IT 101: IT

Application
Tools in
Business
MODULE 1
 UNIT 1:
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: THE FUTURE NOW

UNIT 1A: THE MOBILE WORLD, INFORMATION, & YOUR LIFE

• As the result of developments in information technology, smartphones and tablet computers are
changing nearly everything we do.
• Information technology refers to any technology that helps produce, manipulate, store,
communicate, and/or disseminate information.

1.1 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & YOUR LIFE: THE FUTURE NOW

TWO PARTS OF IT: COMPUTERS & COMMUNICATIONS

Information technology affects almost all aspects of our lives, including education, health, finance,
recreation and entertainment, government, jobs and careers, and your personal life.
• Part 1: Computer Technology
A computer is a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts data—raw facts and
figures—and processes, or manipulates, it into information we can use.
• Part 2: Communications Technology
Communications technology, also called telecommunications technology, consists of
electromagnetic devices and systems for communicating over any distance.

EDUCATION: THE PROMISE OF MORE INTERACTIVE & INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING

Education has become heavily involved in information technology.
• Information technology can be used for:
• Personalizing students’ education
• Automating tedious and rote tasks and managing classes
• Reducing instructors’ workload (course-management software)
• Graphical presentations (e.g., PowerPoint)
• What is misuse?
• Text messaging or emailing friends during class
• Surfing the Internet for entertainment
• Doing assignments for other classes

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 • Sharing answers
• Online Learning, or distance learning, is becoming common.
• Not all online schools/courses are accredited; students should check.
• Online courses are less expensive than traditional courses.
• Distance learning is available to students in rural areas.
 Tutoring, simulation, and avatars are also aspects of IT in education:

HEALTH: HIGH-TECH FOR WELLNESS

Computers are playing important roles in our personal lives.
• Telemedicine: Medical care via telecommunications lets doctors treat patients from far away.
• 3D Computer models allow accurate tumor location inside a skull; X rays, MRIs, CT scans can be
done remotely.
• Robots—automatic devices that perform functions
• ordinarily performed by human beings—permit precise microsurgery.
• Health websites provide medical information.
• Many health records are stored electronically.

MONEY & BUSINESS: TOWARD THE CASHLESS SOCIETY?

Information technology is reducing the use of traditional money.
• Virtual means something that is created, simulated, or carried on by means of a computer or a
computer network.
• Virtual money includes cash-value cards, automatic transfers, and digital money
• “Electronic wallets” (e.g., PayPal)
• Electronic payroll deposit
• Online bill paying via debit and credit cards
• Micropayments for online products and to help charities
• Smartphones are used for “showrooming” and shopping.
• Technology can also be used to telecommute and to start businesses and earn money.

GOVERNMENT & ELECTRONIC DEMOCRACY: PARTICIPATING IN THE CIVIC REALM

Information technology is helping governments to deliver services and is affecting political activism.

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 • IT can help governments to improve services, including police services, which use databases,
computer systems with a collection of interrelated files.
• Online voting is becoming common.
• Information is easier to disseminate.
• Watchdog websites are growing.
• Easier fund raising from small donors.
BUT:
• Gerrymandering is becoming easier—redrawing voting districts for partisan advantage.
• Voting machine problems can occur.
• Invasion of privacy is becoming an important issue.

JOBS & CAREERS

People now use computers to post résumés and find jobs.
• IT is used in starting new business ventures.
• IT is used to prepare résumés and find jobs on many websites.
• To help find jobs, participate in social media and write comments on blogs (weblogs), frequently
updated sites on the web intended for public consumption that contain a writer’s observations,
opinions, images, and links to other websites. (But be aware of privacy issues and DON’T POST
inappropriate pictures or text!) (Internet postings live forever!)
• Basic computer skills are needed for most jobs:
• Know how to use a keyboard.
• Use email.
• Be able to use a word processor (usually Microsoft Word).
• Know basic spreadsheet and database software skills.
• Understand the basics of file sizes, computer memory limitations, and network arrangements.
• Know what the basic computer system components are.

YOUR PERSONAL LIFE

Computers are playing important roles in our personal lives.
• Online relationship sites, or online dating sites, provide electronic forums that people may join in
the hope of meeting compatible companions or mates.

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 • “Digital is embedded into the fiber of every aspect of our culture and our personal lives”– public
safety and security; in the home; entertainment; finance; communications; traveling; shopping;
medical care; and so on.

1.2 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IS PERVASIVE

CELLPHONES, EMAIL, THE INTERNET, & THE E-WORLD

THE PHONE GROWS UP
The telephone is not what it used to be.
• 1973: First cellphone call
• Mobile phone use estimated to rise to 7 billion users in 2014
• Today’s smartphones can:
• Make voice calls
• Connect to Internet and web for all sorts of activities
• Send and receive text messages
• Take and send pictures and download music and video
• Obtain news and TV programs
• Scan special barcodes that take users to a website
• Provide maps
• Do research
• Pay for products and services

EMAIL’S MASS IMPACT

Email revolutionized communication, and has many benefits, but in many areas it is being supplanted by
texting.
• Introduced in 1981
• Reached 10 million users in about one year
• 1998 surpassed hand-delivered mail
• In 2013 about 144 billion messages per day
• In business, at least, email requires writing skills
• For personal activities, texting is replacing email

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 • Texting, or text messaging, is sending and receiving short written messages between
mobile phones or other portable or fixed devices

THE INTERNET, THE WORLD WIDE WEB, & THE “PLUMBING” OF CYBERSPACE
The net, the web, and cyberspace are not the same things.
• Cyberspace
• Term coined by William Gibson in Neuromancer
(1984) to describe a futuristic computer network people “plugged” into directly with their
brains
• Now the term cyberspace encompasses not only the online world and the Internet in particular
but also the whole wired and wireless world of communications in general.

THE NET & WEB DEFINED

 The Internet (the “Net” or “net”) is a worldwide computer network that connects hundreds of
thousands of smaller networks. These networks link educational, commercial, nonprofit, and
military entities, as well as individuals.
 The World Wide Web (the “Web” or the “web” is an interconnected system of Internet
computers (called servers ) that support specially formatted documents in multimedia form.
(The word multimedia, from “multiple media,” refers to technology that presents information
in more than one medium, such as text, still images, moving images, and sound.)

UNIT 1B: THE BASICS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

• As the result of developments in information technology, smartphones and tablet computers
are changing nearly everything we do.
• Information technology refers to any technology that helps produce, manipulate, store,
communicate, and/or disseminate information.

1.3 THE PRACTICAL USER: HOW BECOMING TECH SMART BENEFITS YOU
Being informed about information technology has practical payoffs.
• Know how to make better buying decisions
• Know how to fix ordinary computer problems
• Know how to upgrade equipment and integrate it with new products

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 • Know how to use the Internet effectively
• Know how to guard against online dangers
• Know how computer knowledge can advance your career

1.4 THE “ALL-PURPOSE MACHINE”: THE VARIETIES OF COMPUTERS

ALL COMPUTERS, GREAT & SMALL: THE CATEGORIES OF MACHINES

Computers come in different sizes; they also function as clients and/or servers.
• There are five basic computer sizes.
1. Supercomputers
2. Mainframes
3. Workstations
4. Microcomputers
5. Microcontrollers

1. SUPERCOMPUTERS
Supercomputers are used in very special situations.
• Priced from $1 million to over $350 million.
• High-capacity machines with thousands of processors that can perform more than several
quadrillion calculations per second.
• Faster and largest computer available.
• Used for government census, weather forecasting, designing aircraft, scientific projects, etc.
• The Titan (U.S.A.) computer is currently the largest supercomputer.
• The next supercomputer generation may use nanotechnology.

2. MAINFRAMES
Mainframe computers are used in many large businesses.
• Priced from $5,000 to $5 million
• Process billions of instructions per second
• Size is dependent on the use
• Water-cooled or air-cooled
• Used to be called midsize computers

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 • Used by banks, airlines, colleges, and the like for millions of transactions

3. WORKSTATIONS
Workstations are used for graphics, special effects, and certain professional applications.
• Expensive, powerful personal computers
• Used for scientific, mathematical, engineering, computer-aided design (CAD), computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) applications
• Used for designing cars, drugs, movie special effects
• Are usually connected to a network

4. MICROCOMPUTERS
Microcomputers are used by individuals as well as businesses, and they can be connected to networks of
larger computers. There are many types of microcomputers.
• Personal computers that cost $500 to over $5,000
• Used either stand-alone or in a network
• Types include: desktop, tower, notebooks (laptops), netbooks, tablets, mobile devices,
personal digital assistants (PDAs), and e-readers

Types of Microcomputers
• Desktop and tower PCs
• Notebooks & netbooks
• Tablets
• Mobile devices & PDAs
• E-readers
• Also called embedded computers, microcontrollers are tiny, specialized microprocessors inside
appliances and automobiles They are in microwaves, programmable ovens, blood-pressure
monitors, air bag sensors, vibration sensors, MP3 players, digital cameras, keyboards, car
systems, etc.

SERVERS
• The word server describes the way a computer—whether mainframe, workstation, or PC—is
used.

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 • A server, or network server , is a central computer that holds collections of data (databases) and
programs for connecting or supplying services to PCs, workstations, and other devices, which
are called clients. These clients are linked by a wired or wireless network. The entire network is
called a client-server network.
• Purpose: Hold data and programs for clients to access and to supply services for clients.

1.5 UNDERSTANDING YOUR COMPUTER

HOW COMPUTERS WORK: THREE KEY CONCEPTS

All computer users must understand three basic principles:
 Data is turned into information
 hardware and software have their own specific functions
 all computers involve input, processing, storage, and output, plus communications.
1. Purpose of a computer: Turning data into information
• Data: the raw facts and figures
• Information: data that has been summarized or otherwise transformed for use
in decision making
2. Hardware vs. software
• Hardware = the machinery and equipment in a computer system
• Software (programs) = the electronic instructions that tell the computer how to
perform a task
3. The basic operations of a computer: All computers use 4 basic operations + communications:
• Input: What goes into the computer system
• Processing: The manipulation a computer does to transform data into
information
• Storage:
• Primary storage, or memory, is temporary storage for data waiting to be
processed
• Secondary storage is permanent storage: media such as hard disk, DVDs,
and CDs
• Output: What comes out—the results of processing, such as on the screen,
printouts, sound

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 • Communications: Sending and receiving data

CUSTOMIZING A DESKTOP COMPUTER

• What would you need?
• Keyboard & mouse (input hardware)
• Inside the system cabinet (processing & memory hardware)
• Case and power supply
• Processor chip – the central processing unit (CPU)
• Memory chips – random access memory (RAM) or primary storage
• Motherboard – the system board, the main circuit board, with expansion slots
to plug in components

STORAGE HARDWARE: HARD DRIVE, CD/DVD DRIVE

• Storage capacity is represented in bytes
• 1 byte = 1 character of data
• 1 kilobyte = 1,024 characters
• 1 megabyte = 1,048,576 characters
• 1 gigabyte = over 1 billion characters
• 1 terabyte = over 1 trillion characters
• 1 petabyte = about 1 quadrillion characters

OUTPUT HARDWARE
• Video
• Sound cards
• Speakers
• Monitor
• Printer

COMMUNICATIONS HARDWARE
• Modem

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BASIC PC SYSTEM

SOFTWARE
Computers use two basic types of software: system software and application software.
• System Software—enables the computer to perform essential operating tasks and makes it
possible for application software to run.
• Most important part: operating system (OS)
• Some operating system options
• Windows
• Unix
• Linux
• Mac OS
• Application Software—enables you to perform specific tasks—solve problems, perform work, or
entertain yourself.
• Compatibility: Application software is specific to the system software you use.
• Linux applications won’t work on Windows.
• Windows applications won’t necessarily work on Linux.

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1.6 WHERE IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY HEADED
Computers are headed in three basic direction:
 miniaturization, faster speeds, and greater affordability
 communications are improving connectivity, interactivity
 support of multimedia.

WHEN COMPUTERS & COMMUNICATIONS CONVERGE:

FIVE RESULTS
Convergence—combination of several industries
• Computers
• Communications
• Consumer electronics
• Entertainment
• Mass media
1. Portability
2. Personalization
3. Collaboration
4. Cloud computing
5. Artificial intelligence

 Cloud computing basically means that instead of storing your software and/or data on your own
PC or your own company’s computers, you store it on servers on the Internet.
 Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to a group of related technologies used for developing machines
to emulate human qualities, such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing, and hearing.
Much of AI is based on the use of algorithms, formulas or sets of steps for solving particular
problems. AI deals with Big Data, data that is so large and complex that it cannot be
processed using conventional methods,

COMPUTERS IN YOUR CAREER

 BUSINESS
– Business
*Point of Sale Terminal

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 *Data Mining
*Tracking Merchandise
• Business around the world is conducted on the computer screen. Information is stored in
enormous databases. To make meaning of all that data, they use a process known as data
mining.
• Enormous leaps in business productivity are a direct result of the use of computers in all phases
of business, from communications to product design. For example, the cash register is now a
point of sale terminal that connects automatically to a database, providing managers with
current data on sales. This allows for better tracking of merchandise.
• Retail systems called Personal Shopper Systems are provided by some stores. These small
computers can show prices, specials, information, and total purchase price.
• Every segment of business has been transformed by the computer.

 COMPUTER FORENSIC
• Law enforcement uses computers to quickly find records, locate possible suspects, and
investigate accounts. As the Internet and e-commerce become more and more popular,
criminals stalk the wire for victims. Law enforcement officers must use computers to track and
capture criminals.
• Computer forensics is the application of computer systems and techniques to gather potential
legal evidence.
• Even parking enforcement uses technology today.

 LAW ENFORCEMENT
* Cameras
*Forensic animation
• Computers have changed the way the government interacts with the public. Records, laws, and
transactions in electronic form are common and have increased the speed and usefulness of
legal information. From the cop who can run a license plate number in seconds to the income
tax form filed electronically, the computer has had an enormous effect on the law.
• Surveillance cameras watch over us constantly, snapping a picture when we run a red light. In
court, animators make animated movies of events the way things probably happened, bringing
to the screen a far clearer picture than mere testimony would provide.

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 THE SCIENCES
• Science has used the computer to streamline studies, eliminate redundancy, test hypotheses,
develop theories, and communicate findings. The computer has brought vast new levels of
global collaboration, advancing fields like engineering, chemistry, physics, and cosmology to
unprecedented levels.
• Supercomputers crunch enormous amounts of data carrying out experiments that could not be
done before. Storms are being studied through intricate application of known data to form
pictures that increase understanding.
• 3D modeling and imaging software is helping archeologists take data and simulate ancient
civilizations.
• Computer-controlled robots are being developed by NASA to explore in deep space.

 GAMING
• Watch an auto race and look at the computers in the pits. Coaches in football use computers
constantly. Officials use them to control games. Computers are used to analyze performance
and optimize training. The use of computers at the Olympic Games is legendary.
• In soccer, smartballs are used to automatically sense when the ball cross the goal line.

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 UNIT 2:
SOFTWARE: TOOLS FOR PRODUCTIVITY & CREATIVITY

UNIT 2A: SYSTEM SOFTWARE: THE POWER BEHIND THE POWER

• Application software is software that has been developed to solve a particular problem for
users—to perform useful work on specific tasks or to provide entertainment.
• System software runs at the most basic level of your computer and enables the application
software to interact with the computer and helps the computer to manage its internal and
external resources, as well as manage the hardware.

There are three basic components of system software that you need to know about:
1. Operating systems: An operating system is the principal component of system software in any
computing system.
2. Device drivers: Device drivers help the computer control peripheral devices.
3. Utility programs: Utility programs are generally used to support, enhance, or expand
existing programs in a computer system.

2.1 THE OPERATING SYSTEM: WHAT IT DOES

The operating system manages the entire computer system.
• The operating system (OS) consists of the low-level, master system of programs that manage the
basic operations of the computer.
• Every general-purpose computer must have OS to run other programs.
• OS allows users to concentrate on applications rather than on complexities of the
computer.
• Each application program is written to run on top of a particular OS.
• The OS manages:
• Booting
• CPU management
• File management
• Task management
• Security management

BOOTING
• The process of loading an OS into the computer’s main memory
• Booting involves four steps:
1. Turn the computer on.
2. Diagnostic routines test main memory, CPU, and other hardware.
3. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) programs are copied to main memory.
• BIOS contains instructions for operating the hardware.
• The computer needs those instructions to operate the hardware and
find a copy of the OS.
4. Boot program obtains the OS and loads it into computer’s main memory.
• Cold boot—turn on computer’s “on” system
• Warm boot—restart a computer that is already on
• Boot disk—use a CD or flash drive containing all files to launch OS
• Boot from the cloud

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 CPU MANAGEMENT
• CPU is the central processing unit.
• Supervisor (kernel) is the software that manages CPU
• Remains in memory while the computer runs
• Directs other programs not in memory to perform tasks that support application
programs
• Memory Management
• OS keeps track of memory locations to prevent programs and data from
overlapping each other
• Swaps portions of programs and data into the same memory but at different
times
• Keeps track of virtual memory
CPU Management (continued)
• Queues, Buffers, Spooling
• Queue: First-in, first-out (FIFO) sequence of data or programs that waits in line
for its turn to be processed
• Buffer: The place where the data or programs sit while they are waiting
• To spool: The act of placing a print job into a buffer. (Needed because the CPU is
faster than printers. The CPU can work on other tasks while the print jobs wait.)

FILE MANAGEMENT
• A file is either a
• Data File: a named collection of data
• Program File: a program that exists in a computer’s secondary storage
• Files are located in many places on secondary storage devices; OS locates files and
facilitates access to them
• The file system arranges files in a hierarchical manner
• Top level is directories (folders)
• Subdirectories come below folders
• Find files using their pathname. Example:
C:/MyDocuments/Termpaper/section1.doc

TASK MANAGEMENT
• Computers are required to perform many different tasks at once—to do task
management.
• Task: An operation such as storing, printing, or calculating
• Multitasking: Handling more than one program concurrently
• Example: You do word processing while playing music on your computer.
• OS directs processor to alternate time on each program until processing is
complete.

SECURITY MANAGEMENT
• Operating Systems permit users to control access to their computers.
• Users gain access using an ID and password.
• You set the password the first time you boot up a new computer.
• After that, when you boot up, you’ll be prepared to type in your username and
password.

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2.2 OTHER SYSTEM SOFTWARE: DEVICE DRIVERS & UTILITY PROGRAMS
Drivers and utility programs add functionality to your computer and help it perform better.
DEVICE DRIVERS
• Specialized software programs that allow input and output devices to communicate
with the rest of the computer system.
• When you buy a computer, many device drivers come with the system software.
• Device drivers also come with new hardware (on CDs/DVDs) or can be downloaded from
the manufacturer’s website.

UTILITIES
• Service programs that perform tasks related to the control and allocation of computer
resources.
• Examples: Backup, virus protection, data recovery, data compression, file
defragmentation, disk cleanup, remove temp files
• Some come with the OS, others can be bought separately (e.g., Norton SystemWorks,
McAfee Utilities).

2.3 COMMON FEATURES OF THE USER INTERFACE

User-interface features use graphics to facilitate a person’s interaction with the computer.
• User Interface
• The user-controllable display screen you use to interact with the computer, using
keyboard or mouse.
• Keyboard & Mouse
• Special-purpose keys: used to enter, delete, edit data, and to execute commands.
• Function keys (F1, F2, etc.): used to execute commands specific to the software being
used.
• Macros: keyboard shortcuts to activate series of commands.
• Mouse pointer: moved to particular place on screen or to point to little symbol icons.

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

• Allows you to use a mouse or keystrokes to select icons and commands from menus.
• Three main features of GUI are desktop, icons, and menus.
• Desktop: The system’s main interface screen.
• Icons: Small pictorial figures that represent programs, data files, or procedures.
• Rollover: A small text box that explains the icon when you roll your mouse over
it.
• Menus: Lists of built-in commands and/or options from which to choose pull-
down, cascading, pull-up, pop-up.
• Most operating systems use GUIs with the following:
• Title Bar: runs across the top of the display window and shows the name of the folder
you are in.
• Menu Bar: shows the names of the pull-down menus available.
• Toolbar: Displays menus and icons representing frequently used options or commands.
• Taskbar: The bar across the bottom of the Windows screen that contains the Start
button and icons that show open files/programs.
• windows: Rectangular portion of the display screen through which you can view a file of
data or an application program.

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2.4 COMMON OPERATING SYSTEMS
The main operating systems for general computer users are Windows, Mac OS, and Unix/Linux.
• Platform
• The particular processor model and operating system on which a computer system is
based.
• Three principle categories of operating systems:
1. Stand-alone
2. Network
3. Embedded

1. STAND-ALONE OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Often called a desktop operating system, an operating system that works on a single desktop or
notebook (laptop) computer.
• Two principal stand-alone systems:
• Mac platforms—run Apple Macintosh
• PC platforms—run Microsoft Windows
• Some legacy systems still used—outdated but still functional
• DOS (Disk Operating System) (original Microsoft OS)—hard-to-use
command-driven user interface

MAC OS X (“TEN”)
• OS that runs on Apple Macintosh computers; is popular for desktop publishing ,
graphics, and educational settings
• Pioneered the easy-to-use GUI (based on work done at Xerox)
• Proprietary OS
• Mac OS X from 2000 is based on Unix
• Mac OS 10.8 = Mountain Lion (2011)
• Mac OS 10.9 = Mavericks (2013)
• Apple iOS runs mobile devices

MICROSOFT WINDOWS
• Most common operating system for desktop and portable PCs.
• Windows early versions:
• 95, 98, 2000, ME, XP, Vista
• Windows 7: still most commonly used OS
• Windows 8: Has both desktop (“classic”) and tile views
• Tile view allows gesture manipulation of on-screen items (touch screens)

2. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Novell’s Open Enterprise Server (OES)
• Used for coordinating microcomputer-based local area networks (LANs)
throughout a company or campus
• Network OS usually located on a main server
• Windows Server
• Designed to run on network servers in businesses of all sizes
• Multiple users share resources, such as data, programs, printers
• Unix, Solaris, BSD

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 • Unix is a multitasking operating system with multiple users that has built-in
networking capability and versions for all kinds of computers
• Is particularly stable—used to run backbone of Internet
• Used by large organizations—for airplane design, currency trading
• Versions include Solaris, BSD
• Unix interface is command-line interface
• Linux
• Free (nonproprietary) version of Unix
• Continual improvements from thousands of volunteer programmers
• Linux is open-source software—anyone may make suggested improvements
• May legally be downloaded and used for free
• May legally be modified for free, as long as modifications aren’t
copyrighted
• Uses command-line-interface or GUI
• Linux vendors give away software but sell services, products
• Is the basis of Google’s Chrome OS

3. EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Embedded OS—resides on CPU chip
• Specialized system that is part of larger system or machine
• Used in mobile devices: Google Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, iOS, Embedded
Linux

UNIT 2B: APPLICATION SOFTWARE—GETTING STARTED

• People interact with the application software, which interacts with the system software, which
interacts with the computer.

2.5 APPLICATION SOFTWARE: WHERE TO GET IT, HOW TO USE IT

Application software comprises the programs that do the work that users are directly interested in.
• The availability of software depends on how it is licensed or copyrighted by its creators
or owners.
• Software can be obtained in a variety of ways:
1. Custom Software
• Tailor-made software crafted by an individual or team of programmers for a particular
function or business purpose.
2. Packaged software
• Copyrighted, mass-produced software that’s offered for sale in stores or on the web to a
variety of users. [See next slides.]
3. Public-domain software
• Software that is not protected by copyright and thus may be duplicated by anyone at
will, with no fear of legal prosecution.
4. Freeware
• Copyrighted software that is distributed free of charge
5. Shareware
• Copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial period, but users must then pay
the software developer to continue using it.
6. Rentalware
• Online software that users lease for a fee and download whenever they want it.

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7. Web application (web app)
• Software that runs on a remote Internet server rather than on a person’s own personal
computer
Commercial (packaged) software is copyrighted -- users must get license from owner and sign a contract
in which they agree not to make copies of the software to give away or resell.
• Software license types:
• Site licenses allow software to be used on all computers at a specific location
• Concurrent-user licenses—allow a number of copies to be used at one time
• Multiple-user license—specifies number of people who may use the software
• Single-user license—limits software to one user at a time
• Pirated software: Software obtained illegally in violation of copyright
• Abandonware: Software that is no longer being sold or supported by its publisher (but may still
not be legally copied)
• Tutorials & Documentation
• Tutorial: Instruction book or program that helps you learn to use the product by taking
you through a series of steps
• Documentation: All information that describes a product to users, including a user guide
or reference manual that provides a narrative and graphical description of the program
• Types of Application Software
• May be classified as entertainment, personal, education/references, productivity, and
specialized uses
• Productivity software: Purpose is to make users more productive at particular tasks.
• Word processing, spreadsheets, database managers
• May be bundled in office suite

2.6 DATA FILES & PROGRAM FILES

• Data files: Data files contain data, such as words, number, pictures, and sounds
• Program files: Program files contain software instructions that execute, or run, when
the program is opened.
 Source program files: Source program files contain high-level computer
instructions in the original form written by the computer programmer.
 Executable files: To be made useful to the computer for processing, a source
program file must be translated into an executable file, which contains the
instructions that tell the computer how to perform a particular task. You use an
executable file by running it, as when you select the spreadsheet program
Microsoft Excel from your on-screen menu and open it.

EXCHANGING FILES
• Importing: getting data from another source and then converting it into a
format compatible with the program in which you are currently working
• Exporting: transforming data into a format that can be used in another program
and then transmitting it
Data compression is a method of removing repetitive elements from a data file so that it requires less
storage space and therefore less time to transmit. Later the data is decompressed—the repeated
patterns are restored.
• Lossless compression uses mathematical techniques to replace repetitive patterns of bits with a
kind of coded summary. During decompression, the coded summaries are replaced with the
original patterns of bits -- the data that comes out is exactly the same as what went in. Lossless

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 techniques are used when it’s important that nothing be lost—for instance, for computer data,
database records, spreadsheets, and word processing files.
• Lossy compression techniques permanently discard some data during compression. Lossy data
compression involves a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a high degree of compression.
Examples of two lossy compression file formats are .jpeg and .mpeg, used for graphics files and
sound files.

2.7 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Word Processing uses computers to create, edit, format, print, and store text.
• Microsoft Word best known
• Others: Corel WordPerfect, Apple iWork Pages, Google Apps, Zoho Writer
• Word processing allows you to delete, insert, and replace text
• Additional features: creating, formatting, printing, saving
• Cursor: movable symbol to show where to enter text
• Scrolling: moving quickly up, down, or sideways
• Word wrap: automatically continues text to next line
• Head hierarchy: Outline View puts tags on headings within a document to organize it
according to head level
• Footnote numbering can be done automatically
• Editing : Making alterations in content
• Inserting: adding text to documents
• Deleting: removing text from documents
• Find & Replace
• Find: lets you go straight to any text in your document
• Replace: lets you automatically replace it with something else
• Cut, Copy, & Paste
• Select the text you want to move
• Copy (or cut) to clipboard, then paste in new location
• Spelling Checker: tests for incorrectly spelled words
• [Note: Do not rely on spelling and grammar checkers to be 100% accurate!]
• Grammar Checker: highlights poor grammar, wordiness, incomplete sentences, and
awkward phrases
• Thesaurus: offers suggestions for alternative words with the same meaning

FORMATTING DOCUMENTS WITH THE HELP OF TEMPLATES

• Formatting: determining appearance of a document
• A template is a preformatted “form” that provides basic tools for structuring a final
document—text, layout, page design, etc.
• Every word processing program comes with standard templates (for letters, memos,
etc.)
• Aspects of Formatting
• Font
• The typeface and size of the text you use
• Also lets you specify underlined, italic, or bold and color
• Spacing & Columns
• Choose the line spacing (single- or double-spaced, or other)
• Choose single-column or multi-columned text for your document
• Margins & Justification

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 • Indicate width of left, right, top, and bottom margins
• Justify text left, right, or center
Headers, footers, page numbers
• A header is text printed at the very top of the page
• A footer is text (like page number) at the page bottom
Other Formatting
• You can specify borders, shading, tables, and footnotes
• You can also import graphics, such as clip art
Default Settings
• These are the settings automatically used by the program unless you change them
• Output: Printing, Faxing, or Emailing Documents
• Print individual pages, the whole document, or several copies
• You can fax or email finished documents
• Previewing: gives you a look at how document will look when printed, before you print
• Saving documents: store a document as an electronic file on, e.g., hard disk, CD or flash drive.
[SAVE your work often!!!!!!!!!!!]
• Word processing allows formatting of documents in HTML (for the web)

2.8 SPREADSHEET PROGRAMS

A spreadsheet program uses rectangular grids for laying out linked, usually financial, data in a very
organized fashion.
• Spreadsheets are used to create tables and financial schedules.
• Enter data and formulas into rows and columns on screen
• Microsoft Excel, Corel Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, Apple iWork Numbers
• Organized into columns and rows on a worksheet
• Labels are descriptive text
• Cells are where a row and a column meet
• Cell address is the position of the cell
• Range is a group of adjacent cells
• Values are numbers or dates entered into a cell
• Cell pointer shows where data is to be entered

FORMULAS, FUNCTIONS, RECALCULATION, WHAT-IF ANALYSIS

• Formulas are instructions for calculations
• Define mathematically how one cell relates to another
• Example: @SUM(A5:A15) sums the values of the cells A5, A6, A7, and so forth
up through cell A15
• Functions are built-in formulas, such as SUM()
• Recalculation is the process of re-computing values
• What-if analysis allows users to see what happens to totals when one or more numbers
change in cells
• Worksheet templates—custom-designed for particular work
• Multidimensional spreadsheets—link one to another

ANALYTICAL GRAPHICS: WORKSHEET AND WORKBOOK DATA CAN BE DISPLAYED IN GRAPHIC FORM.
• Spreadsheet programs allow you to automatically create graphs
• Graphical forms make numeric data easier to analyze
• Examples of types of analytical graphics:

21
 • Column charts
• Bar charts
• Line graphs
• Pie charts
• Scatter charts

2.9 DATABASE SOFTWARE

A database is a collection of data that is organized so that its contents can easily be accessed,
managed, and updated.
• Database: Structured collection of interrelated files in a computer system.
• Database software sets up and controls the structure of a database and access to data.
• Principal microcomputer databases: Microsoft Access, FileMaker Pro
• Benefits of databases:
• Data redundancy is minimized.
• Data is integrated and stored in a structured fashion.
• Data in databases has more integrity.
• Data may include text, numbers, and graphics.

The main type of microcomputer database program is the relational database.

Relational database: Data organized into related tables
• Each table contains rows (records) & columns (fields)
• Key is field used to sort data
• Most frequent key field is social security number
• Tables with the same key field are linked together
• Querying and displaying records
• Database software offers a quick way to locate records
• Saving, Formatting, Printing, Copying, Transmitting
• Can save results, format them in different ways, print as reports, copy to other
documents, & transmit as email

2.10 SOFTWARE SUITES & INTEGRATED PACKAGES

• Software suite: Collection of individual programs bundled together in a single package.
• Most popular are productivity suites (office suites), professional-level application
programs frequently used in business—usually word processing, spreadsheet, database
management, and presentation programs.
• Best-known productivity suite is Microsoft Office. Others are Apple iWork, Corel
WordPerfect Office, Lotus SmartSuite, and StarOffice.
• Cloud suites, or online office suites, include Microsoft Web Apps, Google Docs, and
Zoho.
• Integrated package: Single program for microcomputers that combines the functionality of
word processing, spreadsheet, and database management.
• Personal information manager: Software that helps you keep track of and manage information
used on a daily basis, such as addresses, telephone numbers, appointments, to-do lists, and
miscellaneous notes.
• Microsoft Outlook, Lotus Notes

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2.11 SPECIALTY APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Some special applications:
• Presentation graphics
• Financial
• Desktop publishing
• Drawing & painting
• Video/audio editing
• Animation
• Multimedia authoring
• Web page design/authoring
• Project management
• Portable Document Format (PDF)
• Computer-aided design

PRESENTATION GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

• Uses graphics, animation, sound, data, and information to make visual presentations
• Some packages: Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, Harvard Graphics
• Includes design and content templates
• Allows presentation to be dressed up with clip art, sound clips, special visual
effects, animation, and video clips

FINANCIAL SOFTWARE
• Ranges from personal-finance managers to entry-level accounting programs to business
financial-management packages
• Personal-finance programs include Quicken, Moneydance, YNAB
• Common features of financial software
• Track income & expenses
• Allow checkbook management
• Do financial reporting
• Offer tax categories to assist with tax recordkeeping
• May offer financial planning & portfolio management
• Tax, accounting, investment software also available

DESKTOP PUBLISHING
• Involves mixing text & graphics to produce high-quality output for commercial printing
• Uses a mouse, scanner, printer, and DTP software
• Professional DTP programs: QuarkXPress, Adobe InDesign
• Has the following features
• Mix of text with graphics
• Offers varied type & layout styles
• Allows import of files from other programs
• Becoming a DTP professional requires training

DRAWING PROGRAMS
• Graphics software used to design & illustrate objects & products
• Create vector images—created from geometrical formulas
• Examples: CorelDRAW, Adobe Illustrator

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PAINTING PROGRAMS
• Graphics programs that allow users to simulate painting on-screen
• Produce bit-mapped or raster images (tiny dots)

COMMON GRAPHICS FILE FORMATS

• .bmp (BitMaP) – used on PCs (Native to MS Windows)
• .gif (Graphic Interchange Format) – format used in web pages
• .jpeg (Joint Photographic Experts Group) – used in high-resolution images,
especially photos
• .tiff (Tagged Image File Formats) – used on PCs & Macs for high-resolution
images to print
• .png (Portable Network Graphics) – used as alternative to .gif

VIDEO-EDITING SOFTWARE
• Allows import to and editing of video footage on computer
• Some video editing packages: Adobe Premiere Elements, Corel Video Studio, Sony
Pictures Digital Vegas, Apple Final Cut Express, Pinnacle Studio DV, & Ulead VideoStudio

AUDIO-EDITING SOFTWARE
• Allows import to and editing of sound files on computer
• Sound editing packages: Windows Sound Recorder, Sony Pictures Sound Forge, Audacity
(freeware), Felt Tip Software’s Sound Studio (shareware), GoldWave, & WavePad.

ANIMATION SOFTWARE
• Simulates movement by rapidly displaying a series of still pictures, or frames
• Computer animation: Creation of moving images by means of computer
• GIF animation: First format to be widely used for web pages
• Packages: GIF Construction Professional, 3D GIF Designer, Easy GIF Animator

MULTIMEDIA AUTHORING SOFTWARE

• Combines text, graphics, video, animation, and sound in an integrated way to create
stand-alone multimedia applications
• Content can be put on CDs/DVDs or delivered via the web
• Two examples: Adobe Director & Macromedia Authorware

WEB PAGE DESIGN/AUTHORING SOFTWARE

• Used to create web pages with sophisticated multimedia features.
• Packages: Adobe Dreamweaver, Seamonkey, Coffee Cup, RealMac Rapid Weaver, etc.
• Packages also provided by internet access providers; free & easy to use.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

• A program used to plan and schedule the people, costs, and resources required to
complete a project on time
• Packages: Mindjet MindManager, MatchWare MindView, Microsoft Project, etc.

PORTABLE DOCUMENT FORMAT (PDF)

• Multiplatform file format developed by Adobe Systems that allows documents to be
used with any operating system.

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 • Captures text, graphic, and formatting information from a variety of applications on
different platforms, making it possible to send documents and have them appear on the
recipient’s monitor as they were intended to be viewed.
• Today, used for virtually any data that needs to be exchanged among applications and
users.

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

• Programs intended for 2D and 3D design of products, structures, civil engineering
drawings, and maps.
• Examples include Autodesk, AutoCAD, TurboCAD, Alibre Design, and
PowerCADD.
• CAD programs help design buildings, cars, planes, electronic devices, roadways,
bridges, subdivisions.
• CAD/CAM programs: allow CAD programs to be input into computer-aided
manufacturing systems that make products.

25
 UNIT 3:
HARDWARE: THE CPU & STORAGE

UNIT 3A: PROCESSING: THE SYSTEM UNIT, MICROPROCESSORS, & MAIN MEMORY
• Electronic circuitry has remained basically the same over recent years.
• A circuit is a closed path followed or capable of being followed by an electric current.
• Vacuum tubes used wire circuits inside them to facilitate the flow of electrons.
• Transistors have replaced vacuum tubes

3.1 MICROCHIPS, MINIATURIZATION, & MOBILITY

The Since the early 1970s, microchips have gotten smaller and smaller yet more and more powerful
and faster.
• A transistor is a tiny electronic switch that can be turned “on” or “off” millions of times per
second.
• Transistors form part of an integrated circuit: all the parts of an electronic circuit embedded on
a single silicon chip.
• Integrated circuits are solid state (no moving parts).
• Silicon: A semiconductor made of clay and sand.
• Semiconductor: A material whose electrical properties are intermediate between a
good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity.
• Perfect underlayer for highly conductive, complex circuits.
• Microchips (Microprocessors) are made from semiconductors.
• Chip: A tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of microminiature integrated
electronic circuits.
• Miniaturization
• Microchips
• Store and process data in electronic devices
• Microprocessors
• The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor (“brain”) on a single
chip
• Contains the central processing unit (CPU), which processes data into
information
• The development of microchips and processors has enabled the development of small,
mobile electronic devices.
• System Unit
• The case that contains the computer’s electronic components used to process data.
• PCs: Tower or desktop; monitor is separate.
• Laptops: Monitor is attached to the system unit, like a clamshell.
• Tablets: Usually includes a touch-screen interface.
• Smartphones: Handheld system units.

3.2 REPRESENTING DATA ELECTRONICALLY

Data is represented in a computer by binary code.
Binary System: the basic data-representation method for computers uses just two numbers: 0 and 1,
representing the off/on states of electricity or light pulses.

MEASURING CAPACITY
All data and program instructions in the computer are represented as binary.

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 • Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit
• Byte: a group of 8 bits = 1 character, digit, or other value
• Kilobyte (KB): 1,000 (1,024) bytes
• Megabyte (MB): 1 million (1,048,576) bytes
• Gigabyte (GB): 1 billion (1,073,741,824) bytes
• Terabyte (TB): 1 trillion (1,009,511,627,776) bytes
• Petabyte (PB): 1 quadrillion bytes
• Exabyte (EB): 1 quintillion bytes

• Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each character.

• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version
• 8-bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters
• Commonly used for microcomputers
• Unicode
• Requires 16 bits per character
• Handles 65,536 characters—used for Chinese and Japanese
• EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
• Requires 8 bits per character
• Used for IBM mainframes

• Machine Language: The computer’s “native language”

• A binary-type programming language (0s and 1s) built into the CPU that is run directly
by the computer.
• Each CPU type has its own machine language; thus each computer’s machine language is
brand-dependent.
• Language Translators: The computer’s system software converts higher-level language
instructions and data into machine language so that the processor can “understand”
what to do.

3.3 INSIDE THE SYSTEM UNIT: POWER SUPPLY, MOTHERBOARD, & MICROPROCESSORS

ONE VIEW OF A MOTHERBOARD

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ONE VIEW OF MOTHERBOARD

ANOITHER VIEW OF MOTHERBOARD

28
A MAC MOTHERBOARD

• Traditional microcomputer microprocessors are Intel and AMD.

• Multicore processors (2, 4, 6, 8) have more than one processor “core” on a single silicon chip,
which allows computers to run faster.
• Special processors are made for portable devices.

29
 • A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized processor used to manipulate three-
dimensional (3-D) computer graphics.

PROCESSING SPEEDS
• Every microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls how fast all the
operations within a computer take place (the chip’s processing speed).
• Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz.
• 1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
• Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz.
• 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
• The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it generates.

3.4 THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT & THE MACHINE CYCLE

• The CPU, for central processing unit, is the “brain” of the computer; it follows the instructions
of the software (program) to manipulate data into information.
• The CPU consists of two parts—(1) the control unit and (2) the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), both
of which contain registers, or high-speed storage areas.
• All are linked by a kind of electronic “roadway” called a bus.
• The control unit deciphers each instruction stored in the CPU and then carries out the
instruction. It directs the movement of electronic signals between main memory and the
arithmetic/logic unit. It also directs these electronic signals between main memory and the
input and output devices.
• For every instruction, the control unit carries out four basic operations, known as the machine
cycle. In the machine cycle, the CPU (1) fetches an instruction, (2) decodes the instruction, (3)
executes the instruction, and (4) stores the result (see next slide)..

Each time the central processing unit executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The
complete series of steps is called a machine cycle.

• The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations and logical operations and
controls the speed of those operations.
• Arithmetic operations are the fundamental math operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.

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 • Logical operations are comparisons--the ALU compares two pieces of data to see whether one is
equal to ( = ), greater than (>), greater than or equal to ( >= ), less than (<), less than or equal to (
<= ), or not equal to ( ≠ ) the other.
• The control unit and the ALU also use registers, special CPU areas that enhance the computer’s
performance.
• Registers are high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing. They may
store a program instruction while it is being decoded, store data while it is being processed by
the ALU, or store the results of a calculation.
• All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.
• The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine the
power and speed of a CPU.
• Buses are electrical data “roadways” through which bits are transmitted within the CPU and
between the CPU and other components of the motherboard.
• In most computers, the bus width is the same as the computer’s word size, the number of bits
that the processor can process at any one time. The more bits in a word, usually the faster the
computer. A 32-bit-word computer will transfer data within each microprocessor chip in 32-bit
chunks. A 64-bit-word computer is faster, transferring data in 64-bit chunks at a time. (Most, but
not all, 32-bit software will run on a 64-bit system, but 64-bit software will not run on a 32-bit
system.)

3.5 MEMORY
• Two type of storage: primary and secondary.
• Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this type of memory is
temporary and volatile.
• Secondary storage = hard disks and flash memory units; this type of memory is
relatively permanent and nonvolatile.
• Memory Chips
• RAM
Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:
• Software instructions
• Data before & after the CPU processes it
• ROM
Read Only Memory
• Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment
• Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-up instructions (BIOS), that
tell the computer how to load the operating system
• CMOS
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
• Powered by a battery
• Contains time, date, calendar, boot password
• Flash
Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once
• Doesn’t require a battery
• Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

SPEEDING UP PROCESSING: CACHE

• The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must wait for information

31
 • Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses frequently to
speed up processing
• Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor
• Holds 8 to 128 KB
• Faster than Level 2 cache
• Level 2 cache is external cache
• Holds 64 kb to 16 MB
• Level 3 cache is on the motherboard
• Comes on very high-end computers
• Holds 2 to 8 MB
• Virtual Memory—also used to speed up processing.
• This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD) space that the processor uses to
extend the capacity of RAM.
• The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache, then RAM, then virtual memory.
• Each type of memory is slower than its predecessor.

3.6 EXPANSION CARDS, BUS LINES, & PORTS

Expansion cards plug into slots on the motherboard that are connected by buses to ports that the user
can access.
• Expansion cards are circuit boards that provide more memory or that control peripheral devices
(for graphics, sound, video, network interface, wireless connection, etc.).
• Buses connect the expansion cards to ports.
• A port is a connecting socket or jack on the outside of the computer unit or device into which
are plugged different kinds of cables that connect peripheral devices.
• Expansion Cards: If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion cards can be added; if
the computer uses open architecture, expansion cards can be inserted in expansion slots inside
the computer, connected to the motherboard.

An expansion bus is not the same as the frontside bus:

• Frontside bus: The bus that connects the CPU within itself and to main memory.
• Expansion bus: Buses that connect the CPU with expansion slots on the motherboard and thus
via ports with peripheral devices.

Types of expansion buses:

• PCI: High-speed bus that has been widely used to connect PC graphics cards, sound cards,
modems, and high-speed network cards.
• PCI Express: Doubles the speed of the original PCI bus . PCIe is the latest standard for expansion
cards available on mainstream personal computers.
• Accelerated Graphics: Transmits data at twice the speed of a PCI bus and is designed to support
video and 3-D graphics.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB): Does away with the need to install cards in expansion slots. USB
devices can connect one to another outside the system unit, and then the USB bus connects to
the PCI bus on the motherboard.
• Firewire: Resembles the USB bus but is used for more specialized purposes, such as to connect
audio and video equipment to the motherboard.

32
 A port is a socket for some kind of plug, of which there are many types.
• Serial port
Used to transmit data slowly over long distances
a. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a time
b. Used to connect older keyboards, mouse, monitors, dial-up modems
• Parallel port
For transmitting data quickly over short distances
a. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneously
b. Connects printers, external disks, tape backups
• USB port
• Universal Serial Bus high-speed hardware standard for interfacing peripheral
devices, such as scanners and printers, to computers without a need for special
expansion cards or other hardware modifications to the computer. USB is replacing
many varieties of serial and parallel ports.

SPECIALIZED EXPANSION PORTS

Port Type
• FireWire Intended for multiple devices working with lots of data and requiring fast
transmission speeds, such as DVD drives, digital video cameras, and gaming consoles.
• Ethernet Supports a network standard for linking a wired local area network and
connecting it to a DSL or a cable modem for high-speed Internet access.
• Graphics Connects digital monitors and multimedia digital devices, such as TVs and DVD
players.
• eSATA External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment; allows the attachment of an
eSATA hard disk, which has fast data transmission speeds.
• Bluetooth Connects devices that use short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 feet.
• IrDA Transfers data via infrared light waves between directly aligned devices, as
between a smartphone and a desktop computer.
• HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface; carries both video and audio signals and is used
for connecting HDTVs, DVD players, and game consoles to computers, laptops, and other
devices.
• MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface; used to connect electronic musical
instruments to a sound card that converts the signals to digital instructions that can be saved or
manipulated.

33
UNIT 3B:
• Secondary storage hardware includes devices that permanently hold data and information as
well as programs.
• Online, or cloud, storage is also available, but we still use secondary storage hardware.

3.7 SECONDARY STORAGE

Hard Disks: Still the major secondary-storage device for desktop/tower computers.
• Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that allows data to
be held in the form of magnetized spots.
• The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity.
• Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.
• Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters.
• Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!

34
 • Important data should always be backed up!

• Hard Disks (continued)

• Hard Disk Types:
• Nonremovable hard disk – Also known as a fixed disk; is housed in the
microcomputer system unit and is used to store nearly all programs and most
data files. Usually consists of several metallic or glass platters, from 1 to 5.25
inches (most commonly 3.5 inches) in diameter, stacked on a spindle, with data
stored on both sides. Read/write heads, one for each side of each platter, are
mounted on an access arm that moves back and forth to the right location on
the platter.
• External hard disk – Freestanding disk drive (portable); usually connected via
USB.
• RAID – redundant array of independent disks; for large computer systems.
• Optical Disks
• CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video disks) are optical disks.
• DVDs hold more data then CDs do.
• Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk read/write head.
• CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory; content is prerecorded.
• CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only once.
• CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk that can both record
and erase data over and over again.
• Optical Disks (continued)
• DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity.
• DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once.
• DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs.
• Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite, and play back high-definition
(HD) video, as well as to store large amounts of data.

35
FLASH & SOLID-STATE STORAGE
• Flash memory and solid-state memory have become the most important form of mobile
secondary storage.
• Disk drives (hard disks or CDs/DVDs) all involve some moving parts—and moving parts can
break. By contrast, flash memory has no moving parts; it is “solid state.” Flash memory is also
nonvolatile—it retains data even when the power is turned off.
• Flash memory media are available in three forms:
• Some tablets, laptops, desktops, and servers feature a solid-state drive (SSD), which
uses flash memory to store data, instructions ,and information.
• Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, are removable and reusable storage media
that are inserted into a flash memory slot in a digital camera, notebook, smartphone, or
other mobile device.
• A USB flash drive consists of a finger-size module of reusable flash memory that plugs
into the USB ports of nearly any microcomputer.

SMART CARD: POCKET-SIZE CARD WITH INTEGRATED CIRCUITS.

• Resembles a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory chips
• May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal information
• Storage capacity: around 10 MBs
• Contact smart cards
• Must be swiped through card readers
• Can wear out from use
• Contactless smart cards
• Read when held in front of a low-powered laser
• Online Secondary Storage (Cloud Storage)
• Allows you to use the Internet to back up your data
• Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software and applications that allow
you to upload your data to that company’s server

3.8 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN PROCESSING & STORAGE

PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
• Nanotechnology - Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits
• Optical computing - Uses lasers and light, not electricity
• DNA computing - Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data
• Quantum computing - Based on quantum mechanics and stores information using particle
states
• Better batteries - Wireless charging of batteries, longer-lasting batteries
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN SECONDARY STORAGE
• Higher-density disks
• Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits vertically on the
surface of a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)
• Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic level

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 UNIT 4:
HARDWARE: INPUT & OUTPUT
• Input Hardware
• Devices that translate data into a form the computer can process
• Translates words, numbers, sounds, and pictures into binary 0s and 1s (off or on
electrical signals or light pulses)
• Output Hardware
• Devices that translate information processed by the computer into a form humans can
understand
• Translates binary code into words, numbers, sounds, and pictures

UNIT 4A: INPUT HARDWARE

• The three major types of input hardware are keyboards, pointing devices, and source data-
entry devices.

4.1 KEYBOARDS
• Keyboards: convert letters, numbers, and characters into electrical signals
• English keyboards differ from foreign language keyboards
• How keyboards work:
• You press a key
• This interrupts the current flowing through the circuits
• Processor determines where the break occurs
• It compares the location of the break with the (x,y) character map for the language on
the keyboard’s ROM chip
• A character is stored in keyboard memory
• Keyboards (continued)
• The character is then sent to PC as a data stream via wire or wireless connection
• OS interprets its own operating-system-specific commands and sends the others
to the application for interpretation
• Most keyboards are QWERTY – named for the first six letters on the top left of
the keyboard.
• Keyboards are either tactile (physical) or touch
screen (virtual)

KEYBOARD TYPES
• 104 – 108 keys desktop standard
• 80 – 85 keys for laptops
• Wired
• Connect to CPU via a serial or USB port
• Wireless use either
• IR (infrared) technology
• Radio Frequency (RF) technology

TERMINAL TYPES
• Dumb Terminals
• a.k.a. Video Display Terminal (VDT)
• Has display screen and keyboard
• Can do input and output only – no data processing

37
 • Intelligent Terminals
• Has screen, processor, keyboard, and memory
• Can perform some independent functions
• Automated teller machine; point-of-sale terminal; mobile data terminal

4.2 POINTING DEVICE

Pointing devices include the mouse and its variants, the touch screen, and various forms of pen input.
Pointing devices control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen and allow the user to select
options displayed on the screen.
• Mouse is the principal pointing device.
• Mechanical mouse: a ball inside the mouse touches the desktop surface and
rolls with the mouse.
• Optical mouse: uses laser beams and special chips to encode data for the
computer.
• The mouse controls the mouse pointer on the screen – for example, an arrow,
rectangle, pointing finger.
• When the mouse pointer changes to an I-beam, that indicates that text can be
entered.

The mouse has one to five buttons, used for various functions, such as clicking on and dragging items on
the screen.
Pointing Devices (continued)
• Trackball
• A movable ball mounted on top of a stationary device
• Good for locations where a mouse can’t move around enough
• Touchpad
• To use: slide your finger over this small flat surface
• Click by tapping you finger on the surface
• May require more practice to use than a mouse
• Used on laptops
• Pointing stick
• Located between the keys on a laptop keyboard, a pointing stick is a pressure-
sensitive device that allows the user to control the pointer by directing the stick
with one finger.

• Touch Screens
• A video display screen sensitized to receive input from a finger touch.
• Used in ATMs, information, kiosks, reservation kiosks, voting machines,
cellphones, tablets, and e-books.
• Multitouch Screens
• Display screens that allow two or more fingers or other gestures such as
pinching motions to be recognized as input at any one time. It allows pinching
and stretching gestures on the screen to control zooming.
• Pen input
• Uses a pen-like stylus for input.
• Uses handwriting recognition to translate cursive writing into data (handwriting
recognition).
• Light pen

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 • A light-sensitive pen like device that uses a wired connection to a computer
terminal
• Bring the pen to the desired point on the display screen and press a button to
identify the screen location
• Used by graphics artists, engineers, and in situations that require covered hands
• Digitizer
• Uses an electronic pen or puck to convert drawings and photos to digital data
• Digitizing tablets are often used in architecture
• Digital Pen
• Writing instrument
• Writers can write on paper
• A tiny camera in the pen tip captures the writing
• A microchip in the pen converts the pen to digital ink
• The writing is sent as an image file to the computer
• Some versions require special paper

4.3 SOURCE DATA-ENTRY DEVICES

• Scanning & Reading Devices—Source data-entry devices that create machine-readable data and
feed it directly into the computer (no keyboard is used)
• Scanners
• Use light-sensing equipment to translate images of text, drawings, and photos
into digital form
• Image scanners are used in electronic imaging
• Resolution refers to the image sharpness, measured in dots per inch (dpi)
• Flatbed scanners work like photocopiers – the image is placed on the glass
surface, then scanned
• Other types are sheet-fed, handheld, and drum

BAR-CODE READERS (SOURCE DATA ENTRY)

• Photoelectric (optical) scanners that translate bar code symbols into digital code
• The digital code is then sent to a computer
• The computer looks up the item and displays its name and associated
information
• Bar code types
• 1D (regular vertical stripes) holds up to 16 ASCII characters
• 2D (different-sized rectangles) can hold 1,000 to 2,000 ASCII characters
• 3D is “bumpy” code that differentiates by symbol height
• Can be used on metal, hard rubber, other tough surfaces

RADIO-FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

• Based on an identifying tag bearing a microchip that contains specific code numbers.
These code numbers are read by the radio waves of a scanner linked to a database.
• Active RFID tags have their own power source and can transmit signals over a distance
to a reader device.
• Passive RFID tags have no battery power of their own and must be read by some sort of
scanner.
• RFID tags of both types are used for a wide range of purposes and are starting to replace
bar codes in many situations.

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MARK RECOGNITION READERS (SOURCE DATA ENTRY)
• MICR – magnetic-ink character recognition
• Uses special magnetized inks
• Must be read by a special scanner that reads this ink
• Used on bank checks
• OMR – optical mark recognition
• Uses a special scanner that reads bubble (pencil) marks
• Used in standardized tests such as the

SAT AND GRE

• OCR – optical character recognition
• Converts scanned text from images (pictures of the text) to an editable text
format

IMAGE-CAPTURE DEVICES
• Digital Cameras
• Use a light-sensitive processor chip to capture photographic images in digital form and
store them on a small disk in the camera or on flash memory cards.
• Most can be connected to a PC by USB; smartphones include digital cameras.
• Webcams
• Video cameras attached to a computer to record live moving images then post
them to a website in real time.
• Can be attached externally or built into the computer/device.
• Frame-grabber video card
• Can capture and digitize 1 frame at a time
• Full-motion video card
• Can convert analog to digital signals at rates up to 30 frames per second
• Looks like a motion picture

AUDIO-INPUT DEVICES
• Record analog sound and translate it into digital files for storage and processing
• Two ways to digitize audio (often via microphone)
• Sound Board
• An add-on board in a computer that converts analog sound to digital
sound, stores it, and plays it back to speakers or amp
• MIDI Board
• Stands for Musical Instrument Digital Exchange
• Uses a standard for the interchange between musical instruments,
synthesizers, and computers

• Speech-Recognition Systems
• Use a microphone or telephone as an input device. Converts a person’s speech into
digital signals by comparing against 200,000 or so stored patterns.
• Used in places where people need their hands free – warehouses, car radios,
stock exchange trades.

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 • Helpful for people with visual or physical disabilities that prevent them from
using other input devices.

SENSORS
• Input device that collects specific data directly from the environment and transmits it to
a computer.
• Can be used to detect speed, movement, weight, pressure, temperature, humidity,
wind, current, fog, gas, smoke, light, shapes, images, earthquakes, etc.\

BIOMETRIC-INPUT DEVICES
• Biometrics is the science of measuring individual body characteristics, then using them
to identify a person through a fingerprint, hand, eye, voice, or facial characteristics.
• Example: notebook computers equipped with biometric sensors that read fingerprints,
instead of passwords, before allowing access to networks.
• Airport and building security systems use biometrics.

4.4 THE FUTURE OF INPUT

• Data will be input from more and more locations.
• Use of source data entry will increase.
• Better input devices for people with disabilities
• Better speech recognition
• Better touch and gesture-recognition input
• Pattern recognition and improved biometrics
• Brainwave input devices

UNIT 4B: OUTPUT HARDWARE

• Softcopy = data shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form; it exists only
electronically. This kind of output is not tangible; it cannot be touched. You can touch disks on
which programs are stored, but the software itself is intangible.
• Hardcopy = tangible output, usually printed. The principal examples are printouts, whether text
or graphics, from printers. Film, including microfilm and microfiche, is also considered hardcopy
output.

4.5 SOFTCOPY OUTPUT: Display Screens

Features of display screens to consider include screen dimension, screen clarity, and color and
resolution standards.
Screen size & aspect ratio
• The active display area is the size of a computer screen measured diagonally from corner to
corner in inches.
• Desktop computers are commonly 15–30 inches (laptops 12–18 inches, tablets 8.4–14.1
inches, and smartphones 2.5–4.1 inches).
• The aspect ratio is the proportional relationship of a display screen’s width and height.
• Standard displays have a 4:3 aspect ratio (4 units wide to 3 units high); wide-
screen displays have 16:9 or 16:10.

SCREEN CLARITY
• Dot pitch (dp) is the amount of space between adjacent pixels (square picture elements)
on screen.

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 • The closer the pixels, the crisper the image.
• Get .25 dp or better.
• Resolution refers to the image sharpness.
• The more pixels, the better the resolution.
• Expressed in dots per inch (dpi) .
• Color depth (bit depth) is the number of bits stored in a dot (pixel).
• The higher the number the more true the colors.
• 24-bit color depth is better than 8-bit color depth, but it needs more
video card memory.
• Refresh rate is the number of times per second the pixels are recharged – a higher rate
gives less flicker.
• Microcomputers come with graphics cards (video cards) that work with the screen.
• Graphics cards have their own memory (VRAM), which stores each pixel’s information.
• The more VRAM, the higher the resolution you can use.
• Desktop publishers, graphics artists, and gamers need lots of VRAM.

TYPES OF DISPLAY DEVICES

• The most common type of display screens, flat-panel displays are made
up of two plates of glass separated by a layer of a substance in which light is manipulated.
• One type of flat-panel display is the liquid crystal display (LCD), in which molecules of liquid
crystal line up in a way that alters their optical properties, creating images on the screen by
transmitting or blocking light.

Other types of displays:

• Plasma displays: A layer of gas is sandwiched between two glass plates, and when voltage is
applied, the gas releases ultraviolet light, which activates the pixels on the screen and forms an
image. Although expensive, plasma monitors offer brighter colors and screen sizes up to 150
inches wide; however, they usually do not last as long as other display types.
• Cathode-ray tube (CRT) and others: Falling out of use.
• Multiple screens: Splitting the monitor display area into multiple screens, to view
different documents at once.

4.6 HARDCOPY OUTPUT: Printers

• Printers print text and graphics on paper or other hardcopy materials.
• Printer resolution is measured by dpi (dots per inch); 1,200 x 1,200 is the most common
for microcomputers.
• Printers are either impact or nonimpact – impact printers (dot-matrix printer) print by
striking the paper directly; nonimpact printers (such as laser printers and inkjet printers)
do not have direct contact with the hardcopy medium.
• Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots. However, as in a
photocopying machine, these images are produced on a drum, treated with an
electrically charged inklike toner (powder), and then transferred from drum to paper.
• Laser printers run with software called a page description language (PDL) , which tells
the printer how to lay out the printed page and supports various fonts.
• A laser printer comes with one or both types of PDL: PostScript or PCL (Printer Control
Language. In desktop publishing, PostScript is the preferred PDL.
• Laser printers have their own CPU, ROM, and memory (RAM), usually 16 megabytes
(expandable generally up to 512 megabytes for higher-cost printers).

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 • When you need to print out graphics-heavy color documents, your printer will need
more memory.
• Inkjet printers spray onto paper small, electrically charged droplets of ink from four or
more nozzles through holes in a matrix at high speed.
• Like laser and dot-matrix printers, inkjet printers form images with little dots. Inkjet
printers commonly have a dpi of 4,800 x 1,200; they spray ink onto the page a line at a
time, in both high-quality black-and-white text and high-quality color graphics.

Nonimpact printers also include:

• Thermal printers: Low- to medium-resolution printers that use a type of coated paper
that darkens when heat is applied to it; typically used in business for bar-code label
applications and for printing cash register receipts.
• Thermal wax-transfer printers: Print a wax-based ink onto paper. After it becomes cool,
the wax adheres permanently to the paper. Because of their water fastness, these labels
find uses in industrial label printing.
• Photo printers: Specialized machines for printing continuous-tone photo prints , with
special paper and color dyes.

MULTIFUNCTION PRINTERS
• Printers that combine several capabilities:
• Printing
• Scanning
• Copying
• Faxing
• Cost less and take up less space than buying the four separate office machines.
• But if one component malfunctions, so will the other functions.

PLOTTERS: Designed for large-format printing

• Specialized output device designed to produce large high-quality, 3-D graphics in a
variety of colors.
• Used by architects, engineers, and map-makers.
• Pen plotters use one or more colored pens.
• Electrostatic plotters lie partially flat on a table and use toner as photocopiers
do.
• Large-format plotters are large-scale inkjet printers used by graphic artists.

4.7 MIXED OUTPUT: SOUND, VOICE, & VIDEO

• Mixed Output: Sound, Voice, & Video
• Sound output—produces digitized sounds, even “3-D” sound.
• You need a sound card and sound software.
• Good speakers can improve the sound.
• Voice output—converts digital data into speechlike sounds.
• Used in phone trees, cars, toys and games, GPS systems, and TTS (text-to-
speech) systems for hearing-impaired people.
• Video output—photographic images played quickly enough to appear as full-motion.
• Requires powerful processor and video card.
• Video files are large, so a lot of storage is needed, too.
• Videoconferencing is a form of video output.

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4.8 THE FUTURE OF OUTPUT
• More unusual forms of output
• More data used in (Big Data)
• More realistic output
• Better and cheaper display screens
• Printers that use less ink
• Movie-quality video for PCs
• Increased use of 3D output

4.9 QUALITY OF LIFE: HEALTH & ERGONOMICS

• Health Matters
• Overuse injuries and repetitive stress injuries:
• Result when muscle groups are forced through fast, repetitive motions.
• May effect data-entry operators who average 15,000 keystrokes an hour.
• May effect computer users whose monitor, keyboard, and workstation are not
arranged for comfort.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome: Caused by pressure on the median nerve in the wrist,
through short repetitive movements.
• Eyestrain, headaches, back and neck pains can be problems.
• Electromagnetic fields may be harmful.

Ergonomics is the methodology of designing a workplace to make working conditions and equipment
safer and more efficient.
• Keyboards must be placed at the correct height depending on each worker’s size;
detachable keyboards are useful.
• Monitor refresh rates must be fast enough to avoid eyestrain.
• Monitor heights must be correct for comfortable viewing; use a tilting screen.
• Wrist rests may help avoid carpal tunnel syndrome.

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