3(a) FIRE-TUBE BOILER:

 This is a boiler in which the fire or hot gas is present inside the tubes and water surrounds these fire tubes.
 Since fire is inside the tubes and hence it is named as fire tube boiler. The heat from the hot gases is conducted through the walls
of the tube to the water.
 The examples of this boiler are the simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Locomotive
boiler, Scotch marine boiler and Velcon boiler.
ADVANTAGE:
Fire tube boiler is in simple design and has a low maintenance cost
Less skilled operation are sufficient for efficient operation.
Fire tube boiler can be used in small industry.
No pure feed water is required in FTB, So cost can be minimized because pure feed water is costly.
For the same power output, the cost of a fire tube boiler is less as compared to a water tube boiler.
DISADVANTAGE:
The maximum working pressure of fire tube boiler is up to 20 bar.
Overall efficiency is up to 75%
It requires more floor area for a given output.
Load fluctuation cannot be easily handled.
The rate of steam generation and quality of steam for suitable power generation are not much better than the water
tube boiler.
This is used in small power plants.

(b) For both, steam drum systems as well as once-through steam generators (OTSG) systems, we must have uninterrupted flow of water
through the tubes in order for the system to continuously generate steam. For an OTSG system, water travels only one time (single pass)
through the boiler tubes before being converted to steam and sent to the steam turbine generator set for producing electricity. On the other
hand for steam-drum systems, water has to travel many times (multiple passes) through the tubes before it leaves as steam.

Based on two basic types of circulation commonly used, high pressure (HP) steam producing boilers can be classified as:

- Natural or thermal circulation boilers and

- Forced or pumped circulation boilers

Natural (or thermal) circulation boilers

Referring to figure-1(a), in the downcomer (pipe through which flow is directed downwards), no steam is present and the tube section A-B is
not heated. Heat input generates a steam-water mixture in section B-C, usually referred to as riser (pipe through which flow is directed
upwards). Due to the fact that the steam-water mixture at section B-C is less dense (since it is hotter) compared to the water of section A-B,
thermosiphonic effect (gravity) will cause the water to flow donwards at segment A-B and upwards at segment B-C towards the steam drum.

Natural versus forced circulation typical schematic

In natural or thermal circulation type boilers, the rate of circulation depends strongly on the density difference between the unheated water
and the heated steam-water mixture. The overall circulation rate (flow) in natural circulation systems mostly depends on the following
factors:
- Height of the boiler - Taller boilers yield a bigger pressure difference between the heated and unheated sections and consequently produce
bigger flow rates.
- Operating pressure of the boiler - Higher operating pressure produces higher density steam as well as higher density steam-water
mixtures. This tends to reduce the overall density difference between the heated and unheated segments, as the liquid water density remains
same being independent of operating pressure. Hence higher pressure reduces the produced steam flow rates.
- Heat input rate - Higher heat input rate helps reduce the average density in the heated section and thereby increase the total flow rate.

A pump is added in the closed flow loop system indicated in the section A-B of figure-1(b). The pressure difference created by the pump
(pump head) helps control the water flow rate. A pressure reduction device (orifice or similar) is also typically used, as an additional control
mechanism.

4(a)
4(b) economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid.
Economizers are so named because they can make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler,
thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a boiler which saves energy by
using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water used to fill it (the feed water).
Steam boilers use large amounts of energy raising feed water to the boiling temperature, converting the water to steam and sometimes
superheating that steam above saturation temperature. Heat transfer efficiency is improved when the highest temperatures near the
combustion sources are used for boiling and superheating, while using the residual heat of the cooled combustion gases exhausting from the
boiler through an economizer to raise the temperature of feed water entering the steam drum.
An indirect contact or direct contact condensing economizer will recover the residual heat from the combustion products. A series of
dampers, an efficient control system, as well as a ventilator, allow all or part of the combustion products to pass through the economizer,
depending on the demand for make-up water and/or process water. The temperature of the gases can be lowered from the boiling
temperature of the fluid to little more than the incoming feed water temperature while preheating that feed water to the boiling temperature.
High pressure boilers typically have larger economizer surfaces than low pressure boilers. Economizer tubes often have projections like fins
to increase the heat transfer surface on the combustion gas side. [1] On average over the years,[ boiler combustion efficiency has risen from
80% to more than 95%. The efficiency of heat produced is directly linked to boiler efficiency. The percentage of excess air and the
temperature of the combustion products are two key variables in evaluating this efficiency.
Air preheater
An air preheater is any device designed to heat air before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler With the primary objective
of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam
coil.
In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in thermal power stations producing electric
power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomass or waste. For instance, as the Ljungström air preheater has been attributed worldwide fuel
savings estimated to 4,960,000,000 tons of oil, "few inventions have been as successful in saving fuel as the Ljungström Air Preheater",
marked as the 44th International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.[6]
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by
reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases
leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for example). It is installed between the economizer and chimney.

2(a)
LAYOUT OF STEAM POWER PLANT:
The layout of steam power plant has the following circuits:
1.     Fuel (Coal) and ash circuit
2.     Air and flue gas circuit
3.     Feed water and steam flow circuit
4.     Cooling water flow circuit.
 
1 COAL AND ASH CIRCUIT:
Layout of Steam power Plant
 
Coal and Ash Circuit:
 
•         Coal from mines is delivered by ships, rails or trucks to the power station.
•         Coal received at coal yard.       
•         Coal is sized by crushers, breakers etc.,
•         The sized coal is stored in coal storage.
•         From stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of conveyors, elevators etc.,
•           The coal is burnt in the boiler and ash is formed.
•         Ash coming out of the furnace will be too hot, dusty and accompanied by poisonous gases.
•           The ash is transferred to the ash storage.
•         Generally the ash will be quenched to reduce the temperature and the dust content.
 
2 AIR AND FLUE GAS CIRCUIT:
 
•         Air is taken from the atmosphere by the action of FD fan.
•           It is passed through an air pre heater
•           The air is preheated by the flue gases in the pre heater.
•           This preheated air is supplied to the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel.
•         Due to the combustion of fuel the flue gases are formed.
 
•           The flue gases from the furnace pass over the boiler tubes and super heater tubes.
•           Then the flue gases pass through economiser to heat the feed water.
•           After that it passes through a dust collector.
It is then exhausted to atmosphere through chimney
 
3 WATER AND STEAM  CIRCUIT
 
•           The water is preheated by the flue gases in the economiser.
•           This preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum.
•           Heat is transferred to the water by the burning of the coal.
•    Due to this, water is con verted into the steam.
•           The steam raised in boil er is passed through a super heater.
•         It is superheated by the flue gases.
•           The turbine drives generator to produce electric power.
•           The expanded steam is t hen passed through the condenser.
•         In the condenser, steam i s condensed into water there circulated
 
4 COOLING WATER CIRCUIT:
 
•         The exhaust steam from t he turbine is condensed in the condenser.
•           In the condenser, the cold water is circulated to condense the steam into water.
•   The steam is condensed b y losing its latent heat to the circulating the col d water.
•         Hence the cold water get s heated.
•           This hot water is then ta ken to a cooling tower.
•           In cooling tower the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through nozzzles.
•           The atmospheric air ente rs the cooling tower from the openings provided at the bottom of the tower.
•           This cold water is again circulated through the pump, condenser and the cooling
•         Some amount of water may be lost during circulation.
•           Hence make up water is added to the pond by means of a pump
(b) Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert feedwater into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core. The steam
produced drives the turbine. They are used in the most nuclear power plants, but there are many types according to the reactor type. The
boiling water reactor does not require steam generators since the water boils directly in the reactor core. In other types of reactors, such as
the pressurised heavy water reactors of the CANDU design, the primary fluid is heavy water. Liquid metal cooled reactors such as the
Russian BN-600 reactor also use heat exchangers between a secondary sodium circuit and a tertiary water circuit.
Design of Steam Generator
To increase the amount of heat transferred and the power generated, the heat exchange surface must be maximalized. This is obtained by
using tubes. Each steam generator can contain anywhere from 3,000 to 16,000 tubes, each about  19mm diameter.While the secondary fluid
is always water, the reactor coolant (carbon dioxide, sodium, helium) depends on the reactor type. Where the coolant is pressurized water,
two solutions have been adopted. In the first of these, the secondary water flows through straight tubes welded to tubesheets at both ends.
This is the “once-through” type of steam generator. To eliminate the loads exerted on the tubesheets by differential thermal
expansion between outside shell and the tubes, a second solutions is often employed. This alternative gives acope for thermal expansion by
 using U-tubes welded to a single tubesheet. The tubes carry the pressurized primary coolant and are surrounded by the secondary water,
which is turned into steam.
There are two designes for U-tubes steam generators. Design with tube bundle arranged vertically and design with tube bundle
arranged horizontally. Horizontal steam generators are used in the VVER type reactors. In commercial power plants, there are 2 to 6 steam
generators per reactor; each steam generator (vertical design) can measure up to 70 feet (~21m) in height and weigh as much as 800 tons.
The materials that make up the steam generators and tubes are specially made and specifically designed to withstand the heat, high pressure
and radiation. The water tubes also have to be able to resist corrosion from water for an extended period of time.
Operating conditions
The hot primary coolant (water 330°C; 626°F; 16MPa) is pumped into the steam generator through primary inlet. High pressure of
primary coolant is used to keep the water in the liquid state. Boiling of the primary coolant shall not occur. The liquid water flows through
hundreds or thousands of tubes (usually 1.9 cm in diameter) inside the steam generator. The feedwater (secondary circuit) is heated
from ~260°C 500°F to the boiling point of that fluid (280°C; 536°F; 6,5MPa). Heat is transferred through the walls of these tubes to the
lower pressure secondary coolant located on the secondary side of the exchanger where the coolant evaporates to pressurized
steam (saturated steam 280°C; 536°F; 6,5 MPa). The pressurized steam leaves the steam generator through a steam outlet and continues to
the steam turbine. The transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids to prevent the secondary coolant from becoming
radioactive. The primary coolant leaves (water 295°C; 563°F; 16MPa) the steam generator through primary outlet and continues through a
cold leg to a reactor coolant pump and then into the reactor.
(c) FIRE TUBE BOILER
Hot flue gases flow inside tubes that are submerged in water within a shell.
• Pressures up to about 10 bar
• Produce up to 14 tonnes of steam/hr
• Can meet wide and sudden load fluctuations because of large water volumes
• Usually rated in HP

Wet back designs

 Have a water wall at the back of the boiler in the area where combustion gases reverse direction to enter tubes.
Dry back designs
 Refractory is used at the back, instead of a water wall. Internal maintenance is simplified, but refractory replacement is expensive
and overheating, gauging and cracking of tube ends at the entrance to return gas passages often cause problems.
Advantages:
• Lower initial cost
• Few controls
• Simple operation
Disadvantages:
• Drums exposed to heat, increasing the risk of explosion
• Large water volume, resulting in poor circulation
• Limited steam pressure and evaporation
(d) Cooling towers are a special type of heat exchanger that allows water and air to come in contact with each other to lower the
temperature of the hot water. During this process, small volumes of water evaporate, lowering the temperature of the water that’s being
circulated throughout the cooling tower. In a short summary, a cooling tower cools down water that gets over heated by industrial equipment
and processes.
The hot water is usually caused by air conditioning condensers or other industrial processes. That water is pumped through pipes directly
into the cooling tower. Cooling tower nozzles are used to spray the water onto to the “fill media”, which slows the water flow down and
exposes the maximum amount of water surface area possible for the best air-water contact. The water is exposed to air as it flows throughout
the cooling tower. The air is being pulled by an motor-driven electric “cooling tower fan”.
When the air and water come together, a small volume of water evaporates, creating an action of cooling. The colder water gets pumped
back to the process/equipment that absorbs heat or the condenser. It repeats the loop over and over again to constantly cool down the heated
equipment or condensers. For more knowledge and learning about cooling towers visit Cooling Tower Fundamentals by SPXCooling

There are many different types of cooling towers but the cooling tower working principles stay pretty much the same. Most cooling towers
work based on the principle of “evaporative cooling“.
What is Evaporative Cooling? Evaporative cooling is the process where warm water from an industrial process is pumped up to the top of
the cooling tower where the water distribution system is. The water then gets distributed by cooling tower nozzles to the wet deck. At the
same time, air is being drawn through the air-inlet louvers forcing water to evaporate. Evaporation causes the heat to be removed from the
make up water. The hot air naturally rises out of the tire.
(e) A fusible plug is a threaded cylinder of metal usually of bronze, brass or gunmetal, with a tapered hole drilled completely through its
length. This hole is sealed with a metal of low melting point that flows away if a pre-determined, high temperature is reached. The initial use
of the fusible plug was as a safety precaution against low water levels in steam engine boilers, but later applications extended its use to other
closed vessels, such as air conditioning systems and tanks for transporting corrosive or liquefied petroleum gasses. A fusible plug operates as
a safety valve when dangerous temperatures, rather than dangerous pressures, are reached in a closed vessel. In steam boilers the fusible plug
is screwed into the crown sheet (the top plate) of the firebox, typically extending about an inch (25mm) into the water space above it. Its
purpose is to act as a last-resort safety device in the event of the water level falling dangerously low: when the top of the plug is out of the
water it overheats, the low-melting-point core melts away and the resulting noisy release of steam into the firebox serves to warn the
operators of the danger before the top of the firebox itself runs completely dry, which could result in catastrophic failure of the boiler. The
temperature of the flue gases in a steam engine firebox can reach 1000 °F (550 °C), at which temperature copper, from which historically
most fireboxes were made, softens to a state which can no longer sustain the boiler pressure and a severe explosion will result if water is not
put into the boiler quickly and the fire removed or extinguished. [1] The hole through the plug is too small to have any great effect in reducing
the steam pressure and the small amount of water, if any, that passes through it is not expected to have any great impact in quenching the
fire.
 (h) Compounding of steam turbines is the strategies in which energy from the steam is extracted in a number of stages rather than a single
stage in a turbine. A compounded steam turbine has multiple stages e.g it has more than one set of nozzles and rotors, in series, key to the
shaft or fixed to the casing, so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in number of stages.
Compounded steam turbines are used to reduce rotor speeds to achieve optimal operating rpm values. A multiple system of rotors are
connected in series keyed to a common shaft and the steam pressure or velocity is absorbed in stages as it flows over the blades. The steam
produced in the boiler has sufficiently high enthalpy when superheated. In all turbines the blade velocity is directly proportional to the
velocity of the steam passing over the blade. Now, if the entire energy of the steam is extracted in one stage, i.e. if the steam is expanded
from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure in a single stage, then its velocity will be very high. Hence the velocity of the rotor (to
which the blades are keyed) can reach to about 30,000 rpm, which is too high for practical uses due to very high vibration. Moreover, at such
high speeds the centrifugal forces are immense, and can damage the structure. Hence, compounding is needed. The high velocity steam just
strikes on a single ring of rotor that causes wastage of steam ranging 10% to 12%. To overcome the wastage of steam, compounding of
steam turbines is used.
Types of compounding[edit]
In an Impulse steam turbine compounding can be achieved in the following three ways:
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Pressure-Velocity Compounding
In a reaction turbine compounding can be achieved only by pressure compounding.
Velocity compounding of Impulse Turbine
The velocity compounded Impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the problem of single stage Impulse turbine for use of
high pressure and temperature steam.
The rings of moving blades are separated by rings of fixed blades. The moving blades are keyed to the turbine shaft and the fixed blades are
fixed to the casing. The high pressure steam coming from the boiler is expanded in the nozzle first. The Nozzle converts the pressure energy
of the steam into kinetic energy. The total enthalpy drop and hence the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle. Hence, the pressure thereafter
remains constant.
This high velocity steam is directed on to the first set (ring) of moving blades. As the steam flows over the blades, due to the shape of the
blades, it imparts some of its momentum to the blades and loses some velocity. Only a part of the high kinetic energy is absorbed by these
blades. The remainder is exhausted on to the next ring of fixed blade. The function of the fixed blades is to redirect the steam leaving from
the first ring of moving blades to the second ring of moving blades. There is no change in the velocity of the steam as it passes through the
fixed blades. The steam then enters the next ring of moving blades; this process is repeated until practically all the energy of the steam has
been absorbed.
Velocity Diagram[edit]
As shown in the above diagram there are two rings of moving blades separated by a ring of fixed blades. The velocity diagram in figure 2,
shows the various components of steam velocity and the blade velocity of the moving blades.
From the above figure it can be seen that the steam, after exiting from the moving blades, enters into the fixed blades. The fixed blades
redirect the steam into the next set of moving blades. Hence, steam loses its velocity in multiple stages rather than in a single stage.
Optimum Velocity[edit]
It is the velocity of the blades at which maximum power output can be achieved. Hence, the optimum blade velocity for this case is,
This value of optimum velocity is 1/n times that of the single stage turbine. This means that maximum power can be produced at much lower
blade velocities.
However, the work produced in each stage is not the same. The ratio of work produced in a 2-stage turbine is 3:1 as one move from higher to
lower pressure. This ratio is 5:3:1 in three stage turbine and changes to 7:5:3:1 in a four-stage turbine.
(g) Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) technology is a reliable solution for recovering energy from difficult fuels, such as residual biomass and
industrial wastes. Our BFB boilers can handle a wide range of high-moisture and high-ash fuels with low emissions and high operational
flexibility. This technology is recommended for combined heat and power, industrial steam, power and district heating applications. Due to
the operational flexibility, BFBs can help balance variable renewable energy generation, such as solar PV and wind, while providing cost-
effective back-up power and heating.
1. High reliability in the harshest conditions
Our BFB technology has a history of reliable operation for more than four decades, even with the most difficult fuels. On average, our BFB
boilers have 99% reliability, considering a wide range of fuel mixes from forest residues to sludge, short rotation coppice, demolition wood,
and refuse-derived fuels (RDF).
In addition to reliable equipment, the Digital Services offers continuous process conditions monitoring combined with preventive
maintenance services prolonging the plant's lifetime.
2. Fuel flexibility for today's and future needs
Utilizing multiple fuels is essential in today's market due to unpredictable fuel prices and availability. Multi-fuel firing is particularly
relevant in industrial and CHP applications, where local wastes and residues can fulfil the energy needs. Fuel flexibility unlocks the value of
waste streams by tolerating daily variation in both quality and volume.
Our wide fuel expertise for BFB boilers includes wood-based biomass (e.g. bark, chips, sawdust), agricultural biomass (e.g. straw, olive
waste, rice husk), and recycled fuels (e.g. recycled fiber rejects, sludge, RDF, demolition wood).
3. 3High efficiency by design
Due to uniform bed conditions and high combustion residence time, our BFB technology can achieve over 99% combustion efficiency. We
uses project-specific process modelling and design for every boiler, resulting in exceptionally low CO emissions and unburned carbon
losses.
State-of-the-art steam parameters - with temperatures up to 540˚C and pressures up to 145 bar - ensure high plant efficiency in addition to
boiler efficiency.
4. 4Low operation & maintenance costs
Our BFB boilers have moderate auxiliary power consumption, which reduces the operating costs significantly. Maintenance costs are also
lower compared to other boiler technologies due to the lesser amount of refractory lining.
(j) A pressurized water reactor (PWR) is a type of light-water nuclear reactor. PWRs constitute the large majority of the world's nuclear
power plants (with notable exceptions being the UK, Japan and Canada). In a PWR, the primary coolant (water) is pumped under high
pressure to the reactor core where it is heated by the energy released by the fission of atoms. The heated, high pressure water then flows to
a steam generator, where it transfers its thermal energy to lower pressure water of a secondary system where steam is generated. The steam
then drives turbines, which spin an electric generator. In contrast to a boiling water reactor (BWR), pressure in the primary coolant loop
prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All light-water reactors use ordinary water as both coolant and neutron moderator. Most
use anywhere from two to four vertically mounted steam generators; VVER reactors use horizontal steam generators.
PWRs were originally designed to serve as nuclear marine propulsion for nuclear submarines and were used in the original design of the
second commercial power plant at Shippingport Atomic Power Station.
PWRs currently operating in the United States are considered Generation II reactors. Russia's VVER reactors are similar to US PWRs, but
the VVER-1200 is not considered Generation II (see below). France operates many PWRs to generate the bulk of its electricity.
1(a) he two major sources of energy is classified as:

 Conventional Sources
 Non-Conventional Sources
The classification of the sources of energy is given in the below image.

b) Losses are all-time very important for manufacturing any machine. That's why Manufacturer takes special attention for manufacturing
any machine.We know an ideal machine which has 100% gross efficiency will do the equivalent work to the isentropic enthalpy.

1. Nozzle Friction Loss :-

2. Blade Friction Loss :-
3. Wheel Friction Loss :-
4. Losses due to mechanical friction :-
5. Losses due to leakage :-
6. Residual Velocity loss :-
7. Loss in regulating valves :-
(c) A nozzle is a device which accelerates fluid. During this process, velocity of fluid increases with decreasing pressure.

A diffuser is a device which slows down fluid. That means, velocity of fluid decreases with
increasing pressure.

              

(d) An economizer uses outside air to help control indoor temperatures and achieve greater energy efficiency. Economizers are
commonly used in data centers to reduce the reliance on cooling devices, such as chillers, compressors or computer room air conditioners

(e) The ratio of the actual velocity of gas emerging from a nozzle to the velocity calculated under ideal conditions; it is less than 1
because of friction losses. Also known as coefficient of velocity

(f) Vacuum efficiency is the ratio of actual (measured by gauge) to ideal vacuum in a condenser. Ideal pressure is defined as having the
same pressure as the condensate temperature (pi) or with the temperature of steam flowing into the condenser. So, this is all you need to
know about maintaining vacuum in condensers.

(g) A cooling tower is designed to remove heat from a building or facility by spraying water down through the tower to exchange
heat into the inside of the building.

(h) All toxic waste needs be dealt with safely – not just radioactive waste – and in countries with nuclear power, radioactive waste
comprises a very small proportion of total industrial hazardous waste generated. Radioactive waste is not unique to the nuclear fuel
cycle.

(i) Spent nuclear fuel stays a radiation hazard for extended periods of time with Half-lifes as high as 24,000 years.

(j) Tariffs may be levied either to raise revenue or to protect domestic industries, but a tariff designed primarily to raise revenue also may
exercise a strong protective influence, while a tariff levied primarily for protection may yield revenue.