DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION

Mabini Street, Tagum City

Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

PART 2: INSTRUCTION PROPER

COURSE INFORMATION

CC’s Voice : Hello future professionals! Welcome to this course GE 15 -

Environmental Science. Don’t be afraid to share your insights. Reassuring you that we
will get along thru online learning. Stay connected, have fun and let’s celebrate
learnings together! #Choose UM

CC : This course is intended to deliver knowledge in understanding the

nature of Environmental science including its concepts and principles in line with the
aspects of natural science, technology, natural-heretical events, current
environmental conditions, politics, cultural, and economics. This course also promotes
an understanding of the interrelationship of human to the environment and vice versa,
helping you to undertake the concepts of how the environment is important to human
beings and the other species.

LET’S BEGIN!

Week 1-3: UNIT LEARNING OUTCOME (ULO)

At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
• Master scientific principles and its relationship with the recent environmental
issues that the local, national, and global societies are facing;
• Explain the fundamental concepts behind environmental science in terms of
understanding states of matter, conservation of matter, and essential elements
& compounds in the environment, dynamics of the population by interpreting
population models, and environmental-ecological growth patterns.
Focus: Understand basic concepts and methods from ecological
sciences and its application in current environmental problem-solving.

METALANGUAGE
• Ecosystem • Evolution
• Global Warming • Species
• Climate Change • Biome
• Over Population • Community
• Pollution • Population
• Sustainability • Taxonomy
• Matter • Ecology
• Biodiversity

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, THEIR CAUSES, AND SUSTAINABILITY

The science of Environment studies may be a multi-disciplinary science because it
comprises various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, life science, natural
science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering, etc. it's the science of
physical phenomena within the environment.
The field of Environmental Science is divided into 3 main goals:
• Learning how the natural world works
• Understand how we humans interact with the environment
• Determine how human actions affects environment
By combining these aspects together, the field of environmental science can cover
more concepts that examine problems and topics in different points of view, making it
one of the most interdisciplinary fields of sciences.
• Natural Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, and Geology
• Social Sciences: Geography, Economics, and Political Science
• Humanities: Philosophy and Ethics.
Environmental pollution is classifies in various ways:
• Environmental Elements: Air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, and
physical pollution. Caused by human activities, example: burning coal and
fossil fuel
• Anthropogenic Activities: Industrial pollution, cities pollution/urbanization,
and agricultural pollution. Caused by activates near urban and industrial areas.
Mostly, pollutants are concentrated and hazardous.
Pollution Prevention can reduce or even eliminate pollutant:
• Reuse materials as much as possible. Throwing them to the garbage takes a
short time, but decomposing them takes even more than human lifetime.
• Reduce the use of plastic materials as much as possible, it won’t kill you if
bring your own basket/eco-bag in the supermarket, but it will kills marine
mammals as they think of it as floating food.
• Recycle your scratch papers, it took hundred year old tress to make papers,
and it only took you seconds to throw, burn, and crumple it.
• Reinvent your unused belonging. Old tires can turn into something better than
burning it which causes ozone depletion.
• Refuse using plastic bags when you buy 2 pieces of eggs in sari-sari store,
you can carry them with your hands without throwing and burning any single
plastic material.
Global Warming: The deadliest Environmental Phenomena
The changes that we felt as of now won’t only be felt many decades, it will
continuously be deadly as its impacts and effects are clearly visible.
• Nature Loss is the most direct causes of global warming, biodiversity loss are
habitat change, direct exploitation (e.g., fishing, hunting and logging), invasive
alien species, pollution (including nutrient loading), and global climate change.
• Polar Regions with rising temperatures driving major ice loss in both Polar
Regions and wildlife suffering as polar habitats change. Keeping the Polar
Regions as we know them with ice, snow and permafrost requires urgent and
ambitious global action to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

• Ocean is acidifying and the amount of oxygen is decreasing, while rising sea
levels are impacting coastal communities, habitats and biodiversity.
• Freshwater are threatened by unsustainable agriculture, river fragmentation
due to hydropower dams, and the loss of the runoff from snow cover, glaciers
and permafrost in the high mountain regions.
• Grasslands are threatened by crop production and overgrazing, while climate
change is changing their composition.
• Forests are being destroyed at an alarming rate, with the damage driven by
the consumption and food production patterns of a growing human population.
• Air pollution emissions are released from both natural and anthropogenic
sources. Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health and is estimated to
cause approximately 2 million premature deaths worldwide per year.
• Ocean Acidification poses a serious threat to marine life and to the ocean-
derived goods and services that we depend on.
• Coral Reefs are probably home to at least a quarter of the entire biological
diversity of the oceans, a seemingly limitless number of species, and serve as
some of the most beautiful habitats in the world.
SUSTAINABILITY
It is simple means, meeting our own needs without compromising the flexibility of the
future generations to fulfil their own needs. With the Initiative of the United Nations,
the Three Pillars of Sustainability has been established to ensure quality life now and
sustainable life in the future generations.
• Social sustainability - addresses social and economic improvement that
protects the environment and supports equality, and so the economy and
society and also the ecological system are mutually dependent (Diesendorf,
2000).
• Economic sustainability – “Abandoning economic process isn't an option”,
but sustainable development is over just economic process. "Critics of this
model acknowledge that a good gap in modern accounting practices isn't to
incorporate the value of injury to the world in market prices (Hawking, 2010).
• Environmental Sustainability – It aims to boost human welfare through the
protection of natural capital).
The Three E’s of Sustainability
In 1987, the report of the Brundtland Commission described sustainability as having
three co-equal parts or elements, all of which start with the letter E: environment,
economy, and equity., these elements have formed the basis for disaggregating and
elaborating sustainability.
Millennium Development Goals of 2000
In September 2000, leaders of 189 countries gathered at the global organization
headquarters and signed the historic Millennium Declaration, within which they
committed to achieving a collection of eight measurable goals that range from
halving extreme poverty and hunger to promoting gender equality and reducing child
mortality, by the target date of 2015.
Sustainable Development Goals of 2015
The Global Consultation of Sustainable Development Goals, The Rio 20 conference
(the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development) in Rio de Janeiro, June
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

2012, galvanized a process to develop a brand new set of Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs) which can persevere the momentum generated by the MDGs and fit
into a worldwide development framework beyond 2015.
Transforming the world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was launched in 2015 to end poverty
and set the world on a path of peace, prosperity and opportunity for all on a healthy
planet. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) demand nothing short of a
transformation of the financial, economic and political systems that govern our
societies today to guarantee the human rights of all.
The SDGs Report of 2020 during the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The pandemic brings together the latest data to show us that, before the
COVID-19 pandemic, progress remained uneven and we were not on track to
meet the Goals by 2030.
• Some gains were visible: the share of children and youth out of school had
fallen; the incidence of many communicable diseases was in decline; access to
safely managed drinking water had improved; and women’s representation in
leadership roles was increasing.
• Number of people suffering from food insecurity was on the rise, the natural
environment continued to deteriorate at an alarming rate, and dramatic levels
of inequality persisted in all regions.
• COVID-19, an unprecedented health, economic and social crisis is threatening
lives and livelihoods, making the achievement of Goals even more challenging.
• As of the beginning of June, the death toll had surpassed 400,000 and was
continuing to climb, with almost no country spared.
• Health systems in many countries have been driven to the brink of collapse.
• The livelihood of half the global workforce has been severely affected.
• More than 1.6 billion students are out of school, and tens of millions of people
are being pushed back into extreme poverty and hunger, erasing the modest
progress made in recent years.
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

SCIENCE, MATTER, ENERGY, AND SYSTEMS

Scientific Method is systematic guide to get how the physical world works by
observations, measurements, and experiments.

What is matter?
Look around you, we look at matter at all times, in fact, we ourselves, is a composition
of different states of matter—the stuff that makes up life and its environment. Matter is
anything that has mass and takes up space.
Solids
• Fixed shape and volume
• Particles are packed closely together
• Not much space between the particles and little movement
Liquids
• Fixed volume, but take the shape of the container in which they sit
• Not much space between the particles, slides and flows with each other easily
• A liquid is not easily compressed
Gas
• fills the shape and volume of the container in which it sits
• A lot of free space between its particles and they flow easily past each other
• Can be compressed
Plasma
• Often thought of as a subset of gases, but behaves very differently
• Made up of atoms in which some or all of the electrons have been stripped
away and positively charged nuclei, called ions, roam freely.
BOSE-EINSTINE Condensate
• Typically formed when a gas of bosons at low densities is cooled to
temperatures very close to absolute zero (-273.15 °C)
Matter Exists in two Chemical forms
• Elements - is a pure substance which cannot be broken down by chemical
means, consisting of atoms which have identical numbers of protons in their
atomic nuclei
• Compounds – It is a substance formed when two or more elements are
chemically joined.
The Six Ways to Change the Phase of Matter
• Melting changes a solid to a liquid. (i.e. dripping icicles)
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

• Freezing changes a liquid to a solid. (i.e. lake freezing over)

• Evaporation changes a liquid to a gas. (i.e. clothes drying on a clothesline)
• Condensation changes a gas to liquid. (i.e. water forming on the outside of a
cold glass)
• Sublimation changes a solid to a gas. (i.e. ice cubes shrinking in the freezer)
• Deposition changes a gas to a solid. (i.e. frost forming on the windows).

Physical and Chemical Changes of Matter

• Physical Properties of Matter - characteristics that can be observed or
measured without changing the sample’s composition.
• Chemical Properties of Matter - the ability of a substance to combine with or
change into one or more other substances
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions as building blocks of Matter
• Atoms, Molecules, and Ions - The angstrom unit is named after Anders
Jonas Ångström, a nineteenth-century Swedish physicist. Ångström's
research dealt with light being emitted by glowing objects, including the sun.
• Atomic Theory - Chemistry is based on the modern atomic theory, which
states that all matter is composed of atoms. Atoms themselves are composed
of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each element has its own atomic
number, which is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. Isotopes of an
element contain different numbers of neutrons.
• Masses of Atoms and Molecules - The atomic mass unit (u) is a unit that
describes the masses of individual atoms and molecules. The atomic mass is
the weighted average of the masses of all isotopes of an element. The
molecular mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule.
• Ions and Ionic Compounds - Ions form when atoms loss or gain electrons.
Ionic compounds have positive ions and negative ions. Ionic formulas
balance the total positive and negative charges.
ECOSYSTEMS: WHAT ARE THEY AND HOW DO THEY WORK?
Haeckel, a German Zoologist first described Ecology as separate discipline in 1886.
He stated that it is a multidisciplinary science which aims to deal with many
environmental problems. It is also the application of other disciplines like:
Famous Ecologists and their contributions
1. Antony van Leeuwenhoek is best known for locating bacteria and creating quite
500 simple microscopes. He also discovered sperm cells, blood cells, protists, and
microscopic nematodes. He was made one amongst the primarily recorded
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

observations of bacteria when he studied the plaque from his teeth and also the teeth
of several others. He noticed “animalcules” swimming within the saliva sample.
2. Carolus “Carl” Linnaeus classified living organisms as being from either the plant
or animal. He described 4,300 species of animals in his 1735 book “Systema Naturae”
and 5,000 species of plants in his 1737 book, “Geenera Plantarum”.
3. Charles Darwin was best known for his work establishing the evolution by means
of action. The numerous observations that he made aboard in the voyage of the HMS
Beagle, he formulated a theory of species change, he termed descent with
modification through the first means of survival of the fittest. He then turned to write
On the Origin of Species by Means of action or the Preservation of Favoured Races
within the Struggle for all times, published in 1859.
Ecology can be classified based upon its subdivisions:
• Based on Taxonomic Affinities
✓ Plant Ecology deals with the relationships of plants and their
environment.
• Animal Ecology deals with the animal population,, their changes, behavior
and their relationship to the environment.
• Based on Habitat Ecology
• Based on Level of Organization
✓ Synecology is the ecology of groups of organisms
✓ Autecology is the ecology of individual organisms.
ECOSYSTEM
Each organism must not be isolated from their preferred non-living environment
because they provide materials and energy for survival of the rest of the organism.
Each one is linked to the other. For example: There is an interaction of the biotic
community and its abiotic environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-
sufficient unit which we call Ecosystem.
• Biotic Factors are living organism, everything that contains life, and is
dependent to an abiotic factor or to another biotic factor.
• Abiotic Factors are non-living components, physically and chemically present
and is prevailing in the ecosystem, they may be life-less but they contain the
essential substances that provide balance to the survival of the biotic factors.
Abiotic components are mainly of two types:
✓ Climatic Factors – Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity
etc.
✓ Edaphic Factors - Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
Feeding Guilds and Trophic Levels
• Autotrophs are organisms that are capable of producing their own food, they
are self-nourishing organism capable of absorbing solar energy to make their
own food through the
• Heterotrophs are consumer; they obtain their energy to survive by consuming
other organisms. They are classified into several categories:
✓ Herbivores, the plant eating organisms. Example: Zebra, Elephant,
Gazelle
✓ Carnivores, the animal-dependent organisms that mainly feeds
specifically on animals. Example: Lion, Shark, Eagle
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

✓ Omnivores, the organisms where apex predators belongs, they

consume mostly all potentially energy giving organisms. Example:
Human, Bears, Hippopotamus
✓ Detritivores are decomposers that feed upon the waste products and
dead remains of other organisms.
- Bacteria
- Scavengers; Example: Vultures, Beetles, and Hyena
✓ Planktivores eats the small organisms that drift in the water. They are
herbivores and consume primarily phytoplankton or any suspended
animals. Examples: Whale Sharks, Corals, Sponges, and some jelly
fish.
Trophic Levels - Energy is never broken but is only transformed, in the ecosystem,
energy is important for survival. The trophic level explains how organisms gain and
loss energy by consuming one another. As the energy goes higher, some percentage
of it is converted into usable energy. This means that only small portion of the initial
energy consumed by the primary consumers will remain at the highest trophic level.
The higher the trophic level, the lower the biomass it has, on the other hand, lowest
trophic level organism has the largest biomass.
• Primary Producer (Autotrophs: Plants)
• Primary Consumer (Heterotrophs: Herbivores)
• Secondary Consumer (Heterotrophs: Carnivores)
• Tertiary Consumer (Heterotrophs: Omnivores)
• Quaternary/Apex Consumers (Heterotrophs: Carnivores and Omnivores)
• Decomposer (Bacteria)
Ecological Organization
• Organism (Individual)
• Population – all of the individuals of a species that live in the same area
• Community – a group of similar or dissimilar species together under more or
less similar environmental condition.
• Ecosystem – a community of living organisms and their interrelated physical
and chemical environment
• Biome – distinct ecological communities of plants and animals living together
in a particular climate
• Biosphere – all the organisms and the part of Earth where they exist
Classification of Ecosystem
• Artificial Ecosystems are natural regions tormented by man’s interferences.
They’re artificial lakes, reservoirs, townships, and cities.
• Natural Ecosystems are basically classified into two major types:
✓ Aquatic Ecosystem
➢ Marine Ecosystem
➢ Freshwater Ecosystem
✓ Terrestrial Ecosystem
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

Food Chain and Food Web

Trophic Level and Energy Distribution

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
The biome is primarily defined by its biota. A larger scale of habitat that offers a better
survival rate on different organisms; dependent on climate
Tropical Rain Forest I s a home to more species than all other land biomes
combined. The leafy tops of tall trees – extending up to 70 meters above the forest
floor – form a dense covering called a canopy.
Tropical Dry Forests grows in places where rainfall is highly seasonal rather than
year-round. During the dry season, nearly all the trees drop their leaves to conserve
water.
Tropical Savanna receives more seasonal rainfall than deserts but less than tropical
dry forests, tropical savannas, or grasslands, are characterized by a cover of grasses.
Temperate Grassland is characterized by a rich mix of grasses and underlain by
some of the world's most fertile soils, temperate grasslands – such as plains and
prairies.
Desert biome is defined as having annual precipitation of less than 25 centimeters.
Many undergo extreme temperature changes during the course of a day, alternating
between hot and cold. The organisms in this biome can tolerate the extreme
conditions.
Temperate Woodland and Shrub land are characterized by a semiarid climate and
a mix of shrub communities and open woodlands.
Temperate forests contain a mixture of deciduous and coniferous (koh-NIF-ur-us)
trees. These forests have cold winters that halt plant growth for several months. In
autumn, the deciduous trees shed their leaves.
Northwestern Coniferous has moist air from the Pacific Ocean provides abundant
rainfall to this biome. The forest is made up of a variety of conifers, ranging from giant
redwoods, along the coast of northern California.
Boreal Forest is common on the northern edge, Winters are bitterly cold, but
summers are mild and long enough to allow the ground to thaw. The word boreal
comes from the Greek word for "north," reflecting the fact that boreal forests occur
mostly in the Northern Hemisphere.
Tundra is characterized by permafrost, a layer of permanently frozen subsoil. During
the short, cool summer, the ground thaws to a depth of a few centimeters and
becomes soggy and wet. In winter, the topsoil freezes again.
AQUATIC BIOMES
Ocean is the most diverse biome; it is categorized into different zones based on how
far light reaches into the water. Each zone has a distinct group of species adapted to
the biotic and abiotic conditions particular to that zone.
• Intertidal zone • Abyssal zone
• Neritic zone • Benthic zone
• Oceanic zone
Corals Reefs are characterized by high biodiversity and the structures created
byinvertebrates that live in warm, shallow waters within the photic zone of the ocean.
Estuaries are biomes where the Ocean meets Fresh Water that occurs where a
source of fresh water, such as a river, meets the ocean. Estuaries form protected
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

areas where many of the young offspring of crustaceans, mollusks, and fish begin
their lives.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
1. CARBON CYCLE 3. NITROGEN CYCLE
✓ Photosynthesis ✓ Nitrogen fixing
✓ Decomposition. ✓ Decomposition-Ammonification
✓ Respiration ✓ Nitrification
✓ Combustion ✓ Denitrifying bacteria
2. PHOSPHORUS CYCLE 4. SULFUR CYCLE
BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION
The biodiversity refers to the abundance of variety of species and genetic diversity in
an ecosystem. A loss of an individual is a loss of biodiversity. Due to anthropogenic
activities, biodiversity is threatened. Due to innovation and over consumption, human
being cut down and removes several habitats resulting to species that thrive there to
die.
What are the benefits of preserving biodiversity?
There are limitless benefits to preserving biodiversity in any ecosystem. Mainly,
Biodiversity helps balance nature, this is due to several species helps fill all the
niches (ecological role) in their own environment.
How old is the biosphere?
The biosphere is unique to Earth because it’s the only planet known to support life. It’s
believed that Earth’s biosphere started about 3.5 to 4.1 billion years ago. All living
things originated from a common ancestor called the last universal common ancestor
(LUCA)

CHALRES DARWIN: THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The Galapagos Islands
In the Galapagos Islands, Darwin studied the beaks of finches. The setting was
perfect because each contained island had its own tiny climates and plants. He
noticed that animals on different islands had slightly different shaped beaks.
The Voyage of the Beagle
He became convinced that the atolls of Pacific islands were produced by the coral
growing as the mountains sank. In Tierra Del Fuego, he observed native people living
in the wild and became convinced that humans are not so far removed from animals
and show great diversity amongst themselves.
The Secret Notebook
When Darwin realized that the established scientists were not interested in his ideas,
he began to cultivate the friendship of younger men who were on the rise such as
Thomas Huxley (1825–1895) and Joseph Hooker (1817–1911). Over a period of
many years, through correspondence, he tried to convince them of his ideas. In the
1850s, he also started a correspondence with Alfred Wallace (1823–1913)
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

The Origin of Species: Variation 1859-1872

Chapter 1: Darwin pointed out that animal breeders artificially select preferred
characteristics from domestic populations (pigeons, cows, dogs, etc.) in which there is
a lot of random variation
Chapter 2: Darwin argued that a similar selection occurs in nature. He then began to
discuss the nature of species. He pointed out that it is often hard to demarcate
between species; it is hard to decide what are different species as opposed to
different varieties.
The Origin of Species: Struggle for Existence (Chap. 3)
Chapter 3: Darwin argued that individual organisms and species are all in a struggle
for existence. This was contrary to the prevailing view – that nature was harmonious
and showed evidence of a beneficent creator – a doctrine known as natural theology.
Instead, Darwin claimed that life is a complex struggle – not always dramatically
violent, as in predators and prey, but usually more subtle, as a plant struggling against
drought, or the introduction of new species into a habitat, etc. He argued that this
struggle then resulted in what he called “natural selection.” In the 6th edition of the
book, he adopted the terminology of Herbert Spencer and referred to the “survival of
the fittest.”
The Origin of Species: Natural Selection (Chap. 4)
Nature varies, randomly. Some of variations are more advantageous than others.
Because there is a struggle for existence, any advantage will be important, however
slight. In the long run, those organisms that have a slight innate advantage will survive
more often than those that do not, passing on their advantages to their offspring.
Through this mechanism, Darwin argued that a population will change by the
accumulation of small, but favorable advantages, over vast periods of time. Again, he
referred to artificial selection, calling natural selection “unconscious artificial
selection.” But notice that nature does not chose preferred traits in the way that a
breeder does.
The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
The theory of evolution by natural selection is a theory about the mechanism by which
evolution occurred in the past, and is still occurring now. The basic theory was
developed by both Darwin and Wallace; however, Darwin gave a much fuller
argument. The theory states that biological change takes place with two basic
characteristics:
• Variation: Random variations occur in the traits of individual organisms and
are passed on to their offspring.
• Struggle for existence: There is an existential competition that insures
advantageous traits are preserved and disadvantageous traits are eliminated.
Topic 1: Natural Selection and Mutation
Mutation is a change in an organism’s genetic code. Without mutation, there wouldn’t
be any variations to pass to offspring. Ideally, nature would select only beneficial
mutations. But mutations don’t necessarily supply what an organism needs to survive.
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Telefax: (084) 655-9591

Topic 2: Evidence of Evolution

The beaks of the finches, it was in the Galapagos Islands where Charles Darwin was
inspired to think of the theory of evolution. First, evolution started as a hypothesis.
Years later, it became a theory.

Humans Evolution descended from a primate in Africa that existed 25 million years
ago. This common ancestor split off into groups like monkeys, chimpanzees and
gorillas. Humans coexisted with Neanderthals. They were a branch of their own who
died just 40,000 years ago. Let’s explore these early hominids (proto-humans), each
species and where they evolved geographically.
Topic 3: Darwinism and Misconceptions - Lamarck Theory
The Lamarck Theory pre-dates Darwin. Lamarck believed species respond to needs.
It gives the wrong impression that species can pass on favorable traits to offspring.
People don’t pass on traits that they form in their own life. Despite how Lamarck’s
theory is incorrect, it paved the way for Darwinism. He was just wrong for how traits
were passed down through generations.
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084) 655-9591

The March of Progress (also called the “Road to Homo-sapiens”) shows a linear
path. The starting point is a chimpanzee. Then, it depicts how we evolve to
Neanderthals and into modern humans. But as mentioned already, evolution is more
like a tree. It starts with a thicker branch that represents a common ancestor. Then,
new species branch outwards. Each branch is pruned and clipped by natural
selection.

Topic 4: Genetic Drift and Evolution

There’s always an element of chance that you don’t get a random draw of genes.
Then, this misrepresentative draw can influence offspring and evolution. Think of it
like opening a bag of skittles and half of the bag is red. You get a non-representative
draw that isn’t a rainbow color. But this can also happen from generation to
generation for evolution.
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
Each level of classification answers a general question about the species. Like a
family tree, we can see the relationship for any living organism by observing the
following classification of life. Let’s dive into the 7 taxonomic classifications of life on
Earth.
1. Domains are the top-level classification which categorizes life in the most general
way. It’s even more general than asking whether an organism is a plant or an animal.
The three domains of life:
• Eukaryotes have true nucleus
• Prokaryotes don’t have nucleus and some organelles
• Archaea is the oldest domain, makes up the prehistoric organisms that used to
live in extreme environment.
✓ Thermophiles – extremely high temperature
✓ Halofiles – resides in extreme salty water
✓ Methanogenes – organisms that produces methane gas
2. Kingdoms are the kingdom classification gets a bit more specific.
✓ Kingdom bacteria ✓ Kingdom plantae
✓ Kingdom archaea ✓ Kingdom fungi
✓ Kingdom protozoa ✓ Kingdom animalia
✓ Kingdom chromista
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3. Phylums, as we move down the levels of the classification of life, kingdoms are
below domains.
• Animal Kingdom contains approximately 35 phyla.
• Plant kingdom consists of 14 phyla.
• Fungus kingdom contains 8 phyla.
4. Classes
5. Orders
6. Genus
7. Species
Why classify? What characteristics are used how we begin to categorize
• This helps to identify organisms more efficiently, Study group characteristics,
Determine relatedness.
• Physical Appearance such as form color and size
• Chemical Structure of their Genetic Makeup
• Evolutionary History
• Biologists group organisms based on similarities and differences in the
organisms
Binomial Nomenclature and Rules is use of the genus and species to identify an
organisms
• First letter of genus is always capitalized
• If printed or typed both should be italicized
• If handwritten both should be underlined
The Tree of Life
All living things share a single, common ancestor that evolved over millions of years to
bring about the biodiversity we see today. Relatedness is determined by a number of
things:
• Morphology
• Hysiology
• Biochemistry.
Types of characteristics
• Morphology • Function
• Form and structure • Biochemistry
• Physiology • Genetic make up
Limiting Factors are anything that limits the size of a population like certain
environmental conditions. It keeps population from increasing in size and Help
balance an ecosystem (Food availability, Water and Soil Nutrients, Living Conditions
Light, Temperature, etc.)
Carrying Capacity is the maximum population size an environment can support. If
the population size rises above the carrying capacity, organism dies because they
cannot meet all their needs.
• Endangered Species • Endemic Species
• Extinct Species • Threatened Species

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIODIVERSITY, SPECIES INTERACTIONS, AND POPULATION CONTROL
How Do Species Interact?
• Competition, it means two species share a requirement for a limited. Some
species evolve ways to share resources.

The Types of Competition are

• Intraspecific competition: between individuals of the same species
✓ 1000,000 African Zebras are competing for the limited water hole and
grassland
• Interspecific competition: between individuals of different species
✓ 500 Zebras, 500 Giraffes, and 500 Elephants are competing in 1 water
hole for drinking and 100 hectare grassland for a week.
• Apparent competition: occur indirectly between individuals
✓ Filipino Fishermen are overfishing in the Pacific Ocean along with
different vessels of other countries, thus, considering some animals and
fishes are feeding on the same area.
Ecological Symbiotic Relationship
Symbiosis is an interaction characterized by two or more species living purposefully in
direct contact with each other.
• Mutualism – both organisms benefited from each other, either both are
harmed or unharmed
• Commensalism – one organism benefited, while the other does not, but
remains unharmed.
• Parasitism – one benefited so much, while the other do not, in addition to, the
host organism is harmed.
Predator-Prey Relationships
Predator-prey relations refer to the interactions between two species where one
species is the hunted food source for the other.
• Predators may capture prey by (Walking, Swimming Flying ,
Pursuit/Ambush, Camouflage and Chemical warfare)

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• Prey may avoid capture by

✓ Running, swimming, and flying away from the predator
✓ Protection: shells, bark, thorns
✓ Camouflage
✓ Chemical warfare
✓ Warning coloration
✓ Mimicry
✓ Deceptive looks
✓ Deceptive behavior
POPULATION CONTROL
No population can continue to grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources
and because of competition among species for those resources. Most populations
live together in clumps or patches. Why?
✓ Species tend to cluster where resources are available
✓ Groups have a better chance of finding clumped resources
✓ Protects some animals from predators
✓ Packs allow some to get prey
✓ Births and Deaths
✓ Immigration and Emigration
✓ Population change = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)
HUMAN POPULATION AND URBANIZATION
Ecologists usually begin investigating a population by defining boundaries appropriate
to the organism under study and to the questions being asked. Members of a
population depend on the same resources, are influenced by similar environmental
factors, and are likely to interact and breed with each other.
✓ Population density is the number of individuals of a species per unit of area or
volume at a given time.
✓ Population dispersion (spacing) may be: Random, Clumped, and Uniform
✓ Population size-affected by number of births, deaths, immigrants, and
emigrants
Population dynamics is concerned with changes in the density or numbers of
organisms and the processes that cause these changes. Population Dynamics has
relied heavily on mathematical modeling to describe theoretical relationships and to
estimate the parameters needed to describe population change. Currently, 75% of our
land surface is experiencing human pressures. And from 1993 to 2009, population
has grown 23%. But the human footprint has increased by just 9%.
The Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the
United Nations has been issuing for several decades revised and updated estimates
and projections of the urban and rural populations of all countries in the world and of
their major urban settlements. This note presents the main findings of the 2018
Revision of World Urbanization Prospects which are consistent with the size of the
total population of each country as estimated or projected in the 2017 Revision of
World Population Prospects (United Nations, 2017).
Population censuses are the most commonly used sources of data on the proportion
urban and the population of cities. However, in some countries, the data used as the
basis for estimation are obtained from population registers or administrative statistics.
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas, with 55 per cent of the
world’s population residing in urban areas in 2018. In 1950, 30 per cent of the world’s
population was urban, and by 2050, 68 per cent of the world’s population is projected
to be urban. There is significant diversity in the urbanization levels reached by
different geographic regions. The most urbanized geographic regions include
Northern America (82 per cent living in urban areas in 2018), Latin America and the
Caribbean (81 per cent), Europe (74 per cent) and Oceania (68 per cent. The level of
urbanization in Asia is now approximating 50 per cent. In contrast, Africa remains
mostly rural, with 43 per cent of its population living in urban areas. Close to
SELF HELP:
• Copy right: Darwin’s Sciences: How Charles Darwin voyaged from rocks to
worms in his search for facts to explain how the earth, its geological features,
and its inhabitants evolved , First Edition. Duncan M. Porter and Peter W.
Graham. © 2016 Duncan M. Porter and Peter W. Graham. Published 2016 by
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Schlesinger, W. H., and Emily S. Bernhardt. Biogeochemistry : An Analysis of
Global Change, Elsevier Science & Technology, 2013.
• Air Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts, edited by Bhola R. Gurjar, et
al., Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.
• Allen, Timothy, and Thomas Hoekstra. Toward a Unified Ecology, Columbia
University Press, 2015.
• Basics in Human Evolution, edited by Michael P. Muehlenbein, Elsevier
Science & Technology, 2015. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights
reserved.
• Genes, Categories, and Species The Evolutionary and Cognitive Causes of the
Hey, Jody. Genes, Categories, and Species: The Evolutionary and Cognitive
Cause of the Species Problem, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2001.
• https://www.who.int/sdg/en/ © Copyright World Health Organization (WHO),
2020. All Rights Reserved.
• Porter, Duncan, and Peter Graham. Darwin's Sciences, John Wiley & Sons,
Incorporated, 2015. This edition first published 2016 © 2016 by Duncan M.
Porter & Peter W. Graham
• Singh, Y.K.. Environmental Science, New Age International Ltd, 2006.
• Strickler, K.L., 1979. Specialization and foraging efficiency of solitary bees.
Ecology 60, 998–1009.
• Tobin, Kathleen. Politics and Population Control : A Documentary History,
ABC-CLIO, 2004. Copyright © 2004 by Kathleen A. Tobin.
• United Nations (2018a). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision,
Methodology. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.252 Copyright © 2019 by United
Nations, made available under a Creative Commons license CC BY 3.0 IGO:
• United Nations (2019). World Urbanization Prospects 2018: Highlights
(ST/ESA/SER.A/421). Copyright © 2019 by United Nations, made available
under a Creative Commons license CC BY 3.0 IGO:
• NASA Earth Observatory.
• Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre
• Portney, Kent E.. Sustainability, MIT Press, 2015.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084) 655-9591

LET’S CHECK
BIG PICTURE A: LET’S CHECK ACTIVITY 1
Part 1 -Using the diagram below, make your own synopsis that explains the
relationship of the three fields of science and how it incorporates information and
ideas that environmental science is the most interdisciplinary field of sciences.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Part 2 - Compare and contrast the Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

base the benefits it gives to the development of the Environment. Give 5 ideas
on each item.

Part 3 - Using the Diagram below, make a synopsis on how Biodiversity and
Climate Change have compromised the aspects of food, water and health
amongst human being in achieving sustainable life in the future.

Answer Here:

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S CHECK ACTIVITY 2

Part 1

Part 2

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Part 3

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S CHECK ACTIVITY 3

Part 1 - Use the word bank to match the definition with the term.

Ecosystem Organism Biome Biosphere Abiotic

Biotic Community Population

1. Living part of the environment _____________________

2. Collection of abiotic and biotic factors in an environment
____________________
3. A single living thing that can breed/produce fertile offspring
__________________
4. Ecosystem with same climate and similar communities
____________________
5. Individuals of the same species that live in the same
area_______________________
6. Earth with all the ecosystems ______________________
7. Different interacting populations that live together in an area
______________
8. Nonliving part of the environment ____________________
9. Arrange these levels of organization in order from 1 to 4 starting with the
simplest. Organism Community Ecosystem
Population
________ _________ _________ _________
10. Identify the level of organization.
a. Group of bats living in a cave _____________
b. Red-eyed tree frog ______________
c. Insects, fish and algae in a lake _______________
d. An ocean ______________

Part 2 - In the diagram, label the trophic levels

23
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084) 655-9591

1. Explain how the energy is flowing.

2. Does the amount of available energy increase or decrease in a chain?

3. What are trophic levels?

4. What is the main source of energy for life on Earth?

5. Which organism in the web has the greatest amount of energy available?

6. Which organism in the web has the least amount of energy available?

7. What is the rabbit in this web?

Part 3 - Use the following chart to organize information about the different
ecological roles.

24
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Davao del Norte
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S CHECK ACTIVITY 4

Part 1 - Do the following:

Part 2 - Complete the concept map.

25
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S CHECK ACTIVITY 5

Part 1 - Identify the type of interactions: predation, competition, mutualism,
parasitism, or commensalism.
1. Tapeworm living inside the intestines of an animal.
______________________
2. The Cattle Egret forages in pastures and fields among livestock such as
cattle and horses, feeding on the insects stirred up by the movement of
the grazing animals. The livestock do not benefit.
__________________________
3. The cuckoo bird attacks another bird’s nest and removes the bird’s eggs.
She then lays her eggs in the attacked nest and lets the unsuspecting bird
raise the cuckoo’s young. _________________________
4. A lynx is attacking a hare. ____________________
5. Barnacles attach to the shell of a scallop and gain a place to live. The
scallop is not harmed by the presence of the barnacle.
_______________________
6. Lichen is composed of a fungus that protects the algae while the algae
provide food produced during photosynthesis.
_______________________
7. The Nile crocodile open its mouth to permit the Egyptian plover feed on
any leeches attached to its gums. The small bird gets to eat and the croc
gets its teeth cleaned. _________________________
8. Interaction is beneficial to one species and detrimental to the other.
__________________
9. Cattle egrets and cow birds feed on insects flushed out of the grass by
grazing bison, cattle and other herbivores. ________________________
10. One species benefits from the interaction but the other is unaffected.
_______________________
11. When populations of two or more species in a community rely on similar
limiting resources. _______________________
12. An acacia tree provides food and housing for ants while the ants kill any
invading insects. ______________________
Part 2

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27
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S ANALYZE ACTIVITY 1

Part 1 - The Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES) report produced in 2019 shows the biodiversity crisis is on a par with the
threat posed by temperature change. The most direct causes of biodiversity loss are
habitat change, direct exploitation, invasive alien species, pollution, and global climate
change. Name 8 species that are in the bridge of EXTINCTION over the last 100
years, and give details of information how it became a part of the extinct species of
the century.
Country/Area
Government/Private
where species is
Conservati Institution Policies for
Species mostly observed
on Status conserving/protecting
to be at risk of
the species
extinction
Example: Endangere Brazilian Institute of Brazil
Lear's d Environment and (Amazon
macaw (Population Renewable Natural Rainforest)
decreasing) Resources.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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Part 2 – Answer the following

1. The red fox is a predator which feeds on the small mammals, amphibians,
insects, and fruit. Red foxes are active at night. They provide blood for
blackflies and mosquitoes, and are host to numerous diseases. The
scraps, or carrion, left behind after a fox's meal provide food for many
small scavengers and decomposers.
a. Is this an example of the red fox’s habitat or niche?

2. The red fox occupies a niche in the meadow-forest edge communities. In

other plant communities different species of animal may occupy a similar
niche to that of the red fox. For example, in the grassland communities of
western Canada and the United States, the coyote occupies a similar
niche (to that of the red fox.)
a. Explain what would happen if the two organisms tried to occupy the
same niche in the same habitat.

b. What is the difference between a habitat and a niche?

Part 3 - Simple case study - the purpose of doing a simple case study to:
WHAT TO DO?
✓ Look for case studies/cases in the Philippines that talks about
Environmental Issues in the 20th Century.
Example Material: Country Program Case Study: The Philippines
https://sgp.undp.org/case-studies-189/256-phillipines-sgp-case-study/file.html
✓ Mare a short summary (not more than 1000 words) about your chosen
case study. (How I understand the case study?)
✓ Give your opinions/ideas about your choses case. (What can I say about
my chosen case? Do I suggest any ideas or is there a need to give
recommendations?)
✓ Connect the objectives of studying Environmental Science to the
objectives of your chosen case. (How will Environmental Science Solve
the Problem of my chosen case?)
✓ Provide your realization. (What did I realize after reading my chosen case
study?)

29
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S ANALYZE ACTIVITY 2

Part 1 - Reading Comprehension
The Environment and Society
The decisions and actions of all people in the world affect our environment. But the
unequal distribution of wealth and resources around the world influences the
environmental prob- lems that a society faces and the choices it can make. The
United Nations generally classifies countries as either developed or developing.
Developed countries have higher average incomes, slower population growth, diverse
industrial economies, and stronger social support systems. They include the United
States, Canada, Japan, and the countries of Western Europe. Developing countries
have lower average incomes, simple and agriculture- based economies, and rapid
population growth. In between are middle-income countries, such as Mexico, Brazil,
and Malaysia.
1. What organization has classified countries as developing or developed?

2. List two developed countries.

3. Developed countries often

a. have higher average incomes and faster population growth.
b. have higher average incomes and slower population growth.
c. have faster population growth and diverse industrial economies.
d. eventually become developing countries.
4. Developing countries often
a. have lower average incomes and slower population growth.
b. have middle incomes.
c. include Mexico and Brazil.
d. have lower average incomes and faster population growth.
5. The suffix -ed forms the past participle of a verb: work becomes worked. The
suffix -ing is used to form the present participle of a verb: swim becomes
swimming. Using this information, define a developed country.

6. Define a developing country.

7. What type of economy does a developed country have?

8. What type of economy does a developing country have?

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9. How do the social support systems of developed countries differ from those of
developing countries?

10. What factor affects environmental problems and the number of choices a
society can make

Part 2 - How Populations Change in Size

Over time, the growth rates of populations change because birth rates and death
rates increase or decrease. Growth rates can be positive, negative, or zero. For a
population’s growth rate to be zero, the average number of births must equal the
average number of deaths. A population would remain the same size if each pair of
adults produced exactly two offspring, and each of those off- spring survived to
reproduce. If the adults in a population are not replaced by new births, the growth rate
will be negative and the population will shrink.
1. The average number of deaths is greater than the average number of
births.
2. The average number of deaths equals the average number of births.
3. The average number of births is greater than the average number of
deaths.
a. positive growth rate
b. negative growth rate
c. zero growth rate

4. Growth rate is the birth rate minus the

5. Suppose that every year, one half of the population has two offspring per person,
and the other half has none. If all members of the population die after a year,
what is the resulting growth rate? Explain your answer

6. The population size returns to what it was in year x.

______ 7. Two adults produce two offspring in year x.
8. The offspring, as adults, reproduce one offspring each.
9. The parents die.
10. Explain the difference between negative growth rate and zero growth rate.

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11. What is similar about negative growth rate and zero growth rate?

12. What would be the result if a population did not replace its deaths with new
births?

Part 3 - Studying Human Populations

The average number of years a person is likely to live is that per- son’s life
expectancy. Life expectancy is most affected by infant mortality, the death rate of
infants less than a year old. In 1900, worldwide life expectancy was about 40 years
and the infant mortal- ity rate was very high. By 2000, the rate of infant mortality was
less than one-third of the rate in 1900. Average life expectancy has increased to more
than 67 years worldwide. For people in many developed countries, life expectancy is
almost 80 years. Expensive medical care is not needed to prevent infant deaths. The
infant mortality rate differs greatly among countries that have the same average
income. Instead, infant health is more affected by the parents’ access to education,
food, fuel, and clean water. Even in poor areas, many people now know that babies
simply need to be fed well and kept clean and warm. If these basic needs are met,
most children will have a good chance of surviving.
1. What was the worldwide average life expectancy in 2000?
a. about 40 c. almost 80
b. more than 67 d. none of the above
2. What was the worldwide life expectancy in 1900?
a. about 40 c. almost 80
b. more than 67 d. It was not measured in 1900.
3. What is the life expectancy for people in many developed
countries today?
a. almost 70 years c. almost 95 years
b. almost 80 years d. almost 40 years
4. What do most infants need in order to survive?
a. to have expensive medical care
b. to live in a developed country
c. to have access to education
d. to be fed well and kept clean and warm

Source for activity sheets: Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights
reserved.

32
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES EDUCATION
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BIG PICTURE A: LET’S ANALYZE ACTIVITY 3

Part 1- Venn diagram interpretation

Answer Here:

33
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In a NUTSHELL
BIG PICTURE A: IN THE NUTSHELL ACTIVITY 1
Week/Chapter/Lesson
Date: Time: In the Nutshell Activities:
What did I expect to Further Learning I should
What I have learned
learn? consider

34
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This section allows the students to list down all emerging questions or issues.
BIG PICTURE A: Q&A LIST 1
Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

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36