MPL Level ti MFL Level III Chapter Introduction to Magnetic flux leakage (MEL) Testing ‘A. Early Observation of Magnetic Attraction 4 Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest testing methods. Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.€,) first recorded that rubbing amber induced a state in which the amber would attract other light objects, Development of Induced Currents 1. Maxwell summarized the first 50 years of electromagnetism in the book, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. 2. Oersted’s Discovery + Cersted observed that a wire connecting the ends of a voltaic battery affected a compass in its vicinity. + He also discovered that a compass placed near a wire transmitting an electric current tends to set itself perpendicular to the wire, and always points toward the wire as the compass is moved around the wire. The space in which these forces act may therefore be considered a magnetic field. + His discovery meant that the lines of magnetic force are at right angles to the wire and are therefore circles perpendicular to the wire. 3, Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 4 Faraday’s experiment showing induction between coils of wire: ‘The liquid battery (right) provides a current which flow through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic field, When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (6) DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti 4 Faraday discovered the effect of electro-magnetic induction while experimenting with coils of wire and a battery, + He discovered that by connecting a battery to a coil A, an instant electrical current is generated in a second coil B placed near coll A when the battery is switched on and off. “ He also discovered that the second current travels in the opposite direction of the first current, 4, Maxwell published the comprehensive group of relations to the electromagnetic field known as Maxwell equations, which represent the entire present knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic testing, 5, Hastings + In 1946, the first practical system for the automatic electromagnetic measurement of flux leakage fields was designed by Hastings. + Hastings demonstrated that he could detect both surface and subsurface discontinuities near the bore surfaces of steel tubes. 4 He noted an empirical correlation between the amplitude of leakage signals and the depths of surface cracks. 6 Forster + In 1950, Forster developed the first instruments with impedance-plane signal displays, which were used to discriminate between different parameters, 4 The introduction of this equipment, and of practical techniques for analysis of quantitative test signals on the impedance-plane, contributed to the development of electromagnetic induction and eddy current testing, B. Magnetic flux leakage (MEL) technique 11.0 Introduction + MAGNETIC FIELD TESTING includes some of the older and more widely used methods for the nondestructive evaluation of materials. All magnetic methods of flaw detection rely in some way on the detection and measurement of the magnetic flux leakage field near the surface of the material, which is caused by the presence of the flaw. The magnetic particle Inspection method is one such flux leakage method that derives its name from the particular method used to detect the leakage field. Magnetic flux leakage (MEL) technique is an electromagnetic NDE technique. Magnetic flux leakage tests help assure the safety of nuclear and conventional power plants, offshore platforms, the oil and gas industries, and chemical and petrochemical plants. MEL technique uses sensor for detection of leakage magnetic fields in comparison with the ferromagnetic partices/powders used in magnetic particle testing (MPT).. |MPL Level ti 4 The use of sensor enables incorporation of latest advances in field sensing devices towards enhanced detection as well as quantitative sizing of deep-surface (embedded) defects and this is a clear advantage over the MPT, + MPL technique is widely used in industry for assessing the quality and structural integrity of ferromagnetic components such as underground pipelines, oll-storage tank floors, ¥ tracks, ropes etc. by way of detection of surface and sub-surface defects. tis also used for automated testing of symmetric components such as steel rods, tubes, pipes and bars. 2.0 Basic Principles of Flux Leakage Testing 4 Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic technique that provides a quick assessment of the integrity of ferromagnetic material. + Electromagnetic simply means using electricity and Magnetism are used. This testing involves magnetization of the test object by a permanent magnet or by passing a direct current directly through a coil, creating an electromagnet. 4 The presence of a discontinuity on or near the surface of the sample disturbs the magnetic flux lines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity. Leakage field Test object, In MFL technique, the test object is uniformly magnetized, close to magnetic saturation. It any detects present in the object, due to reduction in effective magnetic permeability and ‘cross-sectional area, magnetic flux lines leak out of the object surface around the defect as shown in Fig. leakage flux in three directions: 8», (along the measurement surface and perpendicular to the length of defect). By, (along the measurement surface and parallel to the length of defect) and Br, (perpendicular to the measurement surface) can be measured using magnetic field sensors and can be correlated with the shape and size of the defect responsible for the leakage flux, |MPL Level ti > For regularly shaped defects, the tangential and normal components are usually measured. + Success of ML testing depends on 1. proper magnetization of the test object, 2. detection of leakage flux using a suitable sensor, 3. processing sensor response, and 4, interpretation of the test results for decision making, 4 Experience has shown that control of the strength and direction of the magnetization can be useful in improving flaw detectability and in discriminating among different types of flaws. The direction of the field should be perpendicular to the largest flaw dimension to maximize the effect of the flaw on the leakage field. tis possible to generate a magnetic field in a specimen either directly or indirectiy. > indirect magnetization, current is passed directly through the part. > With the indirect approach, magnetization is induced by placing the partin a magnetic. field thatis generated by an adjacent current conductor or permanent magnet. Fig. 2 Vetheds of magnetization. (1) Headshot metvod. (9) Megnetzatcn with proce (¢) Magnetization wth @ Espira conductor. (oj Longitudinal magnetizaion Ce) oie magnensation DR. SAMIR SAADMPL Level ti The test object can be magnetized using L 2 3. > permanent magnets, lectromagnets such as yoke, oF by injecting electric current directly through the object. Inall the three magnetization methods, itis necessary to ensure that the magnetization {s perpendicular to the expected orientation of defects such that maximum leakage field is produced at the object surface, for detection by the sensor. The intensity of leakage magnetic field depends on the method of magnetization. When the magnetizing field is small, the magnetic flux lines are not able to come out of the defect region of the test object. On the other hand, Signature of leakage magnetic field may be masked by the surface noise, if magnetizing field is very high. Both active and residual magnetization methods are employed. * Astudy of the residual magnetization MFI signal can provide useful information about the size and shape of the defect. ‘© However, the leakage field due to residual magnetization is comparatively weak and requires sensitive detectors. 4 Operating principle of the constant field leakage flux method. a) AC flux leakage testing. Alternating field or AC flux leakage testing uses two encircling magnetization yokes through which an alternating current fiow. These yokes magnetize the test material contactiessly in the transverse direction. The magnetic flux is concentrated on the material surface and is thus particularly sensitive for the detection of um-sized surface defects from approx. 100 um in depth. Itcan be used to detect a workpiece on which surface is rough, but AC magnetic field easily produces skin effects and eddy currents, and the depth of magnetization decreases with the increase of current frequency.MPL Level ti b) DC flux leakage testing, > The constant field or DC leakage flux method magnetizes the entire material cross- section. This makes it possible to detect defects on the inside and outside surface of a tube, The detection of intemal defects decreases as the wall thickness increases. The magnetic flux is structured circularly with two rotating yokes to detect longitudinally oriented defects (see figure on the left). The leakage flux that occurs at the defective locations is captured by rotating magnetic field sensors. ‘The magnetic flux is produced by two stationary encircling coils arranged in the longitudinal direction to detect transversely oriented defects (see figure on the right). Several stationary magnetic field sensors along the circumference capture the occurring, leakage flux. > For MFL-DC, either the test piece or the detector coil needs to be in motion to generate sign > Figure below, illustrates that with DC magnetic flux leakage (DC- FL) outer and inner cracks of equal magnitude produce similar, but opposite flux patterns and signals of differing width and amplitude when they are scanned from the outer surface of the test piece. DC - MFL metho Effect on similar inner and outer defects on flux pattern and measurement. eee : |MPL Level ti > Linear speed ‘Linear speed (per minute) = RPM x detector length x number of detectors / percent coverage = Note: detector length and linear speed must be the same units (in. ft, m)- Example: A flux leakage test pipe inspection system with two inspection heads, each having 1152 mm (6 in.) long scan paths and rotating at 180 rpm on a 178 mm (7in.) diameter tube, can have a maximum throughput speed of per minute for 100% inspection coverage. Linear speed (per minute) = RPM x detector length x number of detectors / percent coverage = 180 152x 2/1 = 54720 mm =55 m ©) Permanent magnet magnetization. > This uses a permanent magnet as the excitation source. it has the same characteristics as DC magnetization, but the adjustment of intensity is less convenient than in DC magnetization. Permanent magnets can be made with permanent ferrite, aluminum and nickel cobalt permanent magnet materials and rare earth permanent magnet materials, Especially rare earth permanent magnet materials, because of the high energy nature, small volume and no need or electricity, have been well applied in magnetic flux leakage detection. ‘For MFL testing of components, magnetizing unit and sensor are scanned together as a single unit at constant velocity and the sensor response is recorded and interpreted continuously. Raster-scans are made using single sensor for imaging purpose while use of line-scan of array sensors is also not uncommon The magnetic flux leakage can be detected using a variety of techniques: a, Magnetic particles testing: dry or wet. b. Non-contact sensors such as a Halll effect probe or . a simple induction coils. ‘The inductive coil sensor > The inductive coil sensor is based on Faraday's law of induction, which states that the voltage induced in the coil is proportional to the number of tums in the coil multiplied by the time rate of change of the fiux threading the coil. It follows that detection of a magnetostatic field requires that the coil be in motion so that the flux through the coil changes with time. dB dx E=10"*NA’ aa |MPL Level ti Eis induced electromotive force, in volts Nis the number of turnsin the coil, Aisits cross-sectional area, and Bis the flux density, in Gauss, parallel to the surface of the part. ‘Thus, the voltage induced in the coil is proportional to {helgradientor the Mluxdensity along the direction of coil motion multiplied by the coil velocity. a Hall effect probe > Unlike the inductive coil, which provides a measure of the flux gradient, a Hall effect sensor directly measures the component of the flux itself in the direction perpendicular to the sensitive area of the device. A Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel to the sample surface is sensitive to the normal component of the magnetic flux leakage field and generatesa signal, as shown in the following image. Sean position of time (relative seale) Because the response of a Hall effect sensor does not depend on the motion of the probe, itcan be scanned over the surface to be inspected at any rate that is mechanically convenient. In this respect, the Hall device has an advantage over the coil sensor because there is no need to maintain a constant scanning speed during the inspection. . Personnel Qualifications ‘> Itis imperative that personnel responsible for electromagnetic testing are trained and qualified with a technical understanding of the equipment/materials, test object, and test procedures. 4 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has published guidelines for training and qualification for nondestructive testing personnel. a) Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Describes the knowledge and capabilities of nondestructive testing personnel in terms of certification levels. b) ANSI/ASNT CP-189: Standard for the qualification and certification of nondestructive testing personnel, > ANSI/ASNT CP-189 is similar to SNT-TC-1A in terms of training, experience and examinations. Several significant differences were introduced to strengthen the NDT personnel qualification and certification program, which include the following. |MPL Level ti |. Employer certification requirements and NDT Level Il certification in the method, Instructor for training must meet qualifications of the standard. * ASNT Level Ill certificate. + Bachelor of Science in engineering, physical science or technology with knowledge of nondestructive testing method, ‘+ NDT Level Il with at least ten years of experience. + Levels of Qualification > There are three basic levels of qualification in nondestructive testing: 1, Level | 2, Level Ih 3, Level Il, + Challenges ‘The major challenge facing nondestructive testing personnel is to learn all that can possibly be learned during the qualification processes and to develop the mind set that there is something else to learn each time the nondestructive testing method is used. ‘+ Personnel Certification > tis important to understand the difference between qualification and certification, 1. Qualification of nondestructive testing personnel should involve the following: a, Training in the fundamental principles and applications of the test method, b. Experience in the related method. . Ability to pass written and practical (hands-on) tests, d. Ability to pass a vision test for visual acuity and color contrast. 2, Certification of nondestructive testing personnel is the written testimony that the individual has been properly qualified. a, Name of the individual being certified. b, Identification of the test method. ¢. Level of qualification. d. Date and name of individual issuing the certification.MPL Level ti Review Question No.1 Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest testing methods. a. True, b. False. Cersted discovered that a compass placed near a wire transmitting an electric currenttends to set itself perpendicular to the wire. a. True. b. False. Faraday was the first scientist who discovered effect of electromagnetic. a. True. b. False. The first practical system for measurement of flux leakage fields was discovered Maxwell. a. True. b. False. Electromagnetic simply means using electricity and sound waves. a. True, b. False. Magnetic flux leakage can be detected using which of the following techniques? Magnetic particle testing (wet or dry). Hall Effect probe. Induction coil, All of the above. The presence of a discontinuity on or near the surface of a test object disturbs the magnetic flux ines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity. a. True. b. False. ‘There are three levels of nondestructive personnel certification: Level |, Level Il and Level Ill. a. True. b. False.MPL Level ti ‘9% Qualification of nondestructive testing personne! should involve the following: a. Training. b. Experience. ©. Ability to pass written and practical exams. 4. Allof the above. 10- The discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited to: a, Arago. b. Oersted. Maxwell, d. Faraday. 11 Nondestructive tests are commonly conducted to: a, Determine the quality of finished products. b. Locate defective material before excessive fabrication is performed on the material. Monitor production techniques. d. Allofthe above, 22- An ac current flowing in a conductor will set up: ‘An alternating current field around the conductor, . A periodically changing voltage tangent to the conductor. An alternating magnetic field around the conductor. None of the above. 13-A term to define a property of a test system which enables the separation of signals due to discontinuities in the test specimen that are located in close proximity to each other is: Dynamic range. 3A 4B 5B 6D TA. 10D 11D 11C © 13DMPL Level ti Chapter2 Flux Leakage Theory A. Introduction Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic technique that can provide a quick assessment of the integrity of ferromagnetic material. ‘4 This technique involves magnetization of the test object by a permanent magnet or by passing an excitation current directly through an electromagnet. The presence ofa discontinuity or thickness change on or near the surface of the material disturbs the magnetic flux lines and results in a local leakage field around the discontinuity. A The magnetic flux leakage can be detected using non-contact sensors such as a Hall effect probe or a simple induction coil. Magnetic Domains & Ferromagnetic materials: Materials, lke iron, that are capable of retaining some part of the magnetic field induced in ther. Magnetic domains: Some materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that are classified as submicroscopic regions called magnetic domains. ‘These domains have positive and negative polarity at opposite ends due to the internal magnetic alignment (if magnetized). The following image illustrates the domain alignment in (a) nonmagnetized and (b) magnetized material. fa) (b) PGSLHESS0RN ‘seoororoes aegsgosave ecesossoes Ifa material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly aligned gosoogooss| VI segasosoge HC & ‘When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external field or if current is passed directly through the test object, the magnetic domains align themselves and form a north and south pole in the test object. Magnetized Material DK. SAMMI SARD EaMPL Level ti 4 When all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically saturated, 4 When a material is magnetically saturated, no additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of magnetization. C, Lawof Magnetism Magnetic Poles: Magnets will have two or more opposite polarity poles, called north and south poles, . Opposite(unlike} poles attract each other and Like poles repel each other. N aj. [a ~] Repel Attract . These poles are where the magnetic lines of force leave or enter the magnet: Since the lines of force around a magnet flow from the north to the south pole, they are called flux Magnetic lines of force around a bar magnet DR. SAMIR SAAD BHMPL Level ti D, Flux Density 1. Flux density is defined as the number of lines of force that pass-through a given area at right angles to the lines of the force. 2. The unit of flux density is the gauss, 3. One gauss is one line of force passing through an area of one square centimeter. 4, The following image illustrates the distribution of flux around a magnet. es of force have the following important propertie: . Magnetic lines of force form continuous loops that are never broken. s of force never cross each other. s of force are strongest and most dense at the poles, Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. . Magnetic lines of force always seek the shortest path of least resistance which is ‘through metal, They seek the path of least magnetic resistance of reluctance in completing their loop which is the shortest distance through metal. Magnetic lines of force only enter or leave the poles of a magnet. Magnetic lines of force are called magnetic flux. Ifa bar magnet is broken or cracked, new magnetic poles are formed. rvMPL Level ti 10. circular magnet with no irregularities has no poles. 11, Magnetic poles will attract magnetic particles. Magnetic Magnetic field is draw a nail to the entirely within. thus no exten poles. F, Magnetized Ring > There will be no poles to attract magnetic particles if a uniform ring contains a circular magnetic field. 4 Acrack 90° from the magnetic field direction will create poles and an external flux leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and form an indication. Magnetic field is Magnetic poles of entirely within, leakage field will thus no external attract magnetic poles particles. G. Bar Magnet The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles just ike a bar magnet but the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same plane, Ifa bar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force would not even need to enter the air Ifa horseshoe magnet is straightened to a bar magnet, it illustrates a longitudinally magnetized bar. A transverse machined notch or crack in a longitudinally magnetized bar will cause new poles with a flux leakage field that will attract particles. DR.SAMIR SAAD [EyMPL Level ti ee particles HH. Magnetic Flux Leakage 4 Ifthe magnet is just cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. 4 The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters the at the south pole. 4 The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, its called a flux leakage field, If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack, 1. RightHand Rule 1. When an electrical current flow through a wire, a magnetic field exists around the wire. Field direction Current directionMPL Level ti ‘The direction of the magnetic field around the wire depends on the direction of current flow through the wire. If straight wire is wound into a coil, the lines of force encircling the wire from the magnetic field inside and outside the coil as illustrated in the following image. This field thus created is similar to the field of a bar magnet. ‘The strength of the magnetic field is dependent upon two factors: a. The number of turns in the coil. 'b, The magnitude of the current. 6. Increasing either one increases the strength of the magnetic field. 41. Effects of Discontinuities on Materials +. Field Direction / Discontinuity Detection 7. Discontinuities located in the direction of current flow have the highest probability of detection. 8 Discontinuities perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force have the highest probability of detection. 9, If the magnetic lines of force is parallel to the Discontinuities, the field will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be produce. a Te bean 10. Itis critical to establish a magnetic field in two 90° directions in all areas of the test object and to use the proper current to detect discontinuities. 11. A discontinuity that is 45° to 90° from the magnetic field direction will disrupt the ‘magnetic field and will create new poles. crack At 45° ‘wat Show DR. SAMIR SAADMPL Level ti 12, These poles will attract small particles and form an indication if an adequate magnetic field is used for testing, 4 Surface Discontinuities 1. A flux leakage field at an air gap ina longitudinally magnetized test object is shown in the following images. 2. Iflinear and 90" from the magnetic field direction, discontinuities will form poles and a leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and forma visible indication, Leakage field 3 metal crack site. For this reason, Surface discontinuity the formation state are highly detectable and produce + Scratches > Scratches sometimes attract particles in a very strong field, and the field strength may have to be reduced to verify there is no deeper discontinuity present 4 Subsurface Discontinuities 1. Subsurface discontinuities are broad and fuzzy and more easily blown or rinsed away than a deep surface indication. Particle buildup at leakage field 2. Subsurface discontinuities are more difficult to detect unless larger than 0.15 cm (0.06 in.) and especially if more than 0.15 cm (0.06 in.) deep when direct current must be used. |MPL Level ti K, Quantifying Magnetic Properties + Magnetic Field strength (Magnetic force) (+) > Amagnetic field strength of 1 A/m is produced at the center ofa single circular conductor with a 1-meter diameter carrying a steady current of 1 ampere. + Magnetic flux density (B) sec > Magnetic flux density is the number of lines passing transversely through a unit area (gauss). Units of Measure and Terminology ‘Each magnetic particle testing procedure and technique must specify which units of. measurementare to be used and how the measurements to be accomplished. ‘Quantity ‘ST Units CGS Units Sommerfeld) ‘Gaussian; Figg Am ‘ersteds ‘Magnetization Force) Flux Density tesla gauss (Magnetic Induction) Flux: weber maxwell netization im ‘erg/Oe-cm* e ‘rate 7.3 derived units with soecal names" > one line of flux. aces clan se > one line of flux per unit area, cote > Gauss= 1 Maxwell/square centimeter. ter ots ‘The flux density (B): i > Magnetic flux density: number of lines of flux passing tare poate transversely through a unit area, vowee nn B= Magnetic flux/ (Area Perpendicular flux = F/A = > B= F/A=Wb/M?=Tesla "S. luni” cot > Tesla = 1 Weber/square Mater = 10" Gauss. ae mE unit See > 1WeberRoxintrty?=108Inesoftin tS ue Oersted “H” me » this unitof field strength which produces magnetic tt et tc ah induction, snore > Itis designated by the latter “H”, > the oersted and Gauss are numberically equal in air or in vacuum. > Oersted “H” refers to the magnetizing force tending to magnetize an unmagnetized body, and > Gauss “G’ refers to the field “B” so induced in the body. on sansaMPL Level ti Permeabily “u” > is the ratio between the flux density “B” and magnetic field strength "H”. the flux density ‘magnetic flold strenght "Magnetic force” B_ wh/mi orcauss = orgarstedl X or oersteds LE “w.b/A.m” or “gauss/oersteds”. > In Slunits, Permeabily “y” is measured in henrles per meter (H-m-1), or newtons per ampere squared (N-A-2). M, Vector fiel + When two or more magnetizing force operating in different direction are simultaneously applied to ferromagnetic material, resultant field is produced, having a direction which is determined by the relative strengths and directions of the applied magnetizing forces. NN. Magnetic Hysteresis (B and H Curve) + The use of magnetic measurements to monitor the metallurgical properties of ferromagnetic ‘materials is based on the fact that variables such as crystallographic phase, chemical composition, and microstructure, which determine the physical properties of materials, also affect their magnetic characteristics. Some parameters, such as grain size and orientation, dislocation density, and the existence of precipitates, are closely related to measurable characteristics of magnetic hysteresis loop, thats, to the behavior of the flux density, B, induced in a material as a function of the magnetic field strength, H. Other magnetic properties, such as the saturation magnetization, which is the maximum value B can achieve, or the Curie temperature at which there is a transition to a nonmagneticstate, are less dependenton microstructure, but are sensitive to such factors as crystal structure and chemical composition. ‘The magnetic behavior of a ferromagnetic material is characterized by its hysteresis loop (magnetization curve). In ferromagnetic materials, there is no linear relationship between magnetic field intensity H ‘and flux density B. A very small change in H may produce a large change in B, The relationship is best shown in the magnetization or B, H curve (below fig). AS H increases, the flux density increases rapidly up to the knee of the curve. Beyond the knee, a further increase in H causes ‘no useful increase in B and the material is said to be saturated. oe |MPL Level ti + The cycle is complete and the hysteresis curve (ABCDEFA) is called the hysteresis loop (B-H loop). The area enclosed by the loop is proportional to the energy dissipated per cycle. The lag throughout the cycle between the magnetic field intensity and the flux is called hysteresis. Itis significant that the various factors of the hysteresis loop Figure: Hysteresis data for unmagnetized stecl: (a) virgin curve of a hysteresis loop; (b) hysteresis loop showing residual magnetism; (c) hysteresis loop showing coercive force; (d) hysteresis loop showing reverse magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing reverse residual magnetism; and (f) complete hysteresis loop. ® ° flux der Be orn al ‘Saturation =" Saturation eee Residual magnetism Reverse ‘magnetization saturation point w A Saturation point Residual magnetism Db Reverse B Reverse residual ‘magnetization point point ©. The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic PropertiesMPL Level ti & Retentivity (Point b) > itis a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the ‘magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. + Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux (Point b) > the magnetic flux density that remains ina material when the magnetizing force is zero, > Note thatresidual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been ‘magnetized to the saturation point, & Coercive Force (Point ¢) > The amount of reverse magnetic field which ‘must be applied toa magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. Reluctance > Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic ‘material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field. > Reluctance i anelectrical. + Permeability > is how easily a material can be magnetized. ‘analogous to the resistance in > permeability is measured in henries per meter (H/m or H:m”), or equivalently in newtons per ampere squared (N:A™?), > More specifically, itis the ratio between the flux density and the magnetizing force. > The value of permeability is variables. P. Magnetic Permeability Hare cca sapere w= B/H Heiner = Honseran / Hoi Ho air = 4m «10°77 Hm or NA. where His permeability, Bis flux density, and H is magnetizing force DR. SAMIR SAAD BMPL Level ti Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary between materials, material conditions, shape, chemical composition, microstructure and grain size. The following figure shows permeability curves of (a) high permeability (easy to magnetize) and (b) low permeability (hard to magnetize) material. @ @) Saturation e poin ae Saturation point Flux density Flux density (a)is a hysterisis loop for a low permeability (hard to magnetize) > Lower Permeability Higher Retentivity Higher Coercivity Higher Reluctance ! Higher Residual Magnetism ity Flux dens (b)is a hysterisis loop for a high permeability (easy to magnetize) > Higher Permeability Lower Retentivty (b) Lower Coercivity Residual magnetism Lower Reluctance Lower Residual Magnetism Coercive Flux density Q. Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic FieldsMPL Level ti + Materials with high permeability (soft or annealed low carbon steel) will have a stronger magnetic field strength at a given magnetizing force than material with lower permeability (high carbon or hardened steel). (@) (b) Residual Residual magnetism magnetism Flux density Flux density Coercive Coercive force force (High carbon or hardened steel). {Soft or annealed low carbon steel) 4 The magnetic behavior depends to a large degree on selection of the initial materials and on metting, foundry, rolling and annealing processes. 4 An example of the effects of mechanical hardness on hysteresis data is shown in Fig. 10. > the mechanically harder specimens of the same alloy are also harder to magnetize; that is, the flux density, B, obtained at a large value of H is smaller for mechanically harder specimens than for softer specimens. For one alloy, AISI 410 stainless steel, the hysteresis loop intersects the B = Oaxis at larger values of H for the harder specimen than for the softer specimen; that is, the coercive force is greater for the harder material. However, forthe other material, SAE 4340 steel, the coercive force does not change with hardness. ‘This suggests that, for the two alloys considered here, the saturation flux density provides a more reliable measure of hardness than the coercive force. agra tt eran), Ceres Magne le srogin(M), Cut 00 108, sos 0 Fraime) aconey iB) sae. Padre) adres @) ous Magne td seat) Are 10° Moore etd abengh i) Arm 10 ° Fig. 10 effect of mechanical hardness on hystereste loop data. (a) AISK 420 stainless steel. (b) SAE 4340 have permeability slightly greater than air. have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetization may be slightly attracted to a magnet. Permeability wr> 1. "1.00002". Examples of paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, and lithium, romagnetic materials. have permeability much greater than air. have a large and positive susceptibility to magnetization. are strongly attracted toa magnet and may retain a residual field after the magnetic force is removed. Permeability ur >>> 1 “1.1000” Examples of paramagnetic materials include Iron, cobalt, and nickel DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti Review Question No.2 Magnetic flux leakage is an electromagnetic technique that can provide a quick assessment of the integrity of nonmagnetic materials a. True b. False Magnetic flux leakage can be detected using the following sensors: a. Induction coil b. Magnet domain ©. Hall effect d. @)and (c) only A permanent magnet can be considered an agglomeration of domains a. Ture b. False ‘The law of magnetism states that like poles attract, and unlike poles repel. a. True b. False ‘The unit of flux density is ohm a. True b. False Flux density is defined as the number of lines of force that [ass through a given area at a right angle to the lines of force a. True b. False ‘According to the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field around the wire depends on: a. Direction of the magnetic field Direction of the current flow through the wire Direction of the flux density Direction of the flux density None of the above on sansaMPL Level ti 8- Ifa straight wire is wound into a coil, the lines of force encircling the wire form the magnetic field inside and outside the coil. a. True b. False 9- All ferromagnetic materials have certain magnetic properties that are specific to the material a. True b. False 10- Magnetic permeability is calculated by the formula: a. = B/H be ne H/B c= BxH d, None of the above 11-Materials that are strongly attracted to a magnetare called: magnetized. . nonmagnetic, ferromagnetic, |. _ magnetic, 12-Magnetic lines of force (magnetic fields) are oriented in what directio of the magnetizing current? a. Parallel. b. Atright angles, c. Ata45-degree angle, d, Atrandom angles, 13-Magnetizing flux is a term that relates to: a. describing the direction of current flow in an electromagnet, b. The manner by which magnetism flows through space. c._ the lines of force associated with a magnetic field, 4. permanent magnets only. 14Hall effect “Gauss Meter” is used in measuring: Flux density. Radiation. CandB. None of the above. relation to the directionMPL Level ti 15-Which of the materials have high retentivity magnetization? a. Low carbon steel. High carbon steel. . Stainless steel. 4, Cast-iron, 16- a surface defect produces an indication which is: a. Sharp and district. b. Wide and indefinite. Usually nonrelevant. 4. Usually transverse. 17-An oersted is unit of field strength which produces magnetic indication and is designated by the letter__on the Hysteresis loop, - Is the reverse magnetizing force necessary to temove residual magnetism. Residual magnetization, ‘Ampere turns, Coercive force. |. Demagnetization, e. Reluctance, 19-The strength of magnetic field induced in a partis often referred to a. As current density b. Voltage ©. flux density d. Retentivity 20-The point at which the magnetism in material cannot be increased even those magnetizing force continues to increase known as? a. Salient pole. b, Saturation point, ©. Residual point, d, Remnant point, on sansaMPL Level ti 2.Lin ferromagnetic Materials, the Magnetic domains are: a. Aligned with the Magnetizing field. b. Aligned only when the magnetizing current is flowing. c. Randomly oriented at all times. 4d. Alwaysaligned perpendicular to the magnetizing field, 22-The value of permeability A fixed value depending on the type of material. . Between 1 and 100 forall ferromagnetic materials, Dependent on the amount of magnetizing force necessary to overcome saturation. Dependent on the value of H. 23-When considering the hysteresis curve: a. His the flux density. b, Bis the magnetic force, ©. Both Band H are constant fora specific material. 4d. None of the above, 24-The unit usually used to denote flux density is the: a. Gauss, b. Henry, c. Fared. d. Ampere. 25- one lines of flux per square centimeter of area a. Ameasure ofa hysteresis loop b, ameasure of line of force ¢. the numerical value of one Gauss ,_ none of the above 26-in the international system of unit (SI) the unit of magnetic flux density is the: a, Gauss. . Weber. c. Tesla. d. Line/em2.MPL Level ti 27-The coercive force of the magnetic material whose hysteresis loop is shown in figure is given by the a, amplitude of flux density B at point B b. amplitude of flux density B at point E ¢. product of Band Hat point B d. negative value of Hat point C 28:+the initial magnetization curve the maximum permeability of the magnetic material is achieved. on curve . at the point of maximum slope on curve: 0-A. . at the point of maximum slope on curve A-C at point A |. at the point of maximum slope on curve ¢-D 29-The effective permeability of the magnetic material would be given by the ratio of B and H at a, point A. D. point B ¢. point C 4d. point D ¢, none of the point above 30-The maximum Residual of the magnetic material whose hysteresis loop is shown in figure is given bythe a Positive value of B at point B . amplitude of flux density B at point E . product of B and Hat point B 4, negative value of Hat point ¢ 31-The Retentivity of the magnetic material whose hysteresis loop is shown in figure is given by the a. Positive value of B at point B b. amplitude of flux density Bat point E ¢. product of B and Hat point B d. negative value of H at point ¢MPL Level ti 32-The saturated of the magnetic material whose hysteresis loop is shown in figure is given by the a, Positive value of B at point B b. Point A . product of B and H at point B d.negative value of Hat point C 33-When two magnetizing force operating in different directions are simultaneously applied to ferromagnetic material, resultant, a, Vector field. b, Attract field, c. Repel field. d. None of the above. 34-A symbol commonly used to express permeability is: +35- A term used to define a unit of flux density is: a.a maxwell. b.a gauss. c-an ohm, d.amho. 36-A coil's magnetic field may be viewed as a distribution of lines of flux around the coil, The number of lines in a unit area is defined as: a, Magnetic density. b. Flux density, c. Magnetic coupling. d. Hysteresis density, 37-the region around a magnet that attracts other pieces of iron or steel is called: a.a maxwell. b. The magnetic field. c.Retentivity. on sansaMPL Level Ill 4. Alternating current, 38- The coercive force of a soft iron electromagnetic core would be the coercive force of a permanent magnet. a. Greater than. b. Less than. c. Twice. 4. Equal to. 39: Metals that do not react or react only slightly to magnetic fields are called: a, Diamagnetic metals. b, Paramagnetic metals, c. Nonmagnetic metals All of the above, 40.Which of the following characteristics do not apply to magnetic materials? a. High permeability value. b. No hysteresis loop. c.Definite saturation point on hysteresis loop. 4. Appreciable residual magnetism, 41-All ferromagneitc materials that have been magnetically saturated to suppress permeability variations may retain a certain amount of the magnetization called the: a. Coercive force. b. Residual magnetism. ¢. Hysteresis loop. 4, Hysteresis loss, 42. Demagnetization is generally needed when the residual field in a specimer a. May affect the operation or accuracy of instruments when the specimen is placed in service. b. May interfere with the proper functioning of the part. ¢. Might cause particles to be attracted and held to the surface of moving parts, 4. Any of the above reasons could make demagnetization necessary. 43-Figure is illustration of a material's: a, Phase analysis loop. b. Sine wave. ¢. Hysteresis loop. 4d, None of the above.MPL Level ti 4dLin Figure, H represents: a. The coil’s magnetizing force. b. The material's flux density. c. The material's permeability. d. The material's conductivity. 45-In Figure, the distance represented by A is a measure of the material's: a, Permeability. H b. Conductivity. ¢.Retentivity. Coercive force. ‘46-In Figure, the distance represented by Cis a measure of the material's: a. Permeability. b. Conductivity. c.Retentivity. d. Coercive force. 47-In Figure, B represents: a. The coil’s magnetizing force. b. The material's flux density. c. The material's permeability, d. The material's conductivity. 48-The ratio of a material's flux density to a test coil’s magnetizing force, (B/H), can be used to determine the material's: a, Conductivity. b, Resistivity, cLIR-off d. Permeability. 49-The atoms of a metal showing magnetic characteristics are grouped into regions that are the smallest known permanent magnets. These regions are called: a, Lattice structures. b. Cells, © Domains. 4, Planetary spins, on sansaMPL Level ti 50-The magnetic domains in an unmagnetized ferromagnetic material are: a. Arranged to facilitate the conduction of electrons. b. Randomly oriented and neutralize each other. c. Uniformly oriented. Create major north and south pole in the material. 51-A term used to define a material having a permeability less than of a vacuum is a, Diamagnetic, b, Ferromagnetic. c Paramagnetic. . Magnetic. 52-When testing ferrous materials, a small but detectable portion of the magnetic flux in the material will pass outside the metal when a surface discontinuity is encountered. This flux is called: a. Air flux. b. Leakage flux. ¢-Induced flux. d. None of the above. 53- The flux density in a magnetic material is usually designated by the: a. Symbol jt. b. Symbol o. eLetter B. Letter H. '54-The magnetizing force of a MFL coil is usually designated by the: a. Symbol i. b. Symbol o. c.Letter B. d.Letter H. ‘55-When a coil’s magnetizing force is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the flux density in the material is: a. Less than the flux density generated by the test coil because of heat losses. b. Less than the flux density generated by the test coll because of resistivity. c. The same as the flux density generated by the test coil. 4. Greater than the flux density generated by the test coll.MPL Level ti ‘56-The term used to define the value of H field required to decrease the remanence of a material to zero is: a. Coercive force. b. Magnetizing force. c.Back emf, The overlap value. '57-When a magnetic material is placed in a region of an applied magnetizing force (H), magnetic field (8) is developed in the material by means of: a. Induction, b, Conduction. c Heat transfer. , Magnetic domain transfer, '58-When the H field strength around a material is increased and then decreased to zero, the induction field B within the part does not return to zero. The term to define this B value when H has retumed to zero is: a. Coercive force. b, Residual magnetism. Saturation value. a. Hysteresis loss. ‘59-The heating effect in magnetic materials caused by the work required to rotate magnetic domains can be eliminated b a, Increasing the rate of displacement of the specimen through the coil, b, Magnetically saturating the test specimen, c. Decreasing the rate of displacement of the test specimen through the test coil. 4. Testing in an alr- conditioned room. 60-A product can be viewed in terms of electrical magnetic effects. A diameter change of the product in an encircling coil a,An electrical effect, b. A conductivity effect. cA magnetic effect, 4.All of the above,MPL Level ti 61-When a magnetic bar is placed in the coif's electromagnetic field, the coil's reactance is increased, What causes this phenomena? a. The coll becomes magnetically saturated. b. The permeability raises the inductance of the test coil. c. The magnetic test sample's conductivity increases the reactance value of the coil. a. This effect is described mathematically by the equation B/H =. 62-Materials that hold their electrons loosely are classified as: a. Resistors. b. Conductors. c. Semiconductors. d. Insulators. 63-Materials that tend to concentrate magnetic lines are a. Conductive, b. Permeable. Resistive. d. Inductive, 64-Diamagnetic materials have a.A Permeability. b.A permeability less than air. cA permeability than ferromagnetic materials. d.No permeability. 65-When an increase in field intensity produces little or no additional flu the object is considered: a, Stabilized, b. Balanced. c Saturated. d. At magnetic threshold. a magnetic test object,MPL Level ti Answer: 1B 2D 3A 48 SB GA 7B BA 128 13C 14A 15B 16A 17A 18C 22-D “Note: - The value of permeability is variables “” 24-A 25-C 26C 27D 28A 29E 30A 32B 335A 34A 358 368 378 38-8 408 41-8 43-C 44-A 45-C 46-0 49-¢ SLA 52-B 53C 54-D STA SOB 60-C GLB 62-8 5c oA 19-¢ 10-4 20-8MPL Level ti Chapters Flux Leakage Sensing Elements and Modeling + Various magnetic field detection sensors such as pick-up coils, Hall sensors, magnetodiodes, fluxgates, anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) and Giant-magneto-resistive (GM) sensors are ‘commonly used in MFL technique. A. Pick-Up Coil (Inductive Coil Sensors) Pick-up coils consist of some tums of copper wire wrapped around a core. | Ferrites are usually used in pickup inductive coil sensors because they do not only provide support for the wire turns, but they also concentrate the flux density through the coil windings by a value equal to the effective permeability of the ferrite. For small pieces of ferrite, a illustrated in the following image, where the dimensional ratio is small, the effective permeability of the ferrite may vary from the low teens to the thousands. fa) Ferrite Input fy Magnetized material Ferrites have very low electrical conductivities, minimizing detrimental eddy current effects onthem. In inductive coil applications, itis important to note the following: 4. The flux density must be changing through the coil in order to produce a signal. b. Pickup coils should be used to generate voltages and not currents. the voltage induced in tthe coil is proportional to the gradient of the flux density along the direction of coil motion multiplied by the coil velocity ‘They measure the change in magnetic field due to the presence of defects in the object. They have the advantages of being cheap, high flexibility in sensor configuration and no saturation even at quite large excitation levels, However, they are less sensitive, The coil cannot be used to measure the magnetic leakage field under static conditions. Coils can be used to measure the magnetic field either when the field is time varying or when the test object is moving relative to the coil probe. DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti + Figure below, Effect of pickup coil orientation on sensitivity to components of magnetic flux density: (a) coil sensitive to normal component; (b) coil sensitive to tangential component. @) Pickup coil oo coil . ea —_— Test object Test object B, Hall Effect Sensors 4 Hall sensor is the most commonly used flux leakage sensors. 4 Itworks on the principle of Hall effect and measures the normal component of the magnetic field. Hall elements are crystals of semiconductor material. Hall sensor is the most commonly Used flux leakage sensors, Whena currents passed through them while placed in a magnetic field, a voltage develops across the two faces of the crystal, 4 The voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Because the response of a Hall effect sensor does not depend on the motion of the probe, itcan be scanned over the surface to be inspected at any rate that is mechanically convenient. In this respect, the Hall device has an advantage over the coil sensor because there is no need to maintain a constant scanning speed during the inspection. Ithas the advantages of high linearity, small size, inexpensive, room temperature ‘operation and fabrication of sensor arrays. However, they suffer from limited sensitivity and large offset. Recently, micro-Hall sensors are also used in MFL NDE applications due to their high sensitivity and wide linear response. Flux Gate Magnetometer 4 The flux gate magnetometer, also referred to as a ferro-probe or Forster probe, measures magnetic fields by utilizing the non-linear magnetic characteristic of ferromagnetic core materials as its sensing element. > Itconsists of a ferromagnetic core wrapped with two coils: 1, the primary (excitation) coil, and 2, the secondary (pick-up) coil |MPL Level ti When the ferromagnetic core is not saturated, it offers a path of low magnetic resistance to the flux lines of the external field. When the core is saturated the magnetic resistance of the core increases and the excess magnetic flux lines are expelled from the core. fluxgate sensors suffer from less sensitivity on decreasing its size and incompatibility with planar technologies currently used in the microelectronics industry. D. Magnetodiode 4 4 4 4 + + 4 A solid-state device whose resistance changes with magnetic field intensity. ‘A magnetodiode consists of a small thin rectangular plate of an intrinsic semiconductor doped to make n-type at one end and p-type to other end. Indium arsenide is generally used as magnetodiode. Itworks based on magnetoresistance in which there is increase in electrical resistance with the Square of magnetic field applied normal to the electric current; The magnetodiode is suitable for sensing leakage fields from discontinuities because of its small size and its high sensitivity. Because the coil probe is usually larger than the magnetodiode, itis less sensitive to longitudinally angled discontinuities than the magnetodiode is. However, the coll probe is. better than the magnetodiode for large discontinuities, such as cavities. ‘The sensitivity of magnetodiode is greater than Hall sensor, however, it fails at high magnetic fields due to saturation. E, Amr Sensors > Anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) occurs in ferromagnetic materials depending on the angle between the electric current and the magnetization direction. > The application of an external magnetic field will rotate the magnetization with a resulting change inrresistance. > The MR ratio for AMR materials is typically a few percent. > Integrated AMR sensors are commercially available. > AMRsensors have the advantage of less noise as compared to thin-film multilayers of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors. FGM Sensors > GM sensor consists of a few nm thick multilayer structures such as Fe/Cr/Fe, CO,/CU/CO, ete. in which ferromagnetic layers are separated by non-magnetic layers. sensors work based on the GME effect in which there is a large change in electrical resistance to an applied magnetic field due to the spin dependent scattering of electrons. GMR sensors offer high sensitivity at low magnetic fields and high spatial resolution. They can be integrated as arrays to facilitate rapid scanning of surfaces. However. they suffer from hysteresis effect and low saturation field. Authors developed an array of eight GMR sensors with suitable software in Labview for acquisition of data from the eight GMR sensors, processing and producing on-line MFL on sanoMPL Level ti image of defects. The array sensor could detect and image defects as shallow as 0.5 mm deep in a 12 mm thick carbon steel plate and also defects located 6 mm below the surface. G, Other Methods of Magnetic Leakage Field Detection: |. Magnetic Tape System 4 For the testing of flat surfaces such as flat plates and billets, magnetic tape can be used. ‘The wide strips of magnetic recording tape is pressed to the surface of the magnetized billet and then scanned by small probes before being erased. This technique is sometimes called magnetography. Discontinuity signals are taken from the tape by an array of tape recorder heads. ‘4 Elongated magnetic balloons also exist for the testing of the inside surface of tubes, + Scale, dirt or oll on the test surface can contaminate the tape, Surface roughness can tear the tape. 2. Magnetic Particles 4 Magnetic particles are finely ground high permeability magnetic material, sometimes dyed for visible contrast with the test surface. Ideal test conditions occur when a fine spray of particles is intercepted by a magnetic flux leakage field and some of them are attracted to the field. + An advantage over other forms of magnetic indicators is that the particles have zero liftoff from the discontinuity field, 3. Magnetic Resonance Sensors 4 Nuclear magnetic resonance magnetometers are based on the fact that the characteristic atomic frequencies also depend on the strength of magnetic field. 4 In operation, when an atomic nucleus is placed in a constant magnetic field and is subjected to a high frequency alternating magnetic field, resonance absorption of energy from the alternating current field take place. Selection of Sensor “4 Selection of sensors decides the success of MFL technique, For example: > HallSens08S are preferred for detection of deep surface defects in an environment of high magnetic field whereas > GMIRSensofs are preferred for detection of deep buried defects, if saturation of sensor is taken care of, “4 The MFL signal pattern depends upon the types of sensor. For example: > the tangential component of MFL signal measured by pick-up coils is different from ‘that measured by the solid-state sensors. Its due to the fact that pick-up coils ‘measure the change in magnetic field while solid state sensors measure the actual magnetic field. “The size of the sensor is important for defect detection and sizing, DR. SAMIR SAAD ETMPL Level ti The leakage fields are integrated over active area of the sensor which reduces the detectability of short cracks, In general, coll-based sensors are more rugged, despite poor sensitivity. Hall sensors have large dynamic range (linear) as compared to GMR sensors. Hall sensor is most sensitive normal to the chip plane whereas GMR sensor is most sensitive parallel to the chip plane. 4 Sensor is selected based on the expected location and type of defects and the leakage fields from them. > In many situations, use of two sensors (coil and Hall or GM and Hall) capable of addressing the sensitivity and the saturation issues is resorted to, > In this regard, array sensors with possibility for imaging are finding right place. To site an example, a scan- type magnetic camera, which uses two linearly integrated element. Hall sensor arrays (LIHaS) on a wafer, and a small yoke-Type magnetizer can detect small cracks on express train wheels with high- speed and high spatial resolution. In determining the magnetic flux leakage from a discontinuity, certain conditions must be known: 11) the discontinuity's location with respect to the surfaces from which measurements are made, 2)_ the relative permeability of the material containing the discontinuity and 3) the levels of magnetic field intensity H and magnetic flux density B in the vicinity of tthe discontinuity. One attractive feature of MFL technique is the ability to mathematically model the leakage field from defect region in a magnetized object. The Modeling enables prediction as well as visualization of field / defect interactions and thus, helps better understanding and effective utilization of the MFL technique. ‘MFL modeling is based on either analytical modeling approach or on numerical modeling approach, > In analytical modeling, defects are assumed as magnetic dipoles developed at the walls. of the defect. > The leakage flux signals are calculated from the dipole magnetic field of the magnetic dipoles. > The analytical modeling has the advantages over numerical modeling as it offers exact closed form solution and is convenient for simple geometries. analytical modeling approach has facilitated enhanced understanding of the MFL technique and prediction of MFL signals from defects in simple geometries. Pee kes xh hiellimninlemat ember element, Hybrid, etc., gained popularity in MFL testing. on sansaMPL Level ti > Compared to the analytical models, SS RST=I= RG neta NS ERGWATHSRY ‘BAVAHERBES, including the of nonlinear problems and ability to model the irregular ‘geometries found in actual defects. However, it requires intensive computer resources. Calculation of leakage fields Was first attempted by Huang and Lord using FE method and itwas shown that the FE method provides the possibilty of defect sizing from the leakage field profile. analyze the relation between defect parameters (length, width and depth) and MEL signals of surface defects b) simulate the effect of complex corrosion on MFL signals ©) simulate the effects of different pit comer geometries on MEL signals. d) analyze the influence of air gap between the magnetizing yoke and specimen and also the specimen thickness on the detectability by MFL technique €) analyze the changes in the and magnitude of the signal with the velocity of the axial as well as circumferential MFL systems f)__study the leakage fields from near-side and defect in a 12 mm thick carbon steel, plate Typical magnetic flux density profiles of a near-side slot of 3.32 mm depth and a far- side slot located at 6.24 mm below the surface of a 12 mm thick carbon Steel plate are shown in Fig. 3. The leakage magnetic field for far-side slot is weaker than that of the near-side ¥ slot and their detectability requires the use of high sensitive sensors such as GMR. sensors eMPL Level ti Review Question No.3 Flux leakage sensing elements can be the following: a. Hall effect sensors b, Inductive coil sensors c. Fluxgate magnetometer. d. Allofthe above Ferrites are usually used in pickup inductive coil sensors. a. True b. False ferrite materials have very high electrical conductivities. a True b. False In inductive coil applications, pickup coils should be used to generate voltages and not currents. a. True b. False ‘When a voltage develops across the two faces of the crystal in a Hall effect sensor, the voltage is: a, Equal to the strength of the magnetic field, b. Proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. ©. Proportional to the current d. None of the above ‘The flux gate magnetometer is also referred to as: a. Forster probe Eddy current coil Ferro - probe Both (@) and (c) ‘The flux density in an inductive coil must change though the coil in order to produce a signal a. True b. FalseMPL Level ti 8- Halll elements are made of high permeability carbon steel material a. True b. False 9 The following are considered methods of magnetic leakage field detection, a. Magnetictape system b. Magnetic particles . Magnetic resonance sensors 4, Allofthe above 10-magnetic resonance sensor application is based on the fact that characteristic atomic frequencies also depend on the strength of the magnetic field a. True b. False ryMPL Level ti Chapter 4 Factors Affecting Flux Leakage Fields ‘A. Defect Geometry, Location, and Orientation 4 4 a a Magoetc fn density B (re! The presence of a discontinuity causes a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the test object, thereby resulting in a local increase in the magnetic density. Areduction in the permeability, together with an increase in the magnetic flux density, ‘causes the flux to leak into the surrounding medium. Magnetic leakage fields can be subdivided into active or residual leakage fields. To.understand the origin of the leakage fields and choice of initial magnetization for the active leakage field technique, consider an unmagnetized steel billet with a surface discontinuity, as shown in the following figure “Billet with discontinuity": (aj view of billet; (b) cross-section through discontinuity, (c) magnetic characteristics of billet material; and (4) billet in magnetic field showing discontinuity leakage field, ) Area a of Discontinuity ——> aiscontinuity See, Area (aa) ~ @ Discontinuity [tenet ESN Magnet permeability». Magnetic fel Field intensity HY (relative seale) saanMPL Level ti Subsurface Discontinuities 4 Ifa discontinuity is farther below the surface, the difficulty of detecting the magnetic. leakage field is much greater. This is due to the fact that the surrounding material tends to smooth out the field distortion ‘caused by the subsurface discontinuity, thus resulting in a small field disturbance on the surface of the above billet example, + The next figure shows a billet with a subsurface discontinuity, showing the resultant leakage field, Degree of Initial Magnetization & Fora successful flux leakage test, there should exist an upper and lower limit of magnetization to which test object should be subjected, 4 Magnetization of the test object lies on the linear part of magnetization curve in such a way that the material permeability is Maximized. 4 Magnetization should not approach saturation but should have a value of flux density that locates the initial operating point of the material on the steepest part of the initial magnetization curve. The following may occur: a, If the degree of magnetization level is too low, discontinuities may be missed, b, If the degree of magnetization level is too high, a lack of discontinuity discrimination ‘may result in false indications, Because the degree of magnetization is so great, tHe SuHace FOUBHAESS is easily mistaken for actual discontinuities and result in unwarranted rejection of the test object. EMPL Level ti Review Question No.4 A presence of a discontinuity causes an increase in the cross-sectional area ofa test object. a. True b. False A reduction in the permeability of a test object, together with an increase in the magnetic flux density, will cause the flux to leak into the surrounding medium. a. True b. False Magnetic leakage field can be subdivided into: a. Active field b. Residual field c. Both (a) and (b) d. Magnetic field. ‘The magnetic flux density must —--~ with the reduction of the test object's cross-sectional area a. Decrease b. Increase c. Remain unchanged d. All of the above Flux leaks that leak into the surrounding medium ofa discontinuity can be detected by: a, Remote field testing b. Alternating current measurement c. Eddy current testing, d. Flux leakage testing Itis more difficult to detect a subsurface discontinuity than a surface discontinuity with flux leakage testing. a. True b. False Objects with surface roughness can be tested with flux leakage testing a. True b. FalseMPL Level ti ‘Magnetization of the test object lies on the inner part of the magnetization curve in such a way that the material permeability i a. Minimum b. Maximum . Remain unchanged d. None of the above If the degree of magnetization is too low, discontinuities: a. Can be detected b, May not be detectable c. Noe of the above 10- The following discontinuity factors can affect flux leakage fields: a. Location b. Orientation c. Geometry d. Allof the above 49MPL Level ti Chapters Selection of Magnetization Method ‘A. Introduction © Successful testing requires the test object to be magnetized by using the following magnetization methods: 1 Permanent magnet. 2. Electromagnets. 3. Magnetizing coils. Permanent Magnets 4 Excitation systems that use permanent magnets, such as neodymium iron boron, samarium cobalt, or aluminum nickel, offer the least magnetization flexibility. + The major disadvantage of systems excited with permanent magnets is that the process of excitation cannot be switched off. 4 Permanent magnets are very rarely used for magnetization, except in the case of in-line inspection tools called smart pigs. Electromagnets Electromagnets are used extensively to magnetize test objects. The following figure shows an electromagnetic yoke where the test object is part of a magnetic circuit energized by current passing through an excitation coil. object iS inserted + To obtain maximum sensitivity, it is necessary to ensure that the magnetic flux is perpendicular to the discontinuity. Because the orientation of the discontinuity is unknown, it is necessary to test twice with the yoke, in two directions perpendicular to each other. on sansaMPL Level ti 3. Right Hand Rule (Magnetizing coils) 1. The right-hand rule states that if someone grips a rod, holds it, and imagines: - a. The thumb points in the direction of the current, b. The fingers point in the direction of induced magnetic field. Field direction Current direction 2. The direction of the magnetic field around the wire depends on the direction of current flow through the wire. If straight wire is wound into a coil, the lines of force encircling the wire from the ‘magnetic field inside and outside the coil as illustrated in the following image. . This field thus created is similar to the field of a bar magnet. . The strength of the magnetic field is dependent upon two factors: The number of turns in the coil. d., The magnitude of the current, Increasing either one increases the strength of the magnetic field. 4, Testing in Residual Field Residual magnetism (residual field) is defined as the amount magnetization that a ‘magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is removed. Test objects in this testing method are passed through the coil field and then tested in the resulting residual field, This test method is often used in magnetic particle testing on sansaMPL Level ti 5, Magnetizing by Direct Current Ifanelectric currentis used to magnetize the test object, the direction of current should be oriented in a manner where the presence of a discontinuity impedes the fiow of flux lines as much as possible. + Other methods of magnetizing using direct current include passing the current directly through a tubular test object to magnetize the test object circularly, as shown here Figure 14.3: Circumferential Figure 14.4: Current carrying damp magnetization by application of direct electrodes used for testing ferromagnetic current: (a) rectilinear bar; (b) round bar; tubular objects with small diameters. and (c) tube. a a per Legend if = magnetic field intensity lecirie current Magnetic flux fines. Current J out ‘Current Fin B, Magnitudes of Magnetic Flux Leakage Fields 4 The magnitude of the magnetic flux leakage field under active direct current excitation depends on the applied field. Inthe case of residual magnetization, the magnetic flux leakage field may be only a few hundred micro-tesla (Gauss), With residual field excitation, an interesting field reversal may occur depending on the value of the initial active field excitation and the dimension of the discontinuity.MPL Level ti Review Question No.5, Which of the following items can be used to magnetize test objects? Magnetizing coils. Electromagnets, Permanent magnet. d. Allofthe above. Magnets such as can be used to magnetize test objects. Samarium cobalt. Iron core, Neodymium. (@) and (©) only. Excitation systems that use permanent magnets offer the highest flexibility and can be switched off. a. True, b. False. Permanent magnets can be used in smart pig systems. a. True. b. False, During magnetization, it is necessary to ensure that the magnetic flux is flowing to the discontinuity atalltimes. a. Perpendicular, b. Parallel. ©. Nelther (a) or (b). 6 The right rule is when: ©. The thumb points in the direction of the current, d. The fingers point in the direction of induced magnetic field. e. Both (a) and (b). 7- Residual magnetism (residual field) is defined as the amount magnetization that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is removed. a. True,MPL Level ti b. False. 8- Bars, billets and tubes cannot be magnetized by direct current (DC) at their ends. a True, b. False. 9 Circumferential magnetization can be applied with direct current using the following: Rectilinear bar. Round bar. Tube. All ofthe above. 10-The magnitude of the magnetic flux leakage field under active direct current depends on the applied field. a. True. b. False, Answer: 1D 2D «3B oA SA 6C 7A 8B OOD 104 DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti Chapter 6 Coupling ‘A. Lift-Off and Fill Factor 4 Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to describe any space that occurs between the test object and the inspection coil. AL LifLOft A. The effect observed due to a change in the electromagnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coll when the distance of separation between them is varied. This spacing is called lift-off Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface coil /surface probes. an important parameter for detection and sizing of defects in MFL 4 4 Lift-off affects both the magnetization level and the signal shape, ‘MFL signal amplitude decreases with increase in lift-off value (d) by a proportionality ya When the lift-off value becomes larger, its influence on MFLamplitude decreases. Lift-off decreases the amplitude of the flux signal and changes its frequency. In general, constant and minimum possible lift-off is always preferred. For ET application, Liftoff can be used to advantage when measuring non-conductive coatings on conductive bases. Nonconductive coating such as paint or plastic causes space between the coil can conducting base, allowing lift-off to represent the coating thickness. 4 Lift offis also useful in profilometry (gives surface contour details) and proximity application, + Liftoff Control of Scanning Head ® Toobtain a stable detection of discontinuities, liftoff between the probe and the surface of the material must be kept constant. Usually liftoff is kept constant by contact of the probe with the surface, but the probe tends to wear with this technique. ‘A magnetic floating technique has been used for noncontact scanning, In this technique, liftoftis measured by a gap probe and the probe holder is moved by a voice coil motor, controlled by the gap signal. 2 Fill Factor Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a test object will be electromagnetically coupled to a test coil that surrounds or is inserted into the test object. Fill factor pertains to tests that use bobbin or encircling coils. DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti Fill factor is ratio of cross-sectional areas of test object to the test coil > So, Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test object diameter squared to coil diameter squared for an encircling coll, or vice versa for a bobbin coil where the inside diameter is used. Encircling Coil (0.D) Bobbin Coll (LD) Fillfactor= a? /D* Fillfactor= 4? / D* where where d= Test object (0.D) d= coll winding (0.0) = coil winding (ID) D=Test object (1D) The fill factor will always be a number less than 1. The following image illustrates the concepts of both lift-off and fil factor. A fil factor of 0.99 is more desirable than a fil factor of 0.75. Example (1): What is the coil winding's inner diameter for inspection 1” (2.5 cm) solid rods using fill factor of 90%? Fill factor = d? / D? 0.9=1/D? D?=1/0.9 D=V(1/0.9)=1.05" Example (2): Whatis the fill factor for inspecting 0.75" x 0,049" of wall thickness copper tubes using 0.610" outer diameter bobbin probe? Fill factor = d? / D® Test object D=0.75-0.049%2=0.652" Fill factor = 0,610? / 0.652* ll factor =87 % heat riae 4 How much the coil is loaded by the test object due to fill factor can be calculated in relative terms, > A test system with constant current capabilities being affected by a conductive non- ‘magnetic bar placed into an encircling coil can be used to demonstrate this effect. |MPL Level ti > An equation demonstrating coil loading is given by: E= £0 (1-n+npett) Where: Eo =coil voltage with coil affected by air. E= coil voltage with coil affected by test object. n= fill factor heff = effective permeability. 4 When the nonmagnetic test is inserted into the test coil, the coil's voltage will decrease. Example (1): the system parameters are as follows: a) Unloaded coll voltage equals 10 volts. bb) Test object effective permeability equals 0.3, ) Test coil inside diameter 1", d) Test object outside diameter 0.9", Caleulate the following: 4) Fill factor (n}. 2) Coil voltage (E) with coil affected by test object. 41) Fill factor (n). Fill factor (n) = d? / D? Fill factor (n) = 0.9? / 1? =0.81 2) Coil vottage (E) with coll affected by test object, = Eo (1—n+n pelt) #=10(1-0.81+0.81* 0.3) £43 Voltas, > This allows 10-4,3 or (10- 4.3) =5.7 volts available to respond to test changes caused by discontinuities or decreases in effective conductivity of the test object. Example (2): If loaded voltage developed by a 0.5" bar of the same material in example (1) above, Calculate the following: 1) Fill factor (n). 2) Coil voltage (E) with coil affected by test object. 41) Fill factor (n). |MPL Level ti Fill factor (n) = d? / D? Fill factor (n) = 0.5? / 1? =0.25 2) Coil voltage (E) with coll affected by test object. E= Eo (1-n+n ett) E=10 (10.25 +0.25 *0.3) E=8.25 Voltas ©} This allows 10-8.25 or (10— 8.25) = 1.75 volts available to respond to test changes effective conductivity of the test object. 5 B. Design considerations for magnetization of test 4 Design considerations for magnetization of test objects often require minimizing the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, consisting of 1) the test object, 2) the magnetizing system and 3) any air gaps that might be present. C MBLsignal & RROFPUISEAREE is an important parameter for detection and sizing of defects in MFL testing. > lift-off affects both the magnetization level and the signal shape. > MEL signal amplitude decreases with increase in lift-off value (d) by a proportionality ya > When the lift-off value becomes larger, it influence on MFLamplitude decreases, > lift-off decreases the amplitude of the flux signal and changes its frequency, > In general, constant and minimum possible lift-off s always preferred, ‘The magnitude of MEL signal is strongly related to defectdepth > The MFT amplitude increases almost linearly with the increase in defect depth when all other variables kept constant. > Beside defect depth, the influence of defect width has to be taken into account for defect sizing. ‘The MEL signal amplitude increases slightly with the defectwidtht > When the defect width is sufficiently large, the MFL signals become bloom. ‘The HEfECEIEREEH does not affect MFL signal amplitude much and the signal amplitude decreases slightly when defect length increases. > In general, the length of the flux leakage field signal trace can be related to the length of the defect. DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti > Signal amplitude is larger for more gradual defects with the same volume of metal loss and less for more sharp defects > Imaddition, the length of the flux leakage field is less for more gradual defects, +. Stress variations in the test object that influence the magnetic permeability and changes in velocity Of the MFL unit, > produce disturbing MEL signals that create confusion during the interpretation and evaluation stages. This demands the use of signal processing techniques. . Signal-To-Noise Ratio 4 With flux leakage testing, signal-to-noise ratio is affected by surface noise (the sensor bouncing along the surface) and probe lift-off variations. Liftoff decreases the amplitude of the flux signal and changes its frequency. (ERB can help minimize these effects Too high a rotational test speed or too high a rotating probe head speed can also cause a loss of test indication by chemistry, microstructure and grain size have most influence on the magnetic properties of steel, ross sectional area will have not effect on the permeability! Although it might affect apparent permeability of the test piece during testing and this is term noise.MPL Level ti Review Question No.7 Lift-offis a term used to describe any space that occurs between the test object and the inspection, coil. a. True. b. False. ift-off can be applied when using: a. Bobbin coils, b, Surface coils. .Encircling coils. 4. All ofthe above. Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface probes, a. True. b. False. Fill factor can be applied when using: a. Encircling coils. b. Bobbin coils Inside coils. d. All ofthe above. ‘where encircling coils are used, coupling efficiency is referred to as: a. Liftoff. b. Edge effect. «fill factor. d, Phase differentiation, 6- The fill factor formula is represented by the following expression: a. Yd, b.d'/D%, ©. D/d. d. Either (a) or (b). ‘Small changes in the diameter of the test object can cause changes in the impedance of the coil. a. True. b. False,MPL Level ti 8 The fill factor will always be a number: acl, b. than. 9- Fill factoris a term used to describe how well a test object will be electromagnetically coupled to a testcoil, a. True, b. False, 10-The fill factor when a 13 mm (0.5 in.) diameter bar is inserted in a 25 mm (1in.) 2.0.5 (50%). b. 0.75 (75%). ©.1.0 (100%), Fillfactor=0.5"/ 1” 0.25 (25%). Fill factor =0.25 11-What is the coil windings inner diameter for inspecting 1.25 in. soil rod using a fill factor of 85%? a. L.08 in, A bin, Fill factor = /D* ©.0.95 in. 0.85=1.257/ D* d. None of the above. Ase = Vl1.5625/0.85) =1.35" 12-Calculate the effect of fill factor when a conducting bar 0.5 inches in in diameter with an effective permeability of 0.4is placed into a 1-inch diameter coil with an unloaded voltage of 10 volts. The loaded voltage is. ‘| a. 2volts, 3 Fl factor (n) b. 4.6volts. ©.8.5 volts, d. 3.2 volts. Fil factor (n) = 0.5*/ 1° =0.25 FF factor (n) = d?/ D* 2) Coll voltage (f) with col affected by test object. E=Fo(1-n +n uss) =10(1-0.25 +0.25 * 0.3) E=8.25 Voltas 13-Fill factor is the ratio of test object diameter squared to coil diameter squared for an encircling coil. b. False,MPL Level ti 14- Liftoff is utilized a. measuring pemeability changes. b, Measuring conductivity changes. c. Measuring the thickness of non-conductive coatings. d. Determining proper test frequency. 15-Which of the following would normally be considered the best fill factor when testing straight tubing with an encircling or feedthrough coil? a. 0.95 (95%). b.1.75 (175%). €.0.50 (50%) 4.0.25 (25%). 16-The thickness of nonconductive coatings on a conductive base can be most simply measured by: a. Observing the lift-off effect caused by the coating, b. Testing both sides of the specimen. c. Varying the current in the test coil. d. Varying the test frequency over a given range during the test. 17-Aterm used to describe the effect observed due to a change in the electromagnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil when the distance of separation between them is varied is: a. Fill factor, b. Edge effect. cEndeffect. d. Liftoff. 18-Lift-off certainly reduces the amplitude of the flux leakage signal. The other significant effect it has on the signal is a change a. Phase. b. Frequency. ¢. Increasing lift-off which reduces the apparent width of the defect. d. None of the above. 19-Why is it desirable to hold the fill factor or lift-off constant? a. To avoid arcing between the coil and the specimen, b. To minimize tester output signal changes that are not relevant to conditions within the specimen to be tested. .Afill factor or lift-off change will shift the operating frequency. d. To minimize the load on the constant current ac excitation circuits. on sansaMPL Level ti 20-Decreased coupling or fill factor results in decreased test sensitivity because: a. Reduced coupling between the driver coil and the specimen induces less eddy current flow in the specimen. b, Reduced coupling between the specimen and the pickup coil results in smaller voltages across the pickup coil. ¢. Electrical circuits designed to provide fill factor compensation may prove to be inadequate, depending upon the extent of fill factor loss. d. Allof the above. 21-Lift-off signals produced by a 0-10 mil spacing change are approximately than a 80-90 mil spacing change. 2.10, b.2 oS d.100. Answer: TA 28 3A 4D SC 6B TA 11D «12 13A 14C 115A 6A 17D 2A 8B 188MPL Level ti Chapter7 Readout Mechanisms Introduction The readout mechanism is the part of the instrument. This component of the system can be: a. integral part of the test system, b. Interchangeable "plug-in module” the test system. Solitary unit “separate device connected to test system by cable" 4 The readout instrument used should be of adequate speed, accuracy, and range to meet the requirements of the test system. There are two types of readout mechanisms that are used in MFL instrumentation: a, Analog meters. b. Digital displays. ‘Analog Meters An analog meter is an indicting device whose visual output varies as a continuous function of the input of the meter. Armeter has a needle that moves in response to the input. The response is immediate, and scales can be calibrated to read specific values directly. B.1 Audio Alarms ‘Audio alarms only indicate qualitative information caused by abnormal conditions. B.2 Strip-Chart Recorders Strip-chartrecorders provide an analog recording of values at reasonably high speeds. The strip-chart recorder is one method that procedure a permanent, fairly accurate record. "19% of fall sale). ‘The strip-chart length is indexed to time or distance and indicates normal or abnormal conditions. The important characteristics of strip — chart recorder is frequency response or speed response, which limits inspection speeds. The strip-chart recorder record” X and Y axis movement “signal components against time, which is used in locating defects and determine their, length. ‘The strip-chart recorders provide an analog recording of values at reasonably high speeds (7200 42). ‘An ink- writing strip — chart recorder generally provides an accurate representation of its input signal, ifthe signal frequency is limited to 20HZ. DR. SAMIR SAAD.MPL Level ti G. Digital Displays 4 A digital meter is one whose visual output is shown in discrete steps in time. 4 The meter measures the input at a given moment, and the value of the measurement is displayed in numerical form, igital meters provide greater accuracy and range than analog meters. D.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) CRT is Oscilloscope displays both signal amplitude and phase. CRTs can be used to display the output of a test circuit. They give continuous presentation and are highly accurate. Presentation displayed is adjustable and stored so that the parameters of particular interest may be studied more accurately. 1.2 Digital Data Storage + Digital data are displayed in a complex plane presentation with supporting strip-chart and C-scan displays, as required by the application. Digital systems allow setup of calibration curves constructed from stored data and automated analysis of signals as compared to these curves. 1.3 Digital Mixing + Digital Mixing is the combination of components from different test frequencies allows the suppression of unwanted parameters or signals from structures, such as support plates in tubing applications, while retaining the signature of discontinuities beneath those structures. D.A Liquid Crystal Display © Alliquid crystal display (LCD) isa thin, fat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. 4 Liquid crystal displays use very small amounts of electric power. The following are important factors when evaluating a LCD monitor: a. Resolution, b. Viewable size and input viewing angle. cc. Response time and contrast ratio. d. Matrix type. ‘A computer screen is a typical LCD that is widely used in state-of-the-art eddy current. instruments |MPL Level ti 1H. Magnetic tape recorders Magnetic tape recorders, usually frequency — modulated multichannel types, are used to provide a permanent record of test results. + Magnetic tape recorders are fairly accurate and capable of recording at very high speed (1 KHZ), moreover that data can be processed by automated technique Computers + Computers may be used to control data acquisition and analysis processes. Data handling techniques take a wide variety of approaches. + Dodd and Deeds describe a computer —controlled multi frequency system.MPL Level ti -Beview Question No.7, 1- The readout mechanism is the part of the MFL instrument, a, True b. False Areadout mechanism can be: a. A module the is plugged into the test set b. An integral part of the test system cA separate device connected to the test system d. Allof the above 3+ The indicating device used in an MFL system should not meet the adequate speed, accuracy and range needed a. True b. False 4- There are typically two types of readout mechanisms used in MFL instruments: analog meters and digital displays. a. True b. False Audio alarms indicate only quantitative information that may be caused by abnormal conditions a. True b. False 6- The strip chard recorder is a readout device that produces permanent and fairly accurate record. a. True b. False on sansaMPL Level ti 7- when evaluating a liquid crystal display, the following factors should be considered: a. Matrix type b, Resolution «. Input viewing angle 4. All of the above 8 The combination of components form different test frequencies is known as digital mixing a. True b. False 9- Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) give contentious presentation of signals and are not considered accurate a. True b. False 110-Digital data storage and digital mixing are types of digital displays that are used in MFL testing a. True b. False 11-Display requirements are based on: a. Test applications . Records requirement c. Need for automation control d. All of the above :12-Amplitude gates provide a method of controlling: a, Reject or acceptance limits b. Instrument response ©. Display amplitude d. All of the aboveMPL Level ti 13-Alarms and lights offer only: 2. Qualitative information b. Quantitative information .Rejectinformation d. Accept information 14-The galvanometer principle is the basis for ————- a. Corrosion rate b, Metallographic deterioration ©. Avoltmeter d, Light source illumination 15-In order for analog information to be presented to a digital computer, it must be process through —— a. An A-D converter b, A microprocessor ©. Aphase detector d. An amplitude detector 16- In a cathode ray tube, the electron gun: a. Directs the beam b. Focuses the beam c. Generates the beam d. Allof the above 17- Photochemical reactions produced by electrons striking a CRT screen cause: a. Photosynthesis b. Phosphorescence c. Fluorescence d. Both Band CMPL Level ti 18-High persistence CRT screens are normally used for repetitive signal display a. True b. False 19- Length of a strip chart can indicate a. Flaw severity b. Distance or time . Orthogonalit d. All of the above 20- Aseries of lines produced in facsimile recording is/are called: a. Gridlines b. Raster c. Crosshatch d. Sweep display 21- The readout mechanism used when testing by the ellipse method is a: a. Meter b. strip-chart recorder ©. Cathode ray tube d. Any of the above 22-When of the following is not a read-out system used to present MFL information? a. Calibrated and uncalibrated meters b. Litmus paper .Cathode ray tube d, Strip-chart recordersMPL Level ti 23- Which of the following is not a commonly used MFL readout mechanism? a. Signal generator b. Meter ¢. Cathode ray tube d, Strip-chart recorder 24. Which type of readout oscilloscope would be best for examining a no repetitive flaw during high speed testing? a, A storage type b, Asampling type c.A type having a short persistence screen d. Adual beam type 25- An ink- writing strip chart recorder generally provides an accurate representation of its input signal: a. Ifthe signal frequency is 2000 Hz or greater b. Ifthe signal frequency is at least 200 Hz Ifthe signal frequency is limited to 20 Hz d. Only ifthe signal frequency is limited to 2 Hz Answer: TA 2D 3B 4A 5A 6A 7D BA 11D 12-A13-A 14C 15-A 16D 17D 188 21C «BBA 2A 25CMPL Level ti Chapter 8 Flux Leakage Applications 10 Capabilities and Applications + Like other NOT techniques, MFL technique has definite capabilities and popular industrial applications. Sensors dearly the capability of MFL technique by incorporating the advances in ‘magnetic materials, electronic devices measurement techniques. + Capabilities 4 MEL technique is capable of detecting sizing surface as well as sub-surface defects in ferromagnetic objects + Afew clear established capabilities of the MFL technique include: 1. Detection of corrosion, cracks, gouges and dents in pipelines and storage tank floors. 2. Detection of localized flaws and loss of metallic cross-sectional area in wire ropes. 3. High sensitivity for detection of small surface cracks in components without removal of paint or rust. 4, Automatic MEL testing of axisymmetric components in production line. 5. NDTof hot objects. A. Tubes Testing 4 MFLis capable of detecting the presence and location of significant longitudinally or ‘transversely oriented discontinuities such as pits, scabs, slivers, gouges, rollins, laps, seams, cracks, holes, and improper welds in ferromagnetic tubes under inspection. the following MFL technique can apply on tubular products having outside diameters from approximately 1/2 to 24 in, (12.7 to 610 mm) with wall thicknesses to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm). The tube wall is magnetized at the area under examination to a proper level approaching magnetic saturation. A suitable means for assuring near magnetic saturation of the product (subject to periodic check or calibration) must be provided as part of the examination to verify the capability of detection of outside diameter and inside diameter discontinuities. A flux sensor containing magnetic transducers Is placed on or above the outside surface of the tube in the magnetized area, 4 Either the tube or the flux sensor is moved at a constant speed in the direction of the ‘magnetic field so that the sensor scans the entire surface of the tube.MPL Level ti 4 Each magnetic transducer in the flux sensor is connected to an electronic console which amplifies filters, and electronically processes the signals such that significant discontinuities are indicated (visually, audibly), and marked with paint, or automatically removed from the production line, or both. The response from natural discontinuities can be significantly different from the response for artificial discontinuities such as drilled holes or notches of equivalent depth, For this reason, sufficient work should be done to determine the conditions necessary to detect and mark natural discontinuities whose characteristics will adversely affect the serviceability of the tube, in order to establish acceptance criteria between the supplier and purchaser. The depth and orientation of a discontinuity below the outside surface will affect the magnitude of the signal received from it. Sensitivity decreases significantly as the distance between the flux leakage sensor and the tube under examination is Increased. Therefore, the sensors should remain clean and have uniform contact with ‘the tube surface, Bf if air riding the sensors should be held at a uniform distance above the surface of the tube. ‘Multiple probes may be used to increase the speed of examination. ‘The signals may be processed in two separate channels to result in a differentiation between inner and outer surface discontinuities. Each of the two sets of electronic channels should contain its own sensitivity and threshold triggering controls for independent setting of percentage of wall rejection levels. ‘A. for longitudinal discontinuities 4 employing a transverse magnetic field and flux leakage detectors using one or more of the following techniques: (2) positioning north and south poles of a magnet on opposite sides of a tube ona diameter or chord as shown in Fig, 1{a) and 1(b); or (2) passing a high direct current through a conducting rod centrally positioned in the tube under examination. Yoke Magnetic field line DC field coll Pole unit \Yy — Direct current electromagnet scans length of rotating tube. Circular flux pattern detects longitudinal defects DR. SAMIR SAAD BMPL Level ti B, for Transverse discontinuities “+ employing a longitudinal magnetic field and flux leakage detectors using one or more of the following techniques: (2) positioning north and south poles of a magnet on a sector of a tube; or (2) passing a direct current through encircling coils centrally positioned about the tube under examination, FIG. 4 Longitudinal Magnetization B. On-line inspection of Petroleum and gas- transmission pipelines Testing 4 MFLis the oldest and most commonly used in-line inspection technique for finding metal- loss regions in gas- transmission pipelines. About of 80% pipeline is carried out using the MFL technique. MFL can reliably detect metal loss due to corrosion and sometimes gouging ‘occurred in gas- pipeline. Various types of wall loss mechanisms occur, including internal and external pitting, erosion and corrosion caused by the proximity of dissimilar metals. Flux leakage testing can be applied to detecting cracks and corrosion pits in the walls of underground pipelines. A Flux leakage testing devices (PIG) are transported inside the pipe for long distances. The PIG is propelled inside the pipe under the pressure of natural gas. PIG (Pipe Inspection Gauge) is commonly used to inspect the structural integrity and damage in gas-pipelines. ‘The strong permanent magnet in the PIG nearly saturates pipe wall and must be achieved in order to reach outside diameter discontinuities and an array of Hall sensors installed around the circumference of the pipe measure the leakage flux from sensor is acquired and stored in an on-board computer and subsequently analyzed using advanced signal processing, 4 tis possible to image defects and exactly identify the location for possible repair. ox sinsMPL Level ti 4 For the pipeline inspection tool, a recorder package is added and the signals from discontinuities are recorded, As the recordings being retrieved and played back, areas of damage are located, Pipe welds provide convenient magnetic markers. Localized stress in reduces the MFLsignal amplitude, however, to different extent in active and residual methods. The residual flux pattem shows magnetic polarity exactly opposite to that of active flux pattern, The residual scans show promise to reveal the size and shape of irregular defects. The next image illustrates a smart pig test vehicle used in testing of pipelines. The pigs are similar to the magnetic flux leakage probes used in tube testing, but pigs are constructed to be propelled down pipelines and collect the required test data, Equipment for magnetic flux leakage testing of pips and tubes {a) Pig tool (b) data acquisitions from pig sensors Permanent magnets Pickup coils C. Testing flaws in oil Above Storage Tank Testing (AST) bottom floors 4 MEL technique is widely used for detection of flaws and corrosion in storage tank floors, 4 Magnetic flux leakage testing is a reliable and economical means of qualitatively assessing the condition of above storage tank floors. The purpose of this testing is to provide a reliable condition of the overall floor condition within an economical time frame. Despite the greater sensitivity of hall effect sensors, coils are more reliable for this application. Amplitude of flux leakage signals is an unreliable indicator of remaining wall thicknesses. ‘Amagnetic bridge is used to introduce as near a saturation of flux as possible in the test material between the magnetic poles. A significant reduction in the thickness of the plate will result in some of the magnetic flux being forced into the air around the area of reduction. Flux leakage sensors can detect these flux leakages, as shown in the following figure. on sansaMPL Level ti Discontinuity Test object ‘The flux leakage equipment produced for this application is designed to handle the environmental and practical problems present and other conditions. ‘This image illustrates a typical tank floor scanner. 4 Magnetic flux leakage in this application cannot differentiate between the response from top side and bottom side indications. 4 Using the MFL technique itis possible to evaluate the depth of far-side flaw or residual thickness of the metal loss area When lifLOTT IS|COnStant. + The different areas of tank floors do not affect the testing sensitivity, If the thickness is ‘same, Climatic conditions, surface condition and cleanliness need to be considered, apart from training of personnel. Discontinuities can be detected but, in most cases, cannot be quantitatively evaluated. Quantitative information can be obtained by applying ultrasonic can be used for more evaluation. Contrary to whattis expected, the flux leakage response from a top side indication is, significantly lower in amplitude than that from an equivalent bottom side indication. Magnetic flux leakage is.a qualitative, not quantitative, testing tool and is a reliable detector of corrosion on tank floors, However, MFL technique is a reliable, fast and efficient technique for assessment of corrosion condition and tank bottom, ‘Automated steerable motorized MFl- systems are available above ground storage tanks to detect metal loss due to corrosion. Wire Rope Inspection 4 MFLof wire ropes has been in regular use in a number of countries for inspection of hoisting ropes in deep mines and inspection of ropeways. + Inspection is performed on Steel wire rope to determine Local flaw (LF) and loss of metallic cross-sectional area (LMA). > local flaw (LF)—a discontinuity in a rope, such as )BFOKEH or damaged wire, a/eorrOsIOn a groove worn into a wire, or any other physical condition that degrades ‘the integrity of the rope in a localized manner. Broken wires are usually caused by fatigue, interstrand nicking and martensitic embrittlement. Therefore, small hand-held localized discontinuity instruments have been called electronic rags. on sansaMPL Level ti > loss of metallic cross-sectional area (LMA)—a relative measure of the amount of ‘material (mass) missing from a location along the wire rope and is measured by comparing a point with a reference point on the rope that represents maximum ‘metallic cross-sectional area, as measured with an instrument, loss of metal because of corrosion (due to environmental conditions or poor lubrication) and wear (caused by rubbing along floors, by nicking, by high pressures and by poor lubrication), Therefore, loss of metallic cross sectional area instruments could be called electronic calipers. © a variety of procedures that use different types of sensors and magnetizing devices have been employed for reliable detection of defects in wire rope. In general, two techniques are used for the determination of loss of metallic cross-sectional area: the main flux technique and the return flux technique: Ficumt Cross sectional area measurement techniques: (a) main flux technique; (D) modified main flux technique; flux technique wath all sensors () retu Ts Technique with tax gate sensors. ecu ha path emda col wah egator — ‘a sry Tin po 7 "sin to at oy uc git nr Direct current (de) and permanent magnet instruments supply a constant flux that magnetizes a length of rope as it passes through the sensor head (magnetizing circuit). LIVIA sensors (axial sensors} are located in various places, almost within magnetizing circuit or nearby it. ‘The total axial magnetic flux in the rope can be measured either by Hall effect sensors, an encircling (sense) coil, or by any other appropriate device that can measure absolute magnetic fields or variations in a steady magnetic field, |MPL Level ti + The signal from the sensors is electronically processed, and the output voltage (signal) is proportional to the volume of steel or the change in metallic cross- sectional area, within the region of influence of the magnetizing circuit. When absolute value is displayed it is somewhere called TCMA, i.e. "total change of ‘metallic area”, It provides information about loss of steel due to missing wire. a SSENSOR-HEAD PERMANENT MAGNET x] Te PERMANENT MAGNET —> BemacnertzaTion WIRE ROPE! INTEGRATOR imacnertzaTion «Permanent Magnet Equipped Sensoread Using Hall Devices to Measure 1 Permanent Magnet Equipped Sensor Head Using a Sense Col to Measure pane pad Seon ig Hal the Loss of Metlic Cross-Sectional Area B. instrument measures local flaw (LF). b) Magnetic Flux Leakage Instrument " Adirect current or permanent magnet instrument is used to supply a constant flux that magnetizes a length of rope as it passes through the sensor head (magnetizing circuit). LF sensor (radial sensors) is placed coaxially around the rope. The radial magnetic flux leakage created by a discontinuity in the rope, such as a broken wire, can be detected with a differential sensor, such as a Hall effect sensor, sensor coils, or by any other appropriate device. The signal from the sensor is electronically processed and recorded. this signal provides information about presence of local fault and also more or less information about its magnitude. While the information is not quantitative as to the exact nature and magnitude of the causal flaws, valuable conclusions can be drawn as to the presence of broken wires, internal corrosion, and fretting of wires in the rope. LEAKAGE FLUX AND TYPICAL ‘SENSOR LOCATION SENSOR-HEAD Peete MAGNET lMlustation of the Leakage Flux Produced by @ Broken WirMPL Level ti + Because discontinuities can occur deep inside the rope material, its essential to maintain the rope ata high value of magnetic flux density, 1.6 to 1.8 T (16 to 18 kG). Under these conditions, breaks in the inner regions of the rope will produce magnetic flux leakage at the surface of the rope. loss of metallic cross-sectional (LIMA) area can be determined by using an instrument ‘operating according to the principle discussed in (A). local flaw (LF) such as Broken wires and internal (or external) corrosion can be detected by using a magnetic flux leakage instrument as described in (8). One instrument may incorporate both magnetic flux and magnetic flux leakage principles. fan NDT instrument is designed to detect primarily either LF or LMA, but not both, itis called “single function" instrument. "Dual function” instrument detects both, separately. 2) Single-function instrument—a wire rope NDT instrument designed to detect and display either changes in metallic cross-sectional area or local flaws, but not both, on a strip chart recorder or another appropriate device. Dual-function instrument—a wire rope NDT instrument designed to detect and display changes of metallic cross-sectional area on one channel and local flaws on another channel of a dual-channel strip chart recorder or another appropriate device. Modem dual-function electromagnetic rope testers, shown in the next figure, allow simultaneous tests for loss of metallic cross-sectional area and localized discontinuities, + Recently. 3% GMRarray sensor probe with saddle type coil developed, the technique is able to readily detect both LF and LMA defects in the rope. The MF technique used Helmholtz coil as well as saddle type coils for magnetization purpose. nanan flMPL Level ti 4 MFLof wire ropes Limitations: 1 The rope may need to be demagnetized before an examination. If a magnetic flux or a magnetic flux leakage instruments used, it may be necessary to repeat the ‘examination to homogenize the magnetization of the rope. Itis difficult, if not impossible, to detect flaws at or near rope terminations and ferromagnetic steel connections. Deterioration of a purely metallurgical nature (brittleness, fatigue, etc.) may not be easily distinguishable, more frequent examinations may be necessary after broken ‘wires are detected to determine when the rope should be retired, based on percent rate of increase of broken wires. Agiven size sensor head accommodates a limited range of rope diameters, the combination (between rope outside diameter and sensor head inside diameter) of ‘which provides an acceptable minimum air gap to assure a reliable examination. Instruments designed to measure changes in metallic cross-sectional area are capable of showing changes relative to that point on the rope where the instrument was standardized. The reference point’s condition may have deteriorated during the rope’s operational use such that it no longer represents the original (new) rope values. The reference point must be examined visually, and possibly by other means, to evaluate its current condition, |MPL Level ti 6. The sensitivity of these methods may decrease with the depth of the flaw from the surface of the rope and with decreasing gaps between the ends of the broken wires, Itmay be impossible to discern relatively small diameter broken wires, broken wires with small gaps, or individual broken wires within closely-spaced multiple breaks. it may be impossible to discern broken wires from wires with corrosion pits. + Wire Rope Testing and Retirement + Two different philosophies have been used to retire wire rope. 1, Astatutory life policy mandates rope retirement at certain prescribed intervals, (The statutory life policy specifies a maximum time a rope can be in service). 2. Retirement for cause is based on retirement conditions evaluated periodically by nondestructive testing, {The approach requires that the rope must be retired when the deterioration exceeds a certain limit.) Because a statutory life policy is inherently wasteful, regulators have tended to adopt, the retirement for cause approach wherever appropriate, Wire rope deteriorates gradually throughout its service life. To keep abreast of deterioration, wire rope must be periodically tested. Because moderate deterioration is normally present, the mere detection of rope deterioration does not usually justify rope retirement. There are two major nondestructive test methods for evaluation of rope degradation: visual testing (rag-and-visual technique) and electromagnetic testing (electronic rags and/or electronic calipers). Billets 4 Arelatively common problem with square billets is elongated surface breaking cracks. By ‘magnetizing the billet circumferentially, magnetic flux leakage testing can be performed to detect such defects. Magnetic flux leakage systems for testing tubes exhibit the same general ability to classify defect depth. {tis generally accepted that even with the lack of correlation between some of the instrument readings and the actual discontinuity depths, the automatic readout of these ‘two systems still represents an improvement over visual or magnetic particle testing. One technique, often called magnetography, for the detection of discontinuities uses a belt of flux sensitive material, magnetic tape, to record indications. Discontinuity fields magnetize the tape, which is then scanned with an array of microprobes or hall effect detectors. Finally, the tape passes through an erase head before contacting the billet again. Because the field intensity at the corners is less than at the center of the flat billet face, a ‘compensation circuit is required for equal sensitivity across the entire surface on sansa