to duplicate by a forger.
Hesitation- The irregular thickening of the ink line when
the writing slows down or stops.
Embellishments- They usually take the form of an
added movement that decorates the writing, such as
swirls, added loops, concentric circles, flourishes, etc.
Entry/Exit Strokes- The entry and exit strokes of a
letter may repeat themselves in similar letter formations
such as “U’s” and “V’s” or perhaps “M’s” and “N’s”.
However, they may be in the form of a beginning or
ending embellishment or a continuation from one letter
to the next. Entry and exit strokes can be habitual
movements and therefore identifying characteristics.
Retracing- Retracing is the process wherein the pen
re-inks a written portion of the line,.

Spelling/Spacing- The simple act of misspelling words

can of themselves be individual, in combination, to a
specific individual. Take for example the case of a
Lithuanian seaman who in the body of one questioned
document spelled: “because”-“b-cause”, “shoes”-
“schoes”, “tennis”-“tennis”, “sweater”-“sweather”, and
“pajamas”-“pygemas”.

Format- The format of a disputed document may

additionally be an identifying characteristic. Using a
personal check as an example, one individual may use
the term “no cents”, another may use “00/xxx” or
perhaps “00/100.” Ampersands, if used, also tend to be
unique.
Slant or Inclination- refers to the angle of
inclination of writing or a letter of writing from the
base line of what writing.

Proportions- generally refer to the symmetry of

individual letter. Using the letter “B” as an example, is
the top “bulb” the same size as the bottom “bulb?”
Kinds of Writing

• Cursive/Conventional- most part are joined

together.
• Script- disconnected style.
• Block Style- capitalized/printed
 Cursive/Conventional

Script
Block Style
The Natural Variation of Handwriting
Every person has a range of handwriting variation determined
by his or her physical writing ability, training in “penmanship”,
and other factors.
Handwriting is a free-form activity, and there are an infinite
number of ways to write even the simplest letter combination.
It is highly unlikely that any person will write his or her own
name exactly the same way twice in an entire lifetime.

Variation in Genuine Writing

Variations in genuine writings are ordinarily in superficial parts,
and in size, proportions, and the degree of care given to the
act. Writing as a whole process is very much more fixed than is
generally thought to be, and is in fact one of the most
permanent and unconscious of human habits.
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN HAND WRITING
It has been said that any two objects larger than molecular size
contain variation. And so it is with handwriting. We never
write anything exactly the same. Every time we write,
we write slightly different.

EXTERNAL VARIATION IN HANDWRITING

Some individual’s handwriting will display little difference in
individual characteristics from the time that their handwriting
had matured (usually in the late teens or early 20’s), until the
time they go to the grave. Most individual’s handwriting will
undergo moderate to radical changes throughout a lifetime.
Some factors:
• Age and infirmity
• Medication
• Changing eyesight, or
• even a Change in occupation can be a catalyst
Tremors- are rhythmic movement of part of the body caused
by involuntary rhythmic muscle contractions.

Tremor of Fraud. The characteristics of tremor of fraud are

inequality in movement at any place in any stroke or line, with
strokes too strong and vigorous combined with weak,
hesitating strokes, also frequent interruptions in movement,
unequal distribution of ink on upward as well as downward
strokes, and especially the varying pen pressure, due to
change in speed and interruptions in movement, which may
occur in the middle of direct curves, or even in what should
be straight lines.

Tremor of age, or of extreme weakness. Characteristics

of tremor of age, or of extreme weakness usually show
unusual and erratic departures of the line from its intended
course, abrupt recovery, and a general indication of muscular
weakness and of movements beyond the control of the writer,
particularly in the downward strokes.
In tremor of illiteracy the changes of direction are not
apt to be a numerous as in tremor of age or of
weakness, and in this writing omission of parts of
letters or strokes are not common.
Illiterate tremor is characterized by a general
irregularity that is not due to weakness but to lack of
skill and a mental uncertainty as to the form and
to a general muscular clumsiness resulting from
unfamiliarity with the whole writing process.
Disguised Handwriting- is one in which the person
has made a deliberate attempt to remove or modify all
or some of his normal writing habits.
Indented Writing- or second page writing is the
impression from the writing instrument captured only
sheets of paper below the one that contains the original
writing. This most often manifests itself when pads of
paper are used.
Guided-Handwriting or Assisted Signatures and
Sequence of Cross Stroke. A signature actually
produced by the cooperation of two hands and two
minds will usually show evidence of unnaturalness in
the signature itself that is inconsistent with forgery.

Genuine handwriting
Forgery in General. Webster would define a signature
as one’s name written by him on a document as a sign
of acknowledgement.
Forgery is the act of falsely making or materially
altering, with intent to defraud, and writing which, if
genuine, might be of legal efficacy, or the foundation of
a legal liability.

Most writers have at least three classes of signature:

Formal- complete, correct signature for an important
document such as a will;
Informal- cursory, signature for routine documents and
personal correspondence; and
Careless- scribble for the mail carrier, delivery boy, and
perchance the autograph collector.
Signature
There are 2 definition of Signature:
• Old Definition- the name of any person written with his
own hand in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
(Within this old definition a personalized signature is not
accepted)
• New Definition- refers to any design or pattern written by
a person in a document as a representation of
acknowledgement. (This definition accepts both the
personalized and the conventional type of the signature)

Kinds of Signature
• Conventional or Ordinary Copy-Book Form- the letters
are legible.
• Highly individualized or personalized- characterized by
a series of intertwining stroke, ornamentation and
flourishes.
Signature is not a signature but it is a drawing.
 Classification of Suspect Signatures
In “Suspect Documents” Harrison lists seven general classifications
of suspect signatures. These are:
• Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a
copy of the genuine signature of the person purporting to sign the
document;
• Forged “signatures of fictitious persons”;
• Forged signatures which closely resemble the genuine signature
since they have been produced by a tracing process;
• Forged signatures which resemble the genuine signature, written
freehand to produce what is known as a “simulated forgery”;
• Genuine signatures which have been obtained by trickery;
• Genuine signatures which the writers are honestly unwilling to
accept as genuine;
• Genuine signatures which have been deliberately written illegibly
or in an unusual manner, so as to afford the signatories some
plausible grounds for disclaiming them should they deem it
expedient.
Primary Signs of Forgery

• Written at speed, which is markedly slower than the

genuine signatures;
• Frequent change of the grasp of the pen or pencil;
• Blunt line endings and beginnings;
• Poor line quality with wavering and tremor of the line;
• Retracing and patching;
• Stops in places where writing should be free;
• Unnatural pen lift;
• Uncertainly tremor;
• Drawn quality devoid of free normal movement;
• Hesitation
Three features of forged signatures

• Any forgery will, of necessity, exhibit a considerable

degree of similarity to the general run of genuine
signatures in the more obvious features of letter
design;
• Some forgeries will resemble at least one genuine
signature in almost every detail;
• No two genuine signatures of any length are
replicas of each other.
Indicators of Forgery
Blunt Starts and Stops- the forger places the pen point
in contact with the paper and the starts writing. When he
is finished with the name or some portions thereof, he
stops the pen and lifts it from the surface.

Pen Lifts and Hesitation- This is occasioned when the

pen stops at an unusual point in the writing, perhaps
where a radical change in direction is about to take place
or a new letter formation is about to be started.

Tremor- because the creation of most forms of non-

genuine signatures are little more than drawings, the pen
is moving so slowly that small, almost microscopic,
changes in direction take place in what should be a fluid-
looking line. The resultant line is not smooth, but reflects
the “shaking” pen.
Speed and Pressure- again, because the pen is moving
slowly rather than with the dynamic movement associated
with most genuine writings, the ink line remains constant in
thickness, resulting form the same constant pressure
exerted on a slowly moving pen.

Patching- infrequently, but at one time or another, most of

us have made an error while writing our own signature.
Some individuals may leave the signatures alone, caring
about the mistake or imperfection, while others will simply
“fix” the signature by correcting the offending portion.
 Terminologies used in Questioned
Document Examination
• ARC- it refers to a curved form inside the top curve of
a loop, as in small letters “h”, “m” “n”.
• ARCH- it refers to any arcade form in the body of a
letter found in small letter contain arches.
• BEARD- it is the rudimentary initial up strokes of a
letter.

• BLUNT- it is the beginning and ending strokes of a

letters both small and capital in which the pen
touches the paper without hesitation.
• BOWL- it is a fully rounded ova or circular form on a
letter complete into O.

• BUCKLE KNOT- it refers to the horizontal end loop

stroke that is often used to complete a letter.
• HUMP- it refers to the rounded outside of the top of
the bend stroke or curve in small letters.

• SHOULDER- it refers to the outside portion of the

top curve of small letters.
• SPUR- it refers to a short initial or terminal stroke.

• STAFF- it refers to any major long downward stroke

of a small letter.
• STEM or TRUNK- it is the upright long downward
strokes normally seen in capital letter.

• SERIF- it refers to a small stroke which begins or

ends a letter or a part of a letter.

w v f
• CROSS BAR- it refers to the horizontal stroke forming
part of a letter such as “t”, or “H”.

H
• HIATUS- it is regarded as special form of pen lift. It
is a gap between strokes.
• HESITATION- it is the irregular thickening of the ink
line when the writing slows down or stops while the
writer takes stuck of the position.
• RETRACING- it is the process wherein the pen re-
inks a written portion of the line.
• RETOUCHING or PATCHING- it is a partial
overwriting of a signature.
Indications of Genuineness

• Habitual speed of writing

• Firmness of stroke
• Degree of skill
• Pattern of shading and emphasis
• Fundamental muscular movement
• Coordination, continuity and freedom
Kinds of Forgery
Simple forgery (spurious forgery)
-defined as the fraudulent writing of the signature of
another in the natural or disguised writing of the forger.
-the forger simply writes the name in question with no
immaterial attention disturbing his usual writing
processes.
Simulated forgery
- is freehand drawings in imitation of a model signature.
There are two basic classes of simulation. The most
common involves the use of an actual model
document. A second class of forgery by simulation
finds the forger without an actual model document
at hand. The forger must rely for inspiration on his
recollection from past observation of the genuine
signature he proposes to imitate.
 With Actual Model

Genuine Forged
Without Actual Model
Cut and Paste forgery
-is created when the authentic signatures are misused
by means of photocopiers or computer scanners. . In
these situations, the resulting signature is not really a
“forgery” strictly speaking because your signature has
been “recycled”.
Traced Forgery
-is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent
document an exact facsimile of a genuine writing by
same tracing process.

-Kinds:
a. Carbon Process
b. Indentation Process
c. Transmitted Light Process
Kinds of Tracing Process
Carbon Process
Here the forger places the document to be forged on the
bottom, interleaves a piece of a carbon paper, and places
on top a document containing a genuine signature. The
forger then traces over the genuine signature with a pencil,
pen, styles, or other sharp pointed instrument.

Genuine Carbon Process

Indentation Process
The document containing the authentic signature is placed
on top-of-the document being forged. The forger traces
usually, with considerable pressure, over the genuine
signature, using a pencil, pen, stylus or similar instrument
that creates an indented signature outline on the document
being forged.

Genuine Signature Indented Signature

Transmitted Light Process
The document to be forged is placed on top of the
document containing the genuine signature. In registration,
the two documents are superimposed over a light source
and a flat surface. The ever available window, a photo
graphic printer, or the draftsman’s tracing eased might be
utilized. The forger traces a signature outline with pencil or
pen and ink, following the design of the genuine signature,
made visible by the light in back of it.
• Identity of Forger- While it is often possible to
express and justify a definite opinion as to whether a
signature is genuine or forged, it is rare that the
identity of a forger can be established.
• Sex of the Writer- contrary to common belief,
there is no known reliable method of determining
the sex of the writer from an examination of the
handwriting.
What is erasure?
• It is the act of changing the meaning of the
document by means of removing certain parts.

Two Types of Erasure:

1. Mechanical erasure
2. Chemical erasure
What is obliteration?
• It id the act of changing the meaning of the
document by means of spilling ink on a document to
hide some parts the forger does not want to be
seen.
What is Alteration?
- It is the act of changing the meaning of the
document by means of adding certain characters.
Example:
The forger usually tries to change a1 to a7, or to add a
0 behind a number to increase the value by 10. A
check or receipt for $7 could be raised to 70 if
sufficient space is left in the original document. The
forger will also have to change the written “seven” to
“seventy” by adding the additional letters “ty”.
Anonymous Writing
Types of Anonymous Letters
a. Information
a.1. Reliable Informer. A person may write to the
police department to inform them to the identity of a criminal.
Sometimes the “tip” will be a reliable one. A person
witnessing a crime or knowing of the existence of a
conspiracy will, out of public spirit or out of personal dislike
for the criminal, inform the authorities of the name and
address of the perpetrator and of the circumstances
surrounding the crime.
a.2. Crank Informants. A crime which receives a
great deal of publicity will inspire a number of slightly
unbalanced minds to write letters conveying their suspicions.
b. Criminal Intent- This is the threatening letter of the
extortionist. The writer usually demands a sum of money.
b.1. Kidnapping. The criminal may threaten to kill the
captive unless a stipulated sum of money is delivered under
stated conditions. Wealthy persons are the usual receivers of
such letters.

b.2. Extortion and Blackmail. Blackmail is a form of

extortion. In blackmail a letter is used to convey the threat.
The blackmails sends, or causes to be sent, for the purpose of
extorting money a letter or writing, which threatens one of
the following:
• To accuse a person of a crime
• To do any injury to any person or property
• To publish or connive at publishing a libel
• To expose or impute a deformity or disgrace
c. Malcontents. This is the most common type of
anonymous letter writer. In some communities his action is
called “dropping a letter”. Typically, he is associated with a
large organization, in private industry or civil service. His
merits have not received true recognition.
d. Cranks- This term covers a wide range of letter writers.
Some of them are harmlessly insane and can be ignored.
Others may be violent vent to their feelings and are
potentially dangerous.
d.1. Attacking Public Figures. This is the religious
or political crank. He addresses anonymous letters to
persons in public office or at the head of a large private
organization.
d.2. Obscene Letter. The Sex Deviate. Some
persons derive great satisfaction, usually sexual in nature,
from writing obscene or scurrilous letters to a person of the
opposite sex.
What is Handwriting Standard?
- It is defined as the general term referring to all
authenticated writings of the suspect.
- a “standard” is simply a known item to which an
unknown item can be compared.

What is Exemplars?
- It refers specifically to a specimen of standard writing
offered in evidence or obtained on request for
comparison with the questioned document.
Two Classes of Standards
A. Collected Standards (Non- Request Standard)
- are quite simply writings, which were indisputably
prepared by the accused when he had no reason to
think that they would be used for a handwriting
comparison.
B. Request Standards ( Dictated Standards)
- are those in which the subject is asked to write
specific material, usually through dictation.
Post Litem Motam Standards
- These are writings produced by the subject after
evidential writings have come into dispute and solely
for the purpose of establishing his contentions.

Anachronism
- It means that the forger has trouble matching the
paper, ink or writing materials to the exact date it was
supposed to have been written. In other words,
something is wrong in the time and place.
Graphology
- is the study and analysis of handwriting to assess
the writer’s traits or personality.
- According to Mr. Ram Manlapaz, a graphologist who
has been involved in handwriting analysis for the last
20 years, “The movement of your hand is governed
by your brain. Its mental, its physical, its emotional.
All these integrate during the act of handwriting.
This gives you a picture of who the individual is.”
Calligraphy
- (from a Greek word meaning “beautiful writing”) is
the art of fine handwriting.
Calligraphic Terms
• Ascender. Refers to the portion of the letter that rises
above the waistline.
• Ascender line. Refers to the guideline showing the
height of an ascending letter.
• Base line. Refers to the writing line that the body of a
letter sits upon.
• Branching stroke. Refers to the stroke, which connects
an arch to the down stroke of a letter.
• Cap line. Refers to the guideline showing the height of a
capital letter.
• Counter. It is the white space inside a letter.
• Cross bar. Refers to the horizontal stroke forming part of
a letter such as “t” or “H.”
• Descender. Refers to the portion of a letter that falls
below the base line.
• Downstroke. It is a stroke directed downward towards
the base line or descender line.
• Ductus. Refers to the number, direction and sequence o
the strokes, which make up a letter.
• Flourish. It is non-structural embellishment added to a
letter.
• Hairline. Refers to a very thin line.
• Majuscule. Refers to the capital letter or upper case
letter.
• Miniscule. Refers to a lower case letter.
• Nib. It is the pen point.
• Nib width. Refers to the width of any broad-edged tool.
A letter written at four nib widths high will appear twice as
heavy as one written at eight nib widths high with the
same pen.
• Pen angle. Refers to the angle at which the nib meets the
paper, relative to the base line.
• Serif. Refers to a small stroke, which begins or ends a letter
or a part of a letter.
• Slant. Refers to the slope of a letter, measured from the
vertical.
• Slant line. Refers to the guideline showing the correct slant.
• Spacing. Counter space: Refers to the space inside a letter.
Interletter space: Refers to the space between letters.
Interword space: Refers to the space between words.
Interlinear space :Refers to the space between lines of writing.
• Thick. Refers to a heavy or blunt stroke.
• Thin. Refers to a fine stroke, sometimes called hairline.
• Waist line. Refers to the guideline showing the correct
position for the upper boundary of the x-height.
• x-height. Refers to the height of a letter or the portion of
a letter that sits between the base line and the waistline
(the height of the lower case “x”)
Cacography
- is defined as bad handwriting or bad spelling. It
derives from the Greek graphos, “writing”, prefixed
with kakos, “bad”.
Typewriting Identification
Typewriting and Typewriter Examination-
typewriting questions are presented in a great variety
of ways. In the first place, it often is desirable simply
to ascertain the date of a typewritten document. It
may also be a matter of great importance to learn
whether a document was all written continuously as
written at different times on the same machine or at
different times on different machines.
• Typewriting Examination to ascertain definite
date.
1. To find when a certain kind of machine, the work of
which is in question, first come into use and it is
important to learn, and to be able to prove, when any
changes in the machine were made that affected the
written record.
2. The consecutive arrangement of specimens of dated
writings from the machine will show the exact date
when each new ribbon was put on the machine, and a
fraudulently dated document sometimes does not match
the ribbon condition of the work of the particular
machine on the exact date it bears.

3. The mechanical requirement in the spacing of

typewriting makes it necessary that all letters, capitals
and lower case, narrow and wide, shall be given the
same lateral space.
Typewriting Defects
• Horizontal Defect - Is an alignment defect of typewriting
that occurs when a character prints to the right or left of its
proper position .
• Off- its- feet defect - Is an alignment defect of
typewriting that occurs when a character prints with an
uneven distribution of ink lighter to right or left.
• Rebound Defect- Is an alignment defect of typewriting
that occurs when a character prints a double impression
lighter to the right or left.
• Twisted Defect - It is an alignment defect in which a
character leans to the right or left of its proper position.
• Vertical Defect - Is an alignment defect of typewriting that
occurs when a character is printed above or below its
proper position. A character soldered too high or too low on
the type bar.
The examination of the type impressions should
be made in five ways:
• The design, size and proportions of each of the
characters.
• The relation of each character is printed to adjacent
characters, or its vertical and horizontal alignment.
• The vertical position of the character in relation to
the line of writing, that is, it’s perpendicular, or slants
to the left or right.
• The comparative weight of impression of the upper,
lower, right or left sides of each character, or as the
machine adjusters describe it, how type stands “on
the feet” or “off its feet.”
• The condition of the typefaces of all the letters and
characters and the presence of defects, bruises, or
“sears” due to wear or to accidents.
• The principles underlying the identification of
typewriting are the same as those by which the
identity of a person is determined or handwriting is
identified. The identification in either case is based
upon a definite combination of common or class
qualities and features in connection with a second
group of characteristics made up of divergences from
class qualities, which then become individual
peculiarities.
Procedures for Obtaining Known Typewriting
Exemplars
• If the typewriter has a carbon film ribbon, remove it
from the typewriter and submit it to the laboratory.
Also submit the correction tape. Insert a new ribbon
in the typewriter prior to obtaining exemplars.

• Inkjet color printer differ by the type of ink used

(water or oil base V. plastic); the presence of ink
spatter; evidence of dragging and the presence of
gaps in areas that should be solid.

• Thermal-transfer color printers share evidence of

burnout of thermal elements in the print head, the
effects of faulty ribbon advance mechanisms and the
presence of “banding.”
• Photocopies- Photocopies can sometimes be
identified with the machine producing them if the
exemplars and questioned copies are relatively
contemporaneous. The possible make and model of
the photocopy machine can sometimes be
determined by comparison with the reference file.

Procedures for Obtaining Known Photocopy

Exemplars
• Obtain at least ten exemplars with no document on
the glass plate, with the cover down.
• Obtain at least ten exemplars with not document on
the glass plate, with the cover up.
• Obtain at least ten exemplars with a document on
the glass plate, with the cover down.
• Record of each exemplar the date the exemplars
were obtained, the name of the person who directed
the exemplars, and the conditions under which the
exemplars, and the conditions under which the
exemplars are made.
• Record the make, model and serial number of the
photocopy machine, information about the toner
supplies and components, whether the paper supply
is sheet or roll fed, and options such as color,
reduction, enlargement, zoom, mask, trim or editor
board.
• Do not store or ship photocopies in plastic envelopes.
Questioned Document Examination- Questioned
document examination involves a great many areas of
expertise. Included under questioned document
examination are the following disciplines:
• Handwriting
• Typewriting
• Photocopying and Computer printers,
• Forgery
• Paper and Inks
• Writing instruments
• Computer disks
• Gambling machinery stamps (as in the rubber pad
kind) and
• Dating of documents.
Age of Documents- A question of the age of document
may arise in connection with papers such as wills or
contracts.

Methods of Aging- To give the document an

appearance of age, it is subject to chemical and physical
treatment. Among the techniques employed are the
following:
• Heating
• Sunlight
• Abuse
• Chemical treatment
Determinators –The examiner can sometimes
answer successfully are the following:
• Purported Age. Is the document as old as the date or
other signs would indicate?
• Probable Date. What is the approximate date on
which the document was made?
• Several Documents.Is a one document produced
before or after another document?
Age Indicators- To determine the appropriate age of
a document, a study must be made of the physical and
chemical properties of the paper and the writing and of
the text and its meaning. Among the indicators that can
assist the examiners are the following:
• Ink
• Typewriting
• Dated Mechanical Styles
• Stamps
• Textual contents
• Writing media
• Physical characteristics
• Style
• Paper
• Can a document examiner work with photocopies
of questioned documents?

• Can a client fax documents to the document

examiner for examination?
Electronic Related Crimes
What is the Internet? – The Internet can be defined as a
“network of networks.” A single network consists of two or
more computers that are connected to share information.

CRIME ON THE INTERNET

Computer Network Break-Ins
a. Hacking- it is not practice as criminal gain, and can
therefore be considered more mischievous than malicious.
b. One done for illegal purposes - A criminal might break
into a large credit card company to steal card numbers, or into
a network to steal data or sensitive information.

Morphing is a practice that involves using computers to

digitally alter pictures.
• Counterfeiting- is the crime of making, circulating or
uttering false coins and bank notes, with the intent to
defraud others into accepting it as the genuine time.

• Examination of Counterfeit Coins- A suspected

counterfeit coin should be, examined by a magnifying
glass and comparing it with a known, genuine coin.

Making of Paper Money- There are three (3) principal

ways of printing paper:
• Engraving
• Letterpress printing
• Offset printing
HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT CENTRAL
BANK NOTES
Study the workmanship of each denomination of known
genuine Central bank Notes. Take note of and familiarize
yourself with the various characteristics of the following
features:
• Distinctive feel
• Portrait
• Watermarks in Filipino Notes
• Red and Blue fibers widely distributed of the paper
• “Broken” thread vertically arranged on the left side of
Filipino notes
• Lace-work design
• Color of each denomination
• Color, style and size of serial number
• Vignette
• Clearness of print
• Photography of Documents as Evidence -
Photographs are useful in nearly every questioned
document investigation and in many cases it is impossible
without them to present the facts to a court in an
effective, convincing manner.

• Photomicrography and Photomacrography - To

demonstrate certain minute detail that is important the
evidence the examiner must make enlarged pictures of the
significant areas. Photomicrography the process
whereby an enlarged image is achieved on the negative is
the most commonly used technique. The use of a 32 mm
lens usually of the magnification that is required.
Photomacrography must be employed where a
magnification of over 10x is needed. In this technique the
photograph is made with a microscope objective and
eyepiece.
• Transparencies - To demonstrate in forgery cases the
exact superimposition of writings such as the genuine and
the traced signatures, a set of transparencies is made.
• Filter Photography - In obliterated writing it is often
necessary to discern writing that lies beneath after writing.
If the two writings were made with different colored inks,
a photograph is made using a filter of the same color as
the upper ink.
• Ultraviolet - The use of radiation slightly shorter in
wavelength than that of visible light is quite common in
document photography. following are some of the uses of
this form of radiation:
- Inks - Invisible Writing
- Erasures - Identification of papers
- Tampering - Counterfeits
- Resealing Envelopes
• Infrared Photography - Some of the dyes used are
inks transparent to infrared radiations; others are
opaque and consequently, are recorded on infrared
film. This phenomenon is useful in dealing with
obliterations.

The infrared properties of ink, pencil, and paper are

used in a number of ways:
• Erasures
• Burned Documents
• Faded writing
• Sealed Envelope
What is an Expert Witness?
- An expert is a person skilled in some art, trade, or
science to the extent that he possesses information
not within the common knowledge of men.

What is Non- Expert Witness?

-It is an ordinary witness who may express an opinion
on matters of common observation.
CASE STUDY: ALTERED NUMBER CASE

Background A man’s ex-wife cashed a check against his account. He

suspected forgery and contacted a document examiner. An examination of
the check 46 Forensic Document Examination revealed that the check had
been written and signed by the client. However, the check had been
altered. The client remembered making out a check to his wife several
years earlier when he was putting her through school. She lost the original
check so he had issued her a new check.
Question What should a document examiner look for on a check to
determine alteration?
ANSWER Change of date, payee, or amount. Look for signs of erasure or
rewriting.
Outcome The document examiner discovered that no bank would cash a
check that was more than a year old. The date on the check had been
changed from 1992 to 1993. The perpetrator was indicted for forgery.