Chapter 1 Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing. Introduction & Acoustic Emi ions are stress waves produced by sudden movement in stressed materials. & The classic sources of acoustic emissions are defect-related deformation processes such as crack growth and plastic deformation. & The process of generation and detection is illustrated in Fig. 1. Sudden movement at the source produces a stress wave, which radiates out into the structure and excites a sensitive piezoelectric transducer. As the stress in the material is raised, many of these emissions are generated. The signals from one or more sensors are am cd and measured to produce data for display and interpretation. ‘Signal Detection and measurement flectronics| Preamalifier Source Fig. 1 Basic principle of the acoustic emission method + The source of the acoustic emission energy is the elastic stress field in the material. Without stress, there is no emission, Therefore, an acoustic emission (AE) inspection is usually carried out during a controlled loading of the structure, This can be a proof load before service, a controlled variation of load while the structure is in service, a fatigue test, a creep test, or a complex loa program. Often, a structure is going to be loaded anyway, and AE inspection is used because it gives valuable additional information about the performance of the structure under load, Phenomenon of Acoustic Emission ‘+ Acoustic emission isthe elastic energy spontaneously released by materials when they undergo 1[Page"+ Acoustic emission is the recommended term for general use, Other terms that have been used in seismic activity and AE literature include stress wave emission, stress waves, microseism, rock noise. "4 Acoustic emission is the class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material, or the transient waves 50 generated. Source Mechanisms of AE “& Sources of acoustic emission include many different mechanisms of deformation and fracture. & In natural sources include Earthquakes and rockbursts. & Material AE is acoustic emission generated by a local dynamic change in a material structure due to fracture development and/or deformation processes. Sometimes are called primary sources include: + Inmetals, sources include ere gFOWAR, moving asloeations, slip twinning, ran Boundary sliding and the fracture and decohesion of ncusions = Incomposite materials, sources incluce|filatrix eraeking ahd the Gisbonding ahd fractureOr eB. 4 Mechanical AE is acoustic emission generated by a leakage, friction, impact or other sources of mechanical origin. = Sometimes are called Secondary sources or pseudo, sources include leaks and cavitation; friction (as in rotating bearings); the realignment or growth of magnetic domains (Barkhausen Effect); liquefaction and solidification; and solid-to-solid phase transformations. «Note that: The term Barkhausenlefect/ Noise refers to the sudden change in ferromagnetic domains that occur during magnetization or demagnetization Means of Generating and detecting Acoustic Emissions. size of Means of Generating and Detecting Acoustic Emissions + Acoustic emission test techniques use either operational or applied loads to stimulate emissions from a variety of sources. Most loads are designed to exceed the previous maximum load that the ‘material has seen unless the application is one of continuous monitoring, For these cases, upsets in the operational loads or fatigue may give rise to emissions. ‘+ The magnitudes, time lags and frequency content of the resulting acoustic emission are taken into account during data interpretation, 2|PageThe acoustic emission is sensed by using transducers (sensors) such as surface mounted, piezoelectric, resonant devices. Acoustic Emission Test Frequencies Test frequencies are usually corresponding to bandwidths that match the resonant frequency of the acoustic emission transducer designed for a specific application. "The range of audible frequencies for most adult humans is about 0,02 to 16 kHiz. "Most industrial acoustic emission tests are made in the frequency range between 20 to 1200 ktiz, +The motomnan freueney ange for acoustic em ion testing is HOO 8/300 Ri Uta gt Inaredight Xrys wow? tot 008 ID ot2 aot at [Mat Frequency range of acoustic emission as compared with other electromagnetic waves. * appropriate frequencies can be readily selected by the test expert to meet special requirements. "In practice, the lower frequency limit is governed by background noise; itis unusual to go below 10 ktiz except in microseismic work. The upper frequency limit is governed by wave attenuation that restricts the useful detection range; is unusual to go above 1 MHz. Low frequencies are typically used in applications where itis desirable to minimize the number of sensors and where the emission source is undetectable at higher frequencies. High test frequencies can be used for applications where low frequency background noise prevents detection of the desired acoustic emission. High frequencies are also used for applications where the sensor is placed close enough to the source so that attenuation does not affect detection. Units for Acoustics Pressure, Displacement and Related Quantities 3|Page"Acoustic emission is a shock wave inside a stressed material, where a displacement (unit of distance) ripples through the material and moves its surface. A transducer on that surface undergoes this displacement as a pressure, The pressure is measured as force per unitarea in pascal (Pa), equivalent to newton per square meter (Nem). "The signal from the transducer is sometimes related to Weloeity (fi=")) displacement (m) or acceleration (ms). * Properties of piezoelectric transducers are related to electric charge: a pressure on the element creates a charge (measured in coulomb) on the electrodes. A rapidly changing pressure alters the charge fast enough to allow the use of either voltage or charge amplifiers, After this, signal Units for Acoustics processing may analyze and store data in terms of distance in meter (m), velocity in meter per second (m-s™), acceleration in meter per second per second (rns), signal strength in volt-second (V-S), energy in joule (}), signal In volt (V) or power in watt (W). Hertz Frequencies usually correspond to bandwidths for specific applications. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second. Bel and Decibel The term loudness refers to amplitude in audible frequencies. + Some acoustic waves are audible; others have frequencies above or below audible frequencies (ultrasonic or subsonic, respectively) * Asignal at an inaudible frequency has measurable amplitude but is not called loud or soft. A customary unit for measuring the amplitude of an acoustic signal is the decibel (dB), one tenth of a bel (B), The decibel is extensively used in acoustics and electronics. + The decibel is not a fixed measurement unit but rather expresses a logarithmic ratio between two conditions of the same dimension (such as voltage or Selection of Acoustic Emission Testing energy). "In auditory acoustics, an arbitrary sound pressure such as 20 Pa can be used for the reference level of 0 dB. In acoustic emission, the reference level 0 dBc is defined as a signal of 1 pV at the transducer before any amplification, Factors that Tend to Increase or Decrease the Amplitude of AE response & Acoustic emission is a wave phenomenon and acoustic emission testing uses the attributes of particular waves to help characterize the material in which the waves are traveling. 4|Page= Frequency and amplitude are examples of the waveform parameters that are regularly ‘monitored in acoustic emission tests. Acoustic Emission Nondestructive Testing & Acoustic emi demonstrated capabilities for monitoring structural integrity, for detecting leaks and incipient failures in mechanical equipment and for characterizing material behavior. 4 Applications of acoustic emission to engineering structures have been documented since the ion testing is a nondestructive method 1960s, Comparison with Other Techniques + Acoustic emission testing differs from most other nondestructive methods in two significant respects. * First, the energy that is detected is released (radiated) from the test object (defect) rather than being supplied by the test method, as in radiographic or ultrasonic testing, Second, the acoustic emission method can detect the dynamic processes associated with the degradation of structural integrity, 4 eA Ira Segur ts of acoustic emission, "Usually, certain areas within a structural system will develop local instabilities long before the structure fails. These instabilities result in minute dynamic movements such as plastic deformation, slip or crack initiation and propagation. "Although the stresses in a metal part may be well below the elastic design limit, the region near ip may undergo plastic deformation as a result of high local stresses. Situation, the propagating discontinuity acts as a source of stress waves and becomes acrack = Inthis an active acoustic emission source. One advantage of using acoustic emission over other forms of NDT is that acoustic emission can be lted to iE Wien properly instrumented, an entire structure can be tested by applying loads equal to or slightly greater than those experienced during normal operation, + Acoustic emission testing is nondirectional. Most acoustic emission sources appear to function as point source emitters that radiate energy in spherical wave fronts. ‘Often, a transducer located anywhere in the vicinity of an acoustic emission source can detect the resulting acoustic emission, 5|Page* This abilty is in contrast to other methods of nondestructive testing, which depend on prior knowledge of the probable location and orientation of a discontinuity to direct a beam of energy on a path that will properly intersect the area of interest. In some applications, multiple sensors are used to distinguish different sources of emission. ‘Triangulation techniques are available that allow the location of the source (or discontinuity) to be identified. & Information about the source of the acoustic emission can be found within the signals detected and stored, Advances in signal processing allow the user to determine whether acoustic emission sources are caused by internal discontinuities or are irrelevant sources of noise. “4 Table below, Characteristics of acoustic emission inspection compared with other inspection methods Acoustic emission Other methods Detects movement of defects | Detect geometric form of defects Requires stross Do not require stress Each loading is unique Inspection is direcily repeatable More matorial-sensitive Less material-sensitive Less geometry-sensitive More geometry-sensitive Less intrusive on plant/process | More intrusive on plant/process Requires aceess only at sensors | Require access to whole area of inspection ‘Tests whole structure at once | Scan local regions in sequence Main problems: noise related | Main problems: geometry related 6 [PageSelection of Acoustic Emission Testing + Acoustic emission test techniques usually fall into one of the following categories: Pressure (or acceptance) testing, diagnostics, condition monitoring and leak detection. ™ Condition monitoring, for example, can be divided into machinery monitoring, process monitoring and health monitoring. = Proof testing is the most widely used application as applied to new and in-service pressure vessels as well as a variety of equipment used in various industries, 4 Acoustic emission instrumentation is designed to detect the structural of liquid borne sound generated by a source within a material, sound that can be caused by crack initiation, crack tip yielding, crack extension, certain phase changes, turbulent flow or leakage, boiling, chemical reaction, friction or fretting, impact, matrix cracking, delamination, disbonding or fiber breakage. ‘4 Many specific applications have been developed using acoustic emi the largest class of applications. Specific applications include: = Detection of discontinui "detecting discontinuities formed during welding; "detecting tool wear and undesired tool contact during automated machining; * detecting wear and loss of lubrication in rotating equipment; = detecting loose parts inside operating equipment; = detecting, locating and assessing leaks; "detecting when cavitation occurs; + determining when fluid flow becomes turbulent; = acceptance testing of new equipment; and pressure testing of in-service equipment, Advantages of Acoustic Emission Testing 4 Advantages of Acoustic Emission Tests The acoustic emission method offers the following 1) Acoustic emission testing isa dynamic test method in that it pr les a response to discontinuity growth under an imposed structural stress; static discontinuities will not generate acoustic emission signals. 2) Acoustic emission testing can detect and evaluate the significance of discontinuities throughout T|[Page3) Because only limited access is required, discontinuities may be detected that are inaccessible to other methods. 4) Vessels and other pressure systems can often be requalified during an in-service test that requires little or no downtime. 5} The acoustic emission method may be used to prevent catastrophic failure of systems with unknown discontinuities and to limit the maximum pressure during containment system tests. Limitations of Acoustic Emission 4 A limitation of the acoustic emission method applied to metals is that IES INOEIIMedIately * Testing Acoustic emission is an irreversible process. * Once a material or discontinuity generates acoustic emission under load, the discontinuity must either grow or be subjected to a higher load to generate more acoustic emission. This also a limitation irreversability, called the kalser effect, can be to the user’s advantage but because most nondestructive testing Fequires Fetesting to verify a discontinuity or indication. * For example, if crack is detected through acoustic emission testing and the crack is ina stable growth stage, HERSRNGEIBS WERE BY FEpEStINE the BPEVIBUBISERB. To verily its existence with ssion, a second loading would have to be applied that is greater than the first 4 Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure, In order to obtain quaiititative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often ultrasonic testing) are necessary. 4 Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments which contribute extraneous noise acoustic er to the signals, For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction are crucial + Background noise can have a major impact on acoustic emission testing and even prevent a test from being performed. * Background noise can usually be isolated to 1) Mechanical Sources (friction) fretting) highifiow), 2) Electrical Sources (electromagnetic and radio frequency interference) and 3) Emifonmental Sources iia "If these sources of noise cannot be removed or controlled by physical precautions, filtering or detection threshold adjustment, then/a testshould not belperformed. “+ Acoustic emission propagates as SHER ESWaIE. + Assuch, its signal loses amplitude primarily because of (SSim#EEIBE5inS Brain) attenuation and damping. B|Page‘MUNGHEL Attenuation in metals is cue primarily to Béeiniethie bean spreading anid aterial damping, Application of Acoustic Emission Tests 1. mechanical property testing and characterization, 2. preservice proof testing, 3. requalification testing in service, 4, -monitoring on line, 5. in-process weld monitoring, 6. mechanical signature analysis, 7. leak detection, 8. leak location and geological applications, 4 By definition, online monitoring may be continuous or intermittent and may involve the entire structure or a limited zone only. Structures and Materials + Awide variety of structures and materials (metals, nonmetals and various combinations of these) can be monitored by acoustic emission techniques during the application of an external stress (load). “& The primary acoustic emission mechanism varies with different materials and should be characterized before applying acoustic emission techniques to a new type of material. Once the characteristic acoustic emission response has been defined, acoustic emission tests can be used to evaluate the structural integtity of a component, Testing of Composites ' Acoustic emission monitoring of fiber reinforced composite materials has proven effective when compared with other nondestructive test methods, However, attenuation of the acoustic emission, signals in fiber reinforced materials presents unique problems. + Effective acoustic emission monitoring of fiber reinforced components requires much closer transducer spacings than metal components of similar size and configuration. With the proper number and location of transducers, monitoring of composite structures has proven effective for detecting and locating areas of fiber breakage, delaminations and other types of structural degradation. 9|PageTypes of Stress + Pressure systems are stressed using hydrostatic or some ather pressure test. & The level of stress should normally be held below the yield stress. "= Bending stresses can be introduced to beamed structures. = Torsional stresses can be generated in rotary shafts. = Thermal stresses may be created locally = Tension and bending stresses should either be uniaxial or cyclic to best simulate service induced stresses Successful Applications 1 yan to Page periodic or continuous monitoring of pressure vessels and other pressure containment systems to detect and locate active discontinuities; detection of incipient fatigue failures in aerospace and other engineering structures; ‘monitoring material behavior tests to characterize various failure mechanisms; ‘monitoring fusion or resistance weldments during welding or during the cooling period; and ‘monitoring acoustic emission response during stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility tests.Chapter 2 Acoustic Emission Test Apparatus Acoustic Emission Test Equipment \& Equipment for processing acoustic emission signals is available in a variety of forms ranging from small portable instruments to large multichannel systems. + Components common to all systems are transducers, preamplifiers, filters and amplifiers to make the signal measurable. Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a generic four channel acoustic emission system. Ficure 1. Basic four-channel acoustic emission test system. ranplfen Min amplfen Measurement Tronsvcers "inate “ahs” ereuty [H> ju ae asp) _ ‘Computer jee PSs Py a aoe miei |= ee Acoustic Emission Transducers (Sensors) 4 When an acoustic emission wave front impinges on the surface of a test object, very minute ‘movements of the surface molecules occur. A transducer’s function is to detect this mechanical movement and convert it into a specific, usable electric signal. The transducers used for acoustic emission testing often resemble an ultrasonic search unit in configuration and generally use &)piezoeleettiesens6t as the electromechanical conversion device. 4 The transducers may be RTSTSESRSSRESAE. 4 The main considerations in transducer selection are 1) operating frequency, 2). sensitivity and 3) environmental and physical characteristics. 3 [Page+ For high temperature tests, WaVeBUIdes may be used to isolate the transducer from the environment. = This isa convenient alternative to high temperature transducers. = Waveguides have also been used to precondition the acoustic emission signals as an Interpretation aid. Issues such as wave type and directionality are difficult because the naturally occurring acoustic emission contains a complex mixture of wave modes. Preamplifier + The function of an preamplifiers is to increase the strength of the input signal. + Amplifying and frequency filtering are the two components of signal conditioning, “4 The typical AE amplifeiris a linear, voltage amplifier with the property: ‘Output Vottage= Input Voltage x Gain Volt) = Gx vilt) + Gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage and can also be expressed in decibels (dB). % The decibelis a logarithmic unit: dB = 20 logG “+ To bring the voltage to a higher level, so that any electromagnetic noise picked up on the long cable will have relatively less effect. + To provide circuitry that can deliver the signal down long lengths of cable with Minimum loss. > Frequency filters are often package as an integral part of the preamplifier. + Amplifiers in the main system: * To bring the signal to the desired level for measurement. = This gain can be either a fixed feature of the system, or an operator-controlled test variable. Important aspects of amplifier performance + Noise "The generation of electrical “Johnson “noise is a thermodynamic process associated with ail resistive component. "The actual input resistance at the preamp is chosen to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio. "This noise is somewhat influenced by the bandwidth of the filters used. The narrower the Bandwidth, the less the noise. "Theoretically itis possible to reduce the level of noise, by decreasing the temperature of the resistor, although not always practical. [Page+ Dynamic Range + This is simply the range from the smallest manageable signal to the largest manageable signal. = Inother words, the range from the electronic noise level to the saturation level. = Depending on just how you specify its measurement, itis on the order of 80B for AE systems, Note that the 16-bit digitization process used in today's DSP-based systerns has a nominal dynamic range of 9648 ( each bit gives a factor of 2, or 6a); thus, It can give an adequate rendering all the way from the highest signals down to electronic noise and AE signals just emerging from it. Preamplifiers and Frequency Selection “4 The preamplifier must be located close to the transducer. Often, its actually incorporated into the transducer housing. = The preamplifier provides filtering, gain (most commonly 40 dB) and cable drive capability. & Filtering in the preamplifier (together with transducer selection) is the primary means of defining the monitoring frequency for the acoustic emission test. This may be supplemented by additional filtering at the computer. * Choosing the monitoring frequency is an operator function because the acoustic emission source is essentially wide band. = Reported frequencies range from audible clicks and squeaks up to SO MHz. “The observed frequency spectrum of acoustic emission signels is significantly influenced by the resonance and transmission characteristics of both the test object (geometry as well as acoustic properties) and the transducer. + Inpractice, = The lower frequency limit is governed by background noise; itis unusual to go below 10 kHz ‘except in microseismic work, * The upper frequency limit is governed by wave attenuation that restricts the useful detection range; itis unusual to go above 1 MHz. = The most common frequency range for acoustic emission testing is HOORS S00 KHZ.Coaxial Cables / Connectors + The cables function is to transmit an electric signal from the source to the main load and to. connect points together electrically. 4 For AE work, EBSRiSTESBIE is almost universal because ofits superior electrical shielding, & REESE is most commonly used due to its sturdiness with BRIG SnnectOrs. + BNC (Bayonet NeilL-Concelman) connector s a common type of RF connector used for the coaxial cable. & The connector the most vulnerable point, + Asa rule cables should be handled carefully. Other Cable Types = There are a number of not so common cable types used for AE such as ‘Twisted Pair cables and Optical Fiber cables. = Twisted Pair cable consists of a pair of insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps to reduce noise pickup from outside sources. = Optical Fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. seep Optical fiber refers to the medium associated with the transmission of information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber. Optical | S fiber carries much more information than conventional copper wire and is in general not subject to electromagnetic interference. The glass fiber requires more protection within an outer cable than copper. Fig. : Optica Fiber cable, “4 Electrical Properties of Cables / Impedance Matching = While using long cables in AE applications, one must recognize their nature as long transmission lines, carrying an electrical wave with a definite speed (somewhat less than the speed of light). = The specified ffpedanee of a coaxial cable (e.g. 50 ohms for RG-58 or RG-174) FEfeSEOERE [EEREEEENENETINT 1: property becomes important only in great lengths of cable. = Impedance is the total opposition that a circuit presents to the flow of an alternating current. "When the cable is connected into a load, itis advisable to have impedance matching between load and cable so there is no reflection. 1a] Page"= The resistance of a cable (proportional to its length) will cause loss of signal as the voltage is ided between the cable and the load. "= The resistance of cables used in AE work is very small, a few ohms at the most. System Computer “The first elements in the computer are the main amplifiers and thresholds, which are adjusted to determine the test sensitivity. 4 Main amplifier gains in the range of 20 to 60 dB are most commonly used. “Thereafter, the available processing depends on the size and cost of the systern. + Ina small portable instrument, acoustic emission hits or threshold crossings may simply be counted and the count then converted to an analog voltage for plotting on a chart recorder. + In more advanced hardware systems, provisions may be made for energy or amplitude ‘measurement, spatial filtering, time gating and automatic alarms. Signal Processing and Displays * Nearly all acoustic emission systems use computers in various configurations, as determined by the system size and performance requirements. * In typical implementations, each acoustic emission signal is measured by hardware circuits and ‘the measured parameters are passed through the central computer to a disk file of signal descriptions. = The customary signal description includes the hits, hit rate, amplitude, duration, rise time and often the energy of the signal, along with its time of occurrence and the values of slowly ‘changing variables such as load and background noise level. "During or after data recording, the system extracts data for graphic displays and hard copy reports. Common displays include ¥ history plots of acoustic emission versus time or load, ¥ distribution functions, cross plots of one signal descriptor against another and source location plots. * Installed systems of this type range in size from 4 to 128 channels. ‘4 Operator Training and System Uses = Computer based systems are usually versatile, allowing data filtering (to remove noise) and extensive posttest display capability (to analyze and interpret results). © This versatility is an advantage in new or difficult applications, but it places high demands ‘on the knowledge and technical training of the operator.* Other kinds of equipment have been developed for routine industrial application in the hands of less highly trained personnel. > Examples are the systems used for bucket truck testing (providing preprogrammed data reports in accordance with recommended practices) and © _ systems for resistance weld process control (which are inserted into the control system and terminate the welding process automatically when expulsion is detected). + Acoustic emission equipment was among the first nondestructive testing equipment to use computers in the late 1960s, © Performance, in terms of acquisition speed and real time analysis capability, has been much aided by advances in computer technology. © Trends expected in the future include advanced kinds of waveform analysis, more standardized data interpretation procedures and more dedicated industrial products. Acoustic Emission System Accessories sms often used in acoustic emission work include = oscilloscopes, "transient recorders and spectrum analyzers, ic tape recorders, = root mean square volt meters, * special calibration instruments and "devices for simulating acoustic emission + Awidely accepted simulator is a graphite or pencil lead break (PLB) source, which uses a modified drafting pencil that provides a remarkably reproducible simulated acoustic emission signal when the graphite is broken against the test structure. Acoustic Emission Test Sensitivity + Although the acoustic emission method is inherently more sensitive than other methods such as. ultrasonic or radiographic testing, the sensitivity decreases with increasing distance between the source and the transducers. “& The same factors that affect the propagation of ultrasonic waves also affect the propagation of the stress waves used in acoustic emission techniques. = Wave mode conversions at the surfaces of the test object and other acoustic interfaces, combined with the fact that different wave modes propagate at different velocities, are factors 16| Page‘that complicate analysis of acoustic emission response signals and produce uncertainties in calculating acoustic emission source locations with triangulation or other source location techniques. Background Noise and Material Properties “& In principle, overall acoustic emission system sensitivity depends on the transducers as well as the characteristics of the specific instrumentation system. & In practice, however, the sensitivity of the acoustic emission method is often primarily limited by ambient background noise considerations for engineering materials with good acoustic transmission characteristics. '& During the monitoring of structures made of materials that exhibit high acoustic attenuation (because of scattering or absorption), the acoustic properties of the material GSUallylmieEne ‘ultimate test sensitivity and will certainly dictate maximum transducer spacings. Effects of System Transducers + Transducer coupling and reproducibility of response are important factors that must be considered when applying multiple acousticemission transducers. + Careful calibration checks must be performed before, after and sometimes during the acoustic emission monitoring process to ensure that all channels of the instrumentation are operating properly at the correct sensitivities. + For most engineering structures, transducer selection and placement must be carefully chosen based on a detailed knowledge of the acoustic properties of the material and the geometric conditions that will be encountered. "For example, the areas adjacent to attachments, nozzles and penetrations or areas where the section thickness changes usually require additional transducers to achieve adequate coverage. "Furthermore, discontinuities in such locations often cause high localized stress in areas where ‘maximum coverage is needed. Data Interpretation + Proper interpretation of the acoustic emission response obtained during monitoring of pressurized systems and other structures usually requires considerable technical knowledge and experience with the acoustic emission method. | Close coordination is required between the acoustic emission system operators, the data interpretation personnel and those controlling the process of stressing the structure. 17|Page4 Because most computerized, multichannel acoustic emission systems handle response data in pseudo batches, an intrinsic dead time occurs during data transfer. = Dead time is usually nota problem but can occasionally result in analysis errors when the quantity of signals overloads the data handling capabilities of the system. Compensating for Background Noise + When acoustic emission monitoringis used during hydrostatic testing of a vessel or other pressure system, the acoustic emission system will often provide the first indication of leakage. = Pump noise and other vibrations, or leakage in the pressurizing system, can also generate background noise that limits the overall system sensitivity and hampers accurate interpretation. = Special precautions and fixturing may be necessary to reduce such background noise to tolerable levels. 4 Acoustic emission monitoring of production processes in a manufacturing environment involves special problems related to the high ambient noise levels, both electrical and acoustical. "Preventive measures may be necessary to provide sufficient electrical or acoustical isolation to achieve effective acoustic emission monitoring. 1) mechanical and acoustic isolation; 2) electrical isolation; 3) electronic filtering within the acoustic emission system; 4) modifications to the mechanical or hydraulic loading process; 5) special transducer configurations to control electronic gates for noise blocking; and 6). statistically based electronic countermeasures, including autocorrelation and cross correlation. Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Techniques “+ The acoustic emission test isa passive method that monitors the dynamic redistribution of stress/strain levels at or immediately adjacent to latent discontinuities or other anomalies within a material or component. * Therefore, acoustic emission monitoring is only effective while the material or structure is"Examples of these stresses include pressure testing of vessels or piping, and tension loading or bend loading of structural components. Activity of AE Sources in Structural Loading “& Basic plot of AE data versus load is also the best way to display the Kaiser and Fel Plot showing Kaiser effect (BCB), Felicity effect (DEF), and Emission during hol (GH). shown in ive Emission Load ity effects, as AB loading BC- unloading CB - reloading BD — loading DE - unloading ED — reloading = F 1, then there is no damage has occurred since the last inspection. IfFR< 1.0, then cumulative or permanent damage has occurred. 4, If FR=0, then the structure has reached its ultimate load. The mode of failure can be obtained from the slope of the curve, = The felicity ratio is a quantitative measure best used to evaluate SSHNE OF MBerelass VESSELS and storage tanks. 2a[Page= Technically, the Kaiser effect can be construed a/alFelicity Ratio of OOF greater. = Systematic eereases inthe Felicity Ratio as material approaches failure have been well documented for fiber-reinforced plastics and a Felicity Ratio less than 0.95 is cause for rejection of an FRP tank or pressure vessel tested by AE inspection according to ASME Article cen + Under ASME Article 12 for the AE testing of metal pressure vessels, itis in some cases admissible to ignore AE data from the first loading of a vessel and to consider only AE data from a second loading. The basis for this is that much emission on the first loading comes from local yielding (structurally insignificant), while only the significant defects will emit on the second oan EHESEREBOEE,Chapter 3 Acoustic Emission Noise Hydraulic and Mechanical Noise jon monitoring must always recognize the presence of noise (extraneous or | Acoustic er interfering acoustic signals carrying no relevant data). Noise signals may be continuous or intermittent and the source may be either internal or external to the test object. Sources should be examined to discriminate between noise and relevartt acoustic emission signals. “4 The most effective remedy for nose interference is SIGH Halse URES ER ‘+ Most acoustic emission monitoring is done using a frequency threshold of 100 kHz or above. Fortunately, most acoustic noise diminishes in amplitude at these higher frequencies. Less noise is detected as the frequency pass band becomes narrow and higher, but these frequencies can also inhibit acoustic emission detection. & An unacceptable remedy for noise interference is to reduce the instrument gain or raise the detection threshold because it can lead to. Reduced genuine emissions ‘Changes in the value of the AE signal features Fewer locatable AE events due to fewer hits being detected. As arule, an indication of the level of interference from electrical or mechanical noise can be obtained by comparing the system noise on the test structure with the noise in an ambient. environment. {tis important to test for noise in an operating plant, including machinery that will be active during the acoustic emission test. 4 Noise measured in terms of peak or peak-to-peak amplitude relates most directly to acoustic emission detection. Other measurement parameters such as root mean square voltages will generally not recognize noise spikes or very short duration intermittent signals. 23 [PageHydraulic Noise + An example of hydraulic noise may occur during acoustic emission monitoring of a hydrostatic pressure vessel test. 1 ifthe pressure system develops a leak, the leak wil result in continuous high amplitude noise that can completely obscure acoustic emission from a discontinuity, + Inadeition tothe noise from fll there are other noise sources such as Sia) ‘cavitation and turbulent fluid flow. “+ ne files iva esting MACHINE can present.a serious noise problem during acoustic emission tests. + Ifthe valves controlling the hydraulic loading are integral with the yoke of the machine, jon transducer through the load tr hydraulic noise will be transmitted to the acoustic emi ‘= The source of the noise in this machine is the cavitating hydraulic fluid in narrow channels of the load piston and cylinder. + The high frequency content is often coupled to the test object and this can be Controlled By + EEBREBIBR inthe test vicinity can bea sourée of continuous noise. SEEN [EBUREGH can also be a serious problem during continuous monitoring of pressurized systems. ton monitoring system ifjaifiequenicy range ABOVE = One cure is to operate the acoustic e ‘the noise frequency. Mechanical Noise 4 Mechanical Noise is any movement of mechanical parts in contact with the structure under test is a potential source of noise, + Rolle assembles with salle beatings OFFA: are examples of noisy parts = Mechanical noise can be beneficial when acoustic emission techniques are applied to detect incipient mechanical failure. ‘+ Rubbing o fretting is a particularly difficult noise source to overcome because it often has a very broad frequency content. A pressure vessel under hydrostatic test will expand elastically in response to the imposed stress and may rub against its supports. Guard ‘transducers can sometimes help identify this noise source.‘© Riveted, pinned or bolted structures are often noisy. Initially, bearing points on a pinned structure are limited. As these points are loaded to yield stress, the joint will shift to pick up the load and simultaneously produce Bursts Of HOWE. Cyclic Noise, Cyclic Noise is Repetitive noise such as that from reciprocating or rotating machinery can sometimes be rejected by blanking the acoustic emission instrument during the noise bursts, Blanking is especially effective if the repetition rate is low and uniform relative to ‘acoustic emission. © Causes of cyclic noise include: 8) positioning of spot-welding electrodes, b) clamping of sheets before shearing and ) fatigue testing machines. ‘Serrated wedge grips used on many physical testing machines are nearly always a source of noise. As the test object is loaded, two sources of noise can occur: (1) the serrations of the grips bite into the test object and (2) the grips slip in the yokes of the testing machine. Pinned load connections will usta hy IRI this problem, Noise Signals and Rise Time + Mechanical noise has characteristics that help distinguish it from the acoustic emission signals of cracks. Noise signals are of relatively low frequency with low rise time. = The acoustic emission bursts from cracks generally have rise times (from threshold to peak) of less than 25 ps if the transducer is near the source. = Mechanical noise rarely has such a fast rise time. = The tise time of both noise and acoustic emission signals increases with source-to- ‘transducer distance because of the attenuation of the high frequency components. “4 In some cases, BEREAEHIRSEHH can be effective in soatng acoustic emision from mechanical noise. + FESQUEHEPRRERIERGH is usually more reliableControl of Noise Sources + When multichannel systems are used for source location, nolse signals from outside the zone of coverage can be controlled iisingisighall arrival times (At) at the various transducers in the array. = To measure arrival times, the signal density must be relatively low (less than 10 per second). = Athigher signal densities, the noise and acoustic emission signals may interact to produce erroneous At values. & Another technique for noise rejection is called the Master slave tennigue. + MaStePIRPSRSAUEERS are mounted near the area of interest and are surrounded by SlaWelOF guard. + transducers relatively remote from the master. Ifthe guard transducers detect.a signal before the master transducers, then the hit occurred outside the area of interest and is rejected by the instrument circuitry. Noise during Welding Effect of Grounding on Welding Noise The terminals of most welding machines are not grounded to facilitate reversing the polarity. Thus, a structure being welded is said to be floating with respect to ground and this serves to aggravate the acoustic noise problem. 1. One simple solution for this is to remove the acoustic emission instrument's ground from ‘the main voltage supply and to then connect it along with a blocking capacitor to the structure under test. This remedy brings the welding machine and the structure to the same noise potential and greatly reduces the detected noise. This procedure may not be legal in some locations because of electricity regulations in force. 2, Another solution is to use a battery powered acoustic emission system grounded to the structure. 3. An isolation transformer between the instrument and the power supply is also effective, “& Similarly, care should be taken to ensure that contact between different parts of the system (transducer, preamplifier, main module) and different parts of the structure do not result in, different ground potentials or ground loops. + Ground loops make acoustic emission test systems highly vulnerable to electromagnetic interference. ‘A ground loop occurs when the metal case of a single-ended transducer is in electrical contact with a metallic test object. This contact creates the possibility that a current can flow 26 [Pageina loop from the test structure to the transducer case, to a coaxial cable screen, to the instrument ground, to the earth itself and so back to the test object. "The conducting loop acts like a giant antenna. External electromagnetic radiation induces current in this antenna, The current produces an electric potential between the two ends of the cable screen in which itis flowing, This potential manifests as noise. Ground potential differences less than 1 mV can cause noise. Noise from Welding Procedures 4 Metal arc welding gives off spatter that strikes the weldment and may cause appreciable noise. + The noise may be enough to make acoustic emission detection impossible with the arc on. + Ifthe welding process produces slag on top of the bead, the slag should be removed to enhance acoustic emission detection. ‘= Slag fracturing is a true acoustic emission source having no effect on the quality of the weld, but it can obscure acoustic emission from the weld. + Welding requires heat, which causes thermal expansion, followed by contraction and warpage with cooling. These movements, especially over a gritty surface, cause random noise bursts until the ‘weldment reaches ambient temperature, Good welding practice is to wipe the weld piece, parts and work table clean before assemnblyg Ficure 2, Acoustic emission signals (2 60 dB) from fracturing * Considerable welding is done on hot rolled steel with of mil scale. the mill scale not removed. Such scale (iron oxide) has, a different coefficient of thermal expansion than the steel and being brittle tends to fracture with heating and cooling. ‘= _ Figure 2 shows the acoustic emission detected after heating the edge of a 25imim (1 In.) plate to 150 °C (300 °F). In this case, the acoustic emission instrument's gain was set at count rate peaked at 7500 ‘counts per second when heating was stopped. The count dropped exponentially from this high point to zero ina min ‘The best way to eliminate the noise was found tobe descaling before welding. However, when descaling is ‘Acoustic emision (10° counts per second) not possible, signal pattem recognition may help identify the valid acoustic emission signals in the presence of scale noise. Tame (60 intervals) 27 |Page4 When welding alloy and high carbon steels, a transformation to martensite is possible. = Martensitic transformation is a true and energetic source Ficure 3. Postweld acoustic emission signals from spot weld martensitic transformation. of acoustic emission and is caused by rapid cooling. = Figure 3 isa plot of acoustic emission from spot welding, of high carbon steel, = ‘The square wave in the upper left portion of the illustration indicates weld power duration. The associated acoustic emissian Is from nugget formation. = When the weld interval ended, the nugget cooled. rasicly aust Weld acoustc|| — acouse eetson 1) martensitic transformation and emission 2) the large envelope of acou emission during the immediate postweld interval ' : Fleune 4. Acoustic emlsion signals from precipitation Miscellaneous Noise Fardening of aluminum heated to 190°C (375 "F) + Metals such as aluminum give off considerable acoustic emission when in contact with acids during etching ox pickling, Fs 4 Some solution annealed aluminum alloys will emit acoustic es emission when heated to 190°C (375 *F) because of zs precipitation hardening (see Fig. 4). Bs Noise from Solid State Bonding Time (80 s intervals) + When clean metallic surfaces are brought into intimate contact, some degree of solid-state bonding is possible. = This effect increases with temperature and pressure. Such incidental bonding usually does not have much strength and may rupture at the first change of stress, creating a new free surface and a stress wave that is true but undesired acoustic emission. = Fretting is an example of this phenomenon,+ An underwelded spot weld called a sticker causes a similar condition, ‘Even a properly welded spot may be surrounded by solid state bonding and will result in acoustic emission when the structure is first loaded. = Such acoustic emission is termed secondary emission and may be an indicator of discontinuity growth, Electromagnetic Interference 4 Electromagnetic interference consists of noise signals coupled to the acoustic emission instrumentation by electrical conduction or radiation. + Sources of electromagnetic interference include fluorescent lamps, + electric motor circuits, ‘welding machines and ‘= turning electrical power on and off by relays with inductive loads. the highest amplitude and Large spikes of electrical noise are thus created and may cont frequencies of any signals detected + The extent to which electromagnetic interference is encountered is a function of the environment, shielding and the transducer design. + Hostile environments often require BSF SHIGA SHeeIMeaRCaIESISGUEER. + Optimum Staindakd shielding can be provided by ‘enclosing the transducers, preamplifiers and main amplifiers in high conductivity metal cases, + grounding the cases at a common point or ‘= using special leads screened with alternate layers of metal and copper. + Commercial acoustic emission instruments usually include features to reject some electrical noise con the supply line and noise radiated as electromagnetic interference. ‘+ Anisolation transformer on the power supply can also reduce electromagnetic interference. + Amajor problem can arise if the test structure has a ground system different from the acoustic emission instrumentation. + The electrical potential difference between the structure and the acoustic emission system can be substantial and may produce high frequency noise spikes much greater than the valid signals detected by the transducers. + No instrument can reject this magnitude of noise. ‘Even transducer insulated from the structure can pick up capacitively coupled noise, 2a Page= Aidifferetitial Hansdueet will provide considerable relief from such noise. AE Barkhausen Techniques o& Barkhausen Effect = The Barkhausen effect refers to the sudden change in size of ferromagnetic domains that occur during ‘magnetization or demagnetization. + During magnetization, favorably oriented domains develop at the cost of less favorably oriented domains, These two factors result in minute jumps of ‘magnetization when a ferromagnetic sample (e.g, iron) is. exposed to an increasing magnetic field (see figure). Magnetic Flux Density, B * Domain wall motion itselfis determined by many factors like microstructure, grain boundaries, inclusions, and stress and strain. Magnetizing Field Strength, H * By the same token, the Barkhausen effect is too a function of stress and strain. Barkhausen Noise * Barkhausen noise can be heard if a coll of wire is wrapped around the sample undergoing magnetization. * Abrupt movements in the magnetic field produce spiking current pulses in the coil. When amplified, the clicks can be compared to Rice Krispies or the crumbling a candy wrapper. + The amount of Barkhausen noise is influenced by material imperfections and dislocations and is likewise dependent on the mechanical properties of a material. + Currently, materials exposed to high energy particles (nuclear reactors) BF cyclic mechanical stresses (pipelines) are available for nondestructive evaluation UBIngBarKhaUsennOIse, one of the many branches of AE testing. Sammary and Conclusions Background Noise Background Noi relevant to the purpose of the test : Signals produced by causes other than acoustic emission and are not Types of noise: Hydraulic noise 30|P age* Cavitations, turbulent flows, boiling of fluids and leaks. Mechanical noise * Movement of mechanical parts in contact with the structure e.g, fretting of pressure vessels against their supports caused by elastic expansion under pressure, = Cyclicnoise # Repetitive noise such as that from reciprocating or rotating machinery. Electromagnetic noise. Barkhausen Noise Control of noise sources: + Rise Time Discriminator + There is significant difference between rise time of mechanical noise and acoustic emission. + Frequency Discriminator © The frequency of mechanical noise is usually lower than an acoustic emission burst from cracks. Floating Threshold or Smart Threshold + Varies with time as a function of noise output. Used to distinguish between the background noise and acoustic emission events under conditions of high, varying background noise. Master ~ Slave Technique ‘Master sensor are mounted near the area of interest and are surrounded by slave or guard sensors. The guard sensors eliminate noise that are generated from outside the area of interest. + Before performing acoustic emission tests, itis essential to check for background noise for spurious acoustic emission and for their effects on test results.Chapter 4 Acoustic Emission Signal Characterization Purpose of Signal Characterization & The purpose of source characterization is to use the transducer output waveform to identify the sources and to evaluate their significance. + There is thus a qualitative (source identification) and a quantitative (source Intensity or severity) aspect to characterization. Data Interpretation The signal waveform is affected by 1) characteristics of the source, 2) the path taken from the source to the transducer, 3) the transducer’s characteristics, and 4) the measuring system. + Information is extracted by techniques ranging from simple waveform parameter measurements to artifical intelligence (pattern recognition) approaches, Inaddition to characteristics of the waveforms themselves, there is information ave ble from the cumulative characteristics of the signals inclu = the amplitude distribution and the total number of signals detected aiid from rate statistics such as the rate of signal arrival or energy at the transducer. Characteristics of Discrete Acoustic Emission + Discrete or burst type acoustic emission can be described by relatively simple parameters. ‘The signal amplitude is much higher than the background and is of short duration (a few microseconds to a few milliseconds). Acoustic emission monitoring is usually carried out in the presence of continuous background noise. ‘+ Atthreshold detection level is set somewhat above the background level (Fig. 6) and serves as a reference for several of the simple waveform properties. fhreshold setting are determinedFicune 6. Threshold setting to aveid triggering by continuous background noise, Getative Sealey Using this model, the waveform parameters in Fig. 7 can be identified: 3) acaeaticeerasiai Froure 7. Definition of simple waveform parameters. 2) acoustic emission count (ringdown count) 3) acoustic emission hit energy, nay Sepa Ree J. 4) signal amplitude, oon a H ie .e neo 5) signal duration and 6) signal rise time. fcccs geben] * Cumulative representations of these parameters can be defined as a function of time or test parameter (such as pressure or temperature), including: 1) total hits, 2) amplitude distribution and 3) accumulated energy. = Once a specific parameteris selected, rate functions may be defined as a function of time or test parameter: hit rate, count rate or energy rate AE Signal Measurement Parameters. “& The five most widely used sighal measurement parameters are counts, amplitude, duration, rise time, and the measured area under the rectified signal envelope (MARSE). > Some tests make do with fewer parameters, and some tests use others, such as true energy, counts-to-peak, average frequency, or spectral moment. However, the five principal parameters have become well standardized and accepted through the market processes of the last 10 years. Starting the Hit = Acoustic emission hits are individual signal bursts produced by local material changes. = The first crossing of the threshold starts the hit. = The hit count is the number of times a signal crosses a preset threshold, ‘= High amplitude hits of long duration tend to have many threshold crossings, 33 Page* Threshold setting is used to adjust the sensitivity he Where: ¥V issignal Amplitude at the preamp output, in microvolts ¥ Vois Reference Voltage, in microvolts ¥ Gpis Preamplifier Gain, in dB = Table 1 gives an overview of the manner by which various material properties and testing conditions influence acoustic emission response amplitudes. The factors are indicative rather than absolute ‘TasLe 1. Factors that tend to increase or decrease the relative amplitude of acoustic emission response.? Increase High strength High strain rate Low temperature Anisotropy Heterogeneity Thick sections Brittle failure (cleavage) Material containing discontinuities Martensitic phase transformations Crack propagation Cast materials Large grain size Mechanically induced twinning 2) Risetime, R Decrease Low strength Low strain rate High temperature Isotropy Homogeneity Thin sections Ductile failure (shear) Material without discontinuities Diffusion controlled phase transformations Plastic deformation Wrought materials Small grain size Thermally induced twinning * Rise time is the time interval between feist threshold crossing and the signallpeak = This parameter is related to the propagation of the wave between the source of the acoustic emission event and the sensor. Therefore, rise time is used for qualification of signals and as a criterion for noise filter. 3) Duration, D Duration is the time difference between the first and last threshold crossings. a5 [Page= Duration can be used to identify different types of sources and to filter out noise, ‘Like counts (N) this parameter relies upon the magnitude of the signal and the acoustics of ‘the material 4) MARSE, E, + MARSE is Measured Area of the Rectified Signal Envelope (MARSE, which is a measure of ‘Signallstrength|or nergy) and It used to qualify AE signal and filter out noise. ‘= MARSE sometimes referred to as energy counts, is the measure of the area under the envelope of the rectified linear voltage time signal from the transducer. + MARSt is often observed to increase with increasing load in tests of damaged structures. + MARSE is also sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the signal butt does not use counts or user defined thresholds and operating frequencies. 5) Counts, N, * Counts refers to the number of pulses emitted by the measurement circuitry if the signal amplitude is greater than the threshold. * Depending on the magnitude of the AE event and the characteristics of the material, one hit ‘may produce one or many counts. + While this is a relatively simple parameter to collect, it usually needs to be combined with amplitude and/or duration measurements to provide quality information about the shape of a signal. = Count rate is the number of counts per time unit. = The number of threshold crossings per unit time depends on: 2) the transducer frequency, 2). the damping characteristics of the transducer, 3) the damping characteristics of the structure and 4)_ the threshold level. jon activity is by FINBUOWAEOURES, the number of times the transducer signal exceeds a counter threshold, = Acommonway to measure acoustic emi * Alarger hit requires more cycles to ringdown to the tr F level and will produce more counts than a smaller hit. This provides a measure of the intensity of the acoustic emission hit. * Correlations have been established between total counts, count rate and various fracture mechanics parameters (such as SESS intensity aOR R ) or Fatiguelerack N KaKis the stress intensity factor, \Nis the total number of counts and ‘nis constant with a value between 2 and 10, ‘+ Note that, the phrase “stress intensity factor’ refers to the stress in the neighborhood of acrack. dN da dc dc where a isthe crack size, isthe number of eyces and isthe total numberof counts The counts are a complex function of, the frequency response w of the transducer and the structure, the damping characteristics of the transducer, ‘the hit and the propagation medium B, signal amplitude, coupling efficiency, transducer sensitivity, amplifier gain and tthe threshold voltage V.. ‘+ Maintaining stability of these parameters throughout a test or from test to test is difficult but Yee & & essential for con: fency of interpretation. Nevertheless, counts are widely used as a practical measure of acoustic emission activity. Average Frequency + Determines the average frequency in kHz over the entire AE hit. AF= AE counts [eH] Duration Peak Definition Time and Hit Lockout Time & Peak Definition Time (PDT), 37|PageThe function of the Peak Definition Time (PDT) is to enable determination of the time of the true peak (risetime). votoge al Hit Lockout Time (HLT) + Allockout time which starts at the end of the hit during which the system does not respond ‘to threshold crossing. Used to inhibit the measurement of reflections and late arriving signals, Thresholds used in AE Threshold Level + The setting of an instrument that causes it to register only those changes in response greater or less than a specified magnitude, + Floating Threshold ‘Any threshold with amplitude established by a time average measure of the input signal. system Examination Threshold ‘+ The electronic instrument threshold which determines which data will be detected. + Vottage Threshold * Avoltage level on an electronic comparator such that signals with amplitudes larger than this, level will be recognized ‘The voltage threshold may be user adjustable, fixed, or automatic floating,Acoustic Emission Event Energy + Because acoustic emission activity is attributed to the rapid release of energy in a material, the energy content of the acoustic emission signal can be related to this energy release and can be measured in several ways. The true energy is directly proportional to the area under the acoustic emission waveform, + Energy is Integral of the rectified voltage signal over the duration of the AE hit. 4 The advantage of energy measurement over ringdown counting is that 1) Energy measurements can be directly related to important physical parameters (such as mechanical energy in the emission hit, strain rate or deformation mechanisms) without having to model the acoustic emission signal. 2), Energy measurements also improve the acoustic emission measurement when emission signal amplitudes are low, as in the case of continuous emission, & Squaring the signal for energy measurement produces a simple pulse from a burst signal and leads to a simplification of hit counting. ‘+ Inthe case of continuous emission, if the sighal is of constant amplitude and frequency, the energy rate is the root mean square voltage. The root mean square voltage measurement is simple and without electronic complications. However, root mean square meter response is. generally slow in comparison with the duration of most acoustic emission signals. Therefore, root ‘mean square measurements are indicative of average acoustic emission energy rather than the instantaneous energy measurement of the direct approach. “+ Regardless of the type of energy measurement used, none is an absolute energy quantity. They are relative quantities proportional to the true energy. Acoustic Emission Signal Amplitude “The peak signal amplitude can be related to the intensity of the source in the material producing an acoustic er + The measured amplitude of the acoustic emission waveform is affected by the same test parameters as the hit counts. + Peak amplitude measurements are generally performed using a log amplifier to provide accurate measurement of both large and small signals. 4 Amplitude distributions have been correlated with deformation mechanisms in specific materials. + For practical purposes, a simple equation can be used to relate signal amplitudes, hits andPfr DB Where ‘bis the amplitude distribution slope parameter, Js the resonant frequency (hertz) of the transducer, Nrepresents the cumulative counts, P represents the cumulative hits and Tis the decay time (second) of the hit Limitations of the Simple Waveform Parameters & Ingeneral, measurements of hits, counts and energy provide an indication of source intensity or severity. ‘This information is useful for determining whether the test object is accumulating damage and, in turn, for deciding whether the test should continue or ifthe structure in question should remain in service. & Inmany cases, the high sensitivity of acoustic emission testing also detects unwanted background noises that cannot be removed by signal conditioning. + For acoustic emission to be used effectively in these applications, itis necessary to identify the source of each signal as its received, ‘inspite of many attempts to establish fundamental relationships between the simple parameters, correlations between signal and source by analytical techniques remain elusive. This dilemma is a result of the complexity of modeling the source, the material, the structure, the transducer and the measurement system. 4 Advanced digital computing techniques provide an alternative, permitting successful characterization and source identification. Advanced Characterization Techniques The objective of source characterization in a specific application is to classify each signal as it arrives at the transducer. & Inacoustic emission testing, characterization of both noise and discontinuities is desirable for the rejection of noise and the classification of signals by discontinuity type. ‘= This characterization permits qualitative interpretations based on information contained in ‘the signal rather than by inference based on filtering, thresholding and interpretation of the 401? 2simple parameters, Italso extends the range of applications for acoustic emission testing to areas where noise interference previously made the method impractical or ineffective. = Thearea of artificial intelligence known as SESSHRISEBERIHBH can be used to relate signal characteristics to acoustic emission sources. There are several classification techniques that have been used in nondestructive testing, Knowledge Representation Technique 4 Advanced techniques are needed to identify common discriminatory features. This can be achieved with knowledge representation (ISIESICGS@AVEIERFAING), where information in the acoustic emission pulse is represented in the most complete and effective way, & Statistical techniques are used to extract data from a group of signals originating from the same source. It would be virtually impossible to obtain the same information from one signal alone. = Battefnirecoghition techniqUes using statistical features are particularly suitable for analyzing nonlinear, time varying acoustic emission signals. “& The first step in knowledge representation is to extract features from the signal waveform that fully represent the information contained in the signal. In addition to general time domain pulse properties and shape factors, the acoustic emission signal time series is transformed into other domains. = Time domain pulse information is combined with partial power distribution in different frequency bands together with frequency shifts of the cumulative power spectrum, feature Analysis and Selection + The transformations carried out to generate new features for source characterization do not produce new information. + They represent the existing waveform information in new ways that facilitate source characterization. = Infact, only a few well-chosen features among the available domains are normally required for characterization. + Selection of the best combination of features often requires special signal classi ier development tools to search among the features and select an optimal set. = Acoustic emission is sensitive not only to the source but also to transducer, material and structural factors, so that separate signal classifiers must be developed for each application. ‘A combination of computer techniques and expert insight is required to select the best feature set. a1 [PageIna manual approach, the analyst is usually guided by experience when searching for the optimal feature set for a particular application. -& When several classes of signal are involved, ce velopment systems use statistical techniques such as interclass and intraclass distances and a biserial correlation estimate of each individual feature 235 a measure of its discriminating index among the signal classes of interest, = Separability arises from differences between class mean feature values. Pattern Recognition Training and Testing Generally, a pattern recognition system goes through a learning or training stage, in which a set of decision rules is developed. The system is supplied with a set of representative signals from each source to be classified. 4 The classifier is said to be trained when it can use the decision rules to Identify an input signal. & To test the performance of the classifier, sample signals not used during the training process are presented to the system, which will identify the class to which each unknown signal belongs. ‘Successful identification of input signals is a good indication of a properly trained system. Signal Classification & The data used to train a classifier correspond to a group Ficune 8. Feature space for two features Used for'a system with three source classes: of points in feature space. If two features are used fora (a) linearly separable; (b) nonlinearly. separable; (¢) piecewise linear separation of system with three source classes, then the feature two regions space might appear as shown in Fig. 8. @ . + The classification mechanism must distinguish among, the classes. One simple way to distinguish the classes is to place planes between the classes (hyperplanes ina multidimensional space with many features). The >) classifier isa linear combination of feature elements thatdefines a hyperplane to separate one class of signals ftom another in the feature space. This is called -& When the classes are distributed in a more complex 9 ile: arrangement, more sophisticated classifiers are = / required, An example would be the K nearest neighbor Cy 7 classifier that considers every member in the training set as a representation point. It determines the distance a2 |Page‘of an unknown signal from every pattern in the training set and it thus finds the K nearest patterns to the unknown signal. The unknown is then assigned to the class in which the majority of the K (RESPESEREIHBSTSIBRIOES. n other cases, the pattern recognition process is modeled statistically and statistical discriminant functions are derived. Signal Treatment and Classification System + A classification system is shown in Fig, 9. Acoustic emission source characterization and recognition begins with signal treatment. The acoustic emission signals from different sources are first fed into a treatment system that computes the necessary waveform features of each signal, The identity of the signal is tagged to each of the feature vectors. These vectors are then divided into ‘wo data sets, one foftaining Mie elassifier and the other fGHestits performance. FIGURED) A clasiication system for treatment of acoustic emvsion signals — - 1 seite Training | Feature 1 Teoh cam fe) Sige |b ET ani a cs wang | jomation | sample | 1 | Generally, a normally distributed random variable is used for assigning the signal to the two data sets and this ensures that each set has the same a priori probability. Once the classifier is trained, it is tested by supplying a signal feature vector with a known identity and then comparing the known information to the classification output. The training information and the trained Classifier setup can be stored in a decision library that can be used to characterize and classify the acoustic emission sources. 4 Table 3 shows the output of a classifier development system trained to classify acoustic emission from plastic deformation, stress corrosion, fracture and universal testing machine noise in a Unified Numbering System A97075, temper 651, wrought aluminum alloy. This means of developing a characterization and classification system shows clearly where the source of error the error lies primarily in identifying the fracture signals. In this case, 431? 2Taste 3. Performance of a linear discriminant classifier. Recagnition __Elassification Decisions Rate Source Size lass (percent) Performance on training Stress corrosion 19 1 18 1 ° 95 Plastic deformation 30 2 ° 1 ° 97 Fracture 27 3 1 25 ° 93 ‘Overall recognition rate = — = = = 98 Performance on testing Stress corrosion 19 1 “4 4 1 74 Plastic deformation 32 2 ° 0 ° 100 Machine noise 16 4 ° 0 16 100 ‘Overall recognition rate = = — — = 7 4 Guidelines for Source & Characterization The simple waveform parameters and the advanced characterization techniques comprise the tools available for acoustic emission source characterization. = Simple techniques are required to measure the level of acoustic emission activity. = More advanced techniques are generally required to identify the nature of the emission source, & Of the simple parameters, HRGUSWAEBUHE are sensitive to threshold and gain settings and, for reproducibility from test to test, hitimeasurements are less sensitive to instrument settings. + Several powerful classifiers are available in development tools. However, the three techniques outlined above provide an indication of the decisions that have to be made when selecting an advanced characterization technique. Factors that must be considered include the following:(1) available computing power, (2) the sample size available for training, (3) the performance required of the classifier system and (4) the type of data available for training, Itis often difficult to obtain a large enough number of data samples from a particular source. & ‘THelinesP discriminant fuNEHON is the simplest technique and involves the least computation time. Itis therefore readily implemented and rapidly computed. However, the classes of signals must be linearly separable HH RSS ighGSS al isIAESI BSVSENEIESSIIEH are more powerfull and address more difficult problems. + ‘TREIRESPESENEIgABOr classifier uses every individual sample in the training set to determine the identity of the unknown signal and each sample bears equal weight in the process of classification, When the training set from a particular source may contain sample signals from other sources, the incorrect sample in the training set carries as much weight as a good sample. aap aComparison of Classifier Techniques + By comparison, fie empirical Bayesian classifier (using statistical information based on the ‘raining set) will produce rather stable recognition performance, so long as the numbers of impure data samples do not dominate the training set. + The K nearest neighbor and the linear discriminant function classifiers are nonparametric classifiers and the selection of features in these two techniques depends on the sample size. & Compared to K nearest neighbor and the linear discriminant function classifiers, + {SER DRAUERETREEEEEERRERRIRR is more sensitive wm the sample size because the number of samples affects the estimates of the probability distribution, * The K nearest neighbor and the linear discriminant function classifies do not generally require as large a data set so long as itis representative. 45 [PageChapter 5 Acoustic Emission Transducers and Their Calibr: Definition + Acoustic emission transducers are used on a test object's surface to detect dynamic motion resulting from acoustic emission hits and to convert the detected motion into a voltage-versus- time signal ‘This voltage-versus-time signal is used for all subsequent steps in the acoustic emission method, + The electrical signal is strongly influenced by characteristics of the transducer. Because the test results obtained from signal processing depend so strongly on the electrical signal, the transducer’s characteristics are important to the success and repeatability of acoustic emission testing, Piezoelectric Transducers + Acoustic emission testing is nearly always performed with transducers that use pieZOeleetric IRERIBSEtronscluction, The elements usualy a special €eFaie SUehaslead nveonate Etats acoustically coupled to the surface of the test item so that the dynamic surface motion propagates into the piezoelectric element, The dynamic strain in the element produces a voltage- vversus-time signal as the transducer output, Because virtually all acoustic emission testing is performed with a piezoelectric transducer, the term acoustic emission transducer is here taken to rmcon a sensor with eRe anaucOn EERE Direction of Sensitivity to Motion + Surface motion of a point on a test object may be the result of acoustic emission, Such motion contains @ component normal to the surface and two orthogonal components tangential to the surface. Acoustic emission transducers can be designed to respond principally to any component of motion but virtually all commercial acoustic emission transducers are designed §S)ReSpOnAtO RHE ‘Compote ioral tothe surface ofthe\strcture. Because waves traveling at the longitudinal, shear and rayleigh wave speeds ll typically have a component of motion normal to the surface, acoustic emission transducers can often detect the various wave arrivals. 46] PageFrequency Range / Frequency Response + The majority of acoustic emission testing is based on the processing of signals with frequency content in the range from 30 kHz to about 1 MHz. + In special applications, detection of acoustic emission at frequencies below 20 kHz or near audio frequencies can improve testing and conventional microphones or accelerometers are sometimes used. “4 Attenuation of the wave motion increases rapidly with frequency and, for materials with higher attenuation (such as fiber reinforced plastic composites), itis\necessary tolsenise lower frequencies to detect acoustic emission hits. + Athigher frequencies, the background noise is lower; for materials with low attenuation, ‘acoustic emission hits tend to be easier to detect at higher frequencies. “ Acoustic emission transducers can be designed to sense a portion of the whole frequency range of interest by choosing the appropriate dimensions of the piézoeléetric element. This, along with its high sensitivity, accounts for the popularity of this transduction mechanism. + In fact, by proper design of the piezoelectric transducer, motion in the frequency range from 30, Kitz to 1 MHz (and more) can be transduced by a single transducer. = This special type of transducer has applieations 1) in laboratory experiments, 2) in acoustic emission transducer calibration and 3) in any tests where the actual displacement is to be measured with precision and accuracy. Transducer Design “4 Figure 10s a schematic diagram of atypical FicuRt 10. Schematic diagram of atypical acoustic emission acoustic emission transducer mounted on atest _transducer mounted on a test object. (Case Spex Pezoceramic element Becta kad object. The transducer is attached to the surface of, the test object and a thin intervening layer of couptant i usually used, SSUBISRE EES the transmission of acoustic waves from the test Du" Panel ‘BSE RE WSREGUEEL. The transducer may also be attached with an adhesive bond designed to act as an acoustic couplant. ear plate (eas lerAn acoustic emission transducer normally consists of several parts. "The detivelelementis a piezoelectric ceramic with electrodes on each face. + One electrode is connected to electrical ground and the other is connected to a signal lead. + Awear plate protects the active element. Behind the active element is usually 8/Baeking Material, often made by curing epoxy containing high density tungsten particles. ‘© The backing is usually designed so that acoustic waves easily propagate into it with little reflection back to the active element. ‘Inthe backing, much of the wave's energy Is attenuated by scattering and absorption. ‘The backing also serves to load the active element so that iti less Fesonatit or more broad band (note that in some applications, a resonant transducer is desirable}. «Less resonance helps the transducer respond more evenly over a somewhat wider range of frequencies. The typical acoustic emission transducer also has a case with a connector for signal cable attachment. ‘+ The case provides an integrated mechanical package for the transducer components and may also serve as a shield to minimize electromagnetic interference. 4 There are many variations of this typical transducer design, Including 1) designs for high temperature applications, 2), transducers with built-in preamplifiers or li drive transformers, 3). transducers with more than one active element and 4) transducers with active elements whose geometry or polarization is specifically shaped. “There are two principal characteristic dimensions associated with the typical acoustic emission ‘transducer: the piezoelectric element thickness and the element diameter. Element Thickness and Sensitivity Control Element thickness controls the frequencies (1"= C /2 T) at which the acoustic emission transducer has the Righ@SESERSIRWY, that is, the highest electrical output fora given input surface velocity. +The halfwave resonant frequencies ofthe transducer define the approximate frequencies Where the transducer will have maximum output. These are the frequencies for which t= 0.52, 1.5A, 2.5, and so on, where tis time (second) and Ais the wavelength (meter) of the wave in the element. 4B)? 2* The wavelength can be defined as the sound speed cin the piezoelectric element divided by the acoustic frequency + Example, In AE, if the velocity 300 m/sec and frequency is 150KHZ, what is wavelength? 2 (mm)= (V (kmn/sec))/ (F (MHZ)) = (0.3 km/sec)/ (0.15 MHZ) =20mm. + Poisson coupling in the element can lead to radial resonances at other frequencies and can also lead to some sensitivity to in-plane motion, “ For common piezoelectric materials and acoustic emission test frequencies, active elements are typically several millimeters (0.1 or 0.2 in.) thick = SSRs SSS BOIS TAIRHIER woud normally have a first half-wave resonance of about 0.5 MHz. + Acoustic emission transducers are usually made with backing and with active elements having relatively high internal damping. Because of this design, the variation in sensitivity from resonant. to antiresonant (zero output) frequencies is somewhat smoothed out, providing some sensitivity over a significant frequency range. Active Element Diameter The other principal characteristic of an acoustic emission transducer is the active element diameter. Transducers have been designed with element diameters as small as 1mm (0.04 in.) Larger diameters are more common. + The element diameter defines the area over which the transducer averages surface motion, = For waves resulting in uniform motion under the transducer (as is the case for a longitudinal wave propagating in a direction perpendicular to the surface), the diameter of the transducer element has litle or no effect. = However, for waves traveling along the surface, the element diameter StPOngly IniflUehEes ‘the transducer sensitivity as a function of wave frequency. + Aperture Effect = If the displaced surface of the test objectiis a spat When one or more full wavelengths (in the object item) will match the diameter of the ‘transducer element. When this occurs, the transducer averages the positive and negative ine wave, then there are occasions 49 | Page‘motions to give zero output. This so-called @pertureleffeet has been carefully measured and theoretically modeled. + For transducers larger than the wavelengths of interest in the test object, the sensitivity will vary with the properties of the test material, depending strongly on frequency and on the direction of wave propagation. Transducer sensitivity is also influenced somewhat by the nonplanar nature of the wave front. = Because of these complications, itis recommended that the transducer diameter be as small as other constraints allow. For example, when testing steel, a3 mm (0.12 in.) diameter transducer works reasonably well below 0.5 MHz. Special Acoustic Emission Transducers and Transducer Mounts “+ Acoustic emission transducers are designed for various frequency ranges and are commercially available in a range of sizes with various piezoelectric materials. + In addition, transducers or transducer mounts are available for special classes of applications as described below. + Severe Environments. Some acoustic emission transducers are designed for high temperatures and other harsh environments. ‘© Transducers are available in which all components are chosen and assembled for temperatures up to 550 °C (1020 *F), ‘Transducers for use in harsh environments are fully encapsulated and are available with integral cable. ‘& Integral Preamplifiers. Some transducer models combine the transducer and preamplifier functions into one package. = These may be miniaturized to the same size as conventional transducers. ‘= Transducers with integral preamplifiers have the following advantages: 1) reduced (combined) cost, 2) faster test setup, 3) compatibility with permanent installation for some industrial applications and 4) lower noise levels (less sensitivity to electromagnetic interference). + Differential Transducers. + Differential transducers may be constructed with two or more active elements (or special electrode design) and a positive signal lead, a negative signal lead and a ground lead. so|PageThe active elements are connected in parallel so that the transducer Is less sensitive to electromagnetic interference. Generally, differential transducers are also relatively insensitive to longitudinal waves arriving at normal incidence to the transducer face. The sensitivity of some models may heavily depend on the direction of propagation in the plane of the surface, Differential transducers are designed for use with differential preamplifiers rather than the single-ended preamplifiers normally used with conventional transducers. Acoustic Waveguides, ‘An acoustic waveguide is a special transducer mount that provides a thermal and mechanical distance between the transducer and the test object. ‘A waveguide is typically a metal rod with one end designed for acoustic coupling with the test object. The other end is constructed to accommodate the mounting of an acoustic. emission transducer. Waveguides are used for applications in which an acoustic emission transducer cannot be in direct contact with the test object Beealise Of temperature ‘A waveguide be used in place of an adhesive for coupling an AE transducer to a text object, When: ‘+ access to the surface of the test object is limited ‘+ surface temperatures start to reduce the coupling properties and bond strength of the adhesive Regular piezoelectric sensor Preamplifier 60 dB Integral piezoelectric sensor 51] PageTransducer (Sensor) Types ‘ Basic transduction mechanisms can be used to achieve a transducer’s functions: = the detection of surface motion and = the subsequent generation of an electrical signal. Resonant transducers These sensors have one or more preferred frequencies of oscillation governed by crystal size and shape. & Enables to make select a suitable trade-off between the desired detection range and the noise environment. + Higher amplitude output in response to broadband excitation & Low fidelity: Output is not similar to the motion of the original wave. 4 Most practical AE testing employs resonant type sensors that are more sensitive and less costly than wideband sensors. = In practice, the vast majority of AE testing is done with sensors that are resonant at about 150 kez, ‘Sensor response is determined by the: Piezoelectric crystal Q_ The way the element is backed and mounted inside the senior housing Coupling and the mounting of the sensor. 4 % Wide Band transducers 4 Wideband sensors are typically used in research applications or other applications where a high- fidelity AE response is required. + Frequency response relatively smooth and flat, High fidelity: Good reproduction of original wave motion. 52|Page+ In research applications, wideband AE sensors are useful where frequency analysis of the AE signal is required. Helps determine the predominant frequency band of 0 AE sources for noise discrimination and selection of a n suitable lower cost, general purpose AE sensor. “& Inhigh fidelity applications, various AE wave modes ‘can be detected using wideband sensors, providing more information about the AE source. 4B re 1V/ubar 8 0 500 1000 1500 AEDOASS, kHz) Capacitive Transducers ‘ Capacitance is a property that exists between any two conductive surfaces within some reasonable proximity. Changes in the distance between the surfaces changes the capacitance. Itis this change of capacitance that capacitive sensors use to indicate changes in position of a target. Capacitive sensors are basically position measuring devices. + Capacitive transducers have been successfully used as acoustic emission transducers for special laboratory tests, Such transducers can have good fidelity and Flat frequency response, so that the electrical signal very closely follows the actual dynamic surface displacement. However, the typical minimum displacement measured by a capacitive transducer is on the order of 10° m (4x10 ). Such sensitivity is not enough for actual acoustic emission testing. Laser Optical Interferometer Transducers + Laser interferometers have also been used as acoustic emission transducers for laboratory experiments. However, if this technique is used with a reasonable, the technique lacks sufficient sensitivity for acoustic emission testing, + In recent years the laser based ultrasonic (LBU) method has been developed to detect flaws in materials, which consists of two techniques: The generation of ultrasonic waves by laser. ‘= The detection of surface motion by laser interferometer. + Advantages: = Non-contact measurement is practicable, Can be accurately calibrated, + Measurements are possible in hostile environments. 53 [Page+ Disadvantag ‘Most laser interferometers require a reflective surface for sufficient sensitivity. = Handling or setting-up a laser interferometer equipment is not very easy. Laser based urezene i ier HY ‘ser ) ancien ES ett ro (Ciara ection st ccc pe ——— 5 (((((( friar Fig. :Methods of AE Interferometer. Fig. : Interferometer used for AE and displacement measuring. Differential Acoustic Emission Transducers “& Differential sensors are identical to general purpose sensors in physical, electrical and response characteristics, except that §WO)Sighal leads (instead of one as for general purpose sensors) are brought out to attach to a differential pre-amplifie. & By using a differential preamplifier, = common mode noise is eliminated, ‘= Resulting in a lower noise output from the preamplifier, and + Ahigher electrical noise rejection in difficult and noisy environments. -& Noise improvements in the range of 34B GP RIgHEF can be expected using a differential sensor and preamplifier over a single ended general-purpose sensor. “& Differential sensors are used in environments where very low-level AE signals need to be processed and is also very applicable in high noise environments. “& Differential sensors are slightly higher in price than their general-purpose sensor counterparts. Couplants and Bonds 4 Foran acbtic emission rans vce, I. + provide a medium through which elastic stress waves can excite an AE sensor. = facilitate the transmission of acoustic waves into a typical sensor. 54] Page+ Without a couplant or a very large transducer hold-cown force, only a few random spots of the ‘material-to transducer interface will be in good contact and little energy will arrive at the transducer, 4 For sensing normal motion, WiFtUally any fluid) (Oil) Water) BlyeeHA) will act as a good couplant and the transducer output can often be thirty times higher than without couplant. + Note though that in some applications there are stringent chemical compatiblity requirements between the couplant and the test object, + Atransducer hold-down force of several newtons is normally used to ensure good contact and to minimize couplant thickness. 4 For sensing tangential motion, a suitable couplant is more difficult to find because most liquids ill not transmit shear forces, Some high viscosity liquids such as certain epoxy resins are reasonably efficient for sensing ‘tangential motion. % An adhesive bond between the transducer and test surface serves to mechanically fix the transducer as well as to provide coupling. + Most bonds efficiently transmit both normal and tangential motion. = Depending on the application, bonds are sometimes inappropriate. If for example the test surface deforms significantly because of test loads or if there is differential thermal expansion between the surface, bond or transducer, then the bond or the transducer may break and the coupling is lost. + Astandard has been written for transducer mounting. + The mounting has a significant effect on the performance of the sensor (sensitivity and frequency band). Optimum and reproducible detection of AE requires both appropriate sensor-mounting methods and procedures (see ASTM £-650) = Mounting Methods: Compression (Use of mecha force, couplantis strongly advised) ‘© Bonding (direct attachment with adhesive that also acts as the couplant). Virtually any fluid will act as a good couplant. Fluid will not transmit shear waves. Its necessary for the couplant to have chemical compat , to fully wet the surface but not to corrode it, = Mounting Requirements ‘Sensor Selection (size, sensitivity, frequency response environmental and material compatibility)‘* Structure Preparation (mechanical preparation and cleaning) + Couplant or Bonding Agent Selection to suite with the environment as well as acoustical conductivity. © General mounting techniques (amount, selection of couplant and mounting fixture) ‘+ After mounting verification of sensor sensitivity should be verified (standard requirement) Installation of Sensors on Structures “Type of installation and choice of couplant material is defined by a specific of application. = Girtially/any fluid (oil) Water) glycerin) will act as a good couplant = Glue (superglue type) is commonly used for piping inspections. = Magnets usually used to hold sensors on metal pressure vessels. + Bands used for mechanical attachment of sensors in Yong term applications. + Waveguides (welded or mechanically attached) used in high temperature applications. + Rolling sensors are used for inspection rotating structures. Spec Sensor attached with magnet Pb blanket in nuclear appiations Waveguide Rolling sensor produces by PAC Temperature Effects on Acoustic Emission Transducers & There can be a strong relation between temperature and the piezoelectric characteristics of the active element in an acoustic emission transducer. Some of these effects are important to acoustic emission transducers in testing at elevated or changing temperatures. Effect of Curie Temperature & Typically, there is a temperature for piezoelectric ceramics at which the properties of the ceramic change permanently and the ceramic element no longer exhibits piezoelectricity, This 56[Page‘temperature is known as the GUA@ temperature and is the point at which a material moves from ferroelectric to paraelectric phase. Piezoelectric ceramic elements have been used Secesstully Within’ 50°C (122°) of thelr ‘cutie temperature, The curie temperature of lead zirconate titanate ceramics is 300 to 400 °C (572 to 752 °F) depending on the type of lead zirconate titanate. = Other piezoelectric materials have lower curie temperatures (barium titanate at 120 °C [258 “F]) and higher (lithium niobate at 1210 °C [2210 “F]). “& Testing limitations are therefore encountered in environments where static elevated temperatures cause the loss of plezoelectricity in the transducer’s active elements. * Inaaddition, failure may occur in other transducer components not designed for high ‘temperature applications. Effect of Fluctuating Temperature & Special problems are encountered when transducers are placed in environments with widely changing temperatures. Piezoelectric ceramic active elements have small domaii is in one direction. in which the electrical polarization ‘Temperature changes can cause some of these domains to flip, resulting in a spurious electrical signal that is not easily distinguished from the signal produced by an acoustic. emission hitin the test object. + Ina lead zirconate titanate element, 2 temperature change of 100 °C (242 °F) can cause an appreciable number of these domain flips. + Ceramic elements should be allowed to reach thermal equilibrium before data are taken at differing temperatures. = If acoustic emission testing must be done during large temperature changes, then Sinigle= crystal piezoelectric materials such as quartz are recommended. + RRBUREWAVEGUAE may also be used to buffer the transducer from large temperature changes.Transducer Calibri Terminology of Transducer Calibration + Calibration. + The calibration of a transducer is the measurement of its voltage output into an established electrical load for a given mechanical input. * Calibration results may be expressed either as a frequency response or as an impulse response. & Test Block. = A transducer is attached to the surface of §/80lid object either for measuring hits in the object or for calibration of the transducer. In this discussion, that solid objectis called the test block. + Displacement. * Displacement is the dynamic particle motion of a point in or on the test block. + Displacement is a function of time and three position variables. Here, the word velocity or acceleration could replace displacement. = Normal displacements displacement perpendicular to the face of a transducer or displacement of the surface of a test block perpendicular to that surface, ‘+ Tangential displacement is displacement in any direction perpendicular to the direction of normal displacement. Principles of Transducer Calibration “& IF acoustic emission results are to be quantitative, then itis necessary to have a means for ‘measuring the performance of a transducer. Techniques of doing this have been the subject of much discussion. Because there are many types of transducers in use and because they may be called on to detect waves of different kinds in different materials, its not possible to have a universal calibration procedure, & Atransducer calibration, appropriately applied to the signal recorded from a transducer, should provide a record of the displacement of a point on the surface of the object being examined by ‘the transducer. 4 There are several fundamental problems encountered during calibration, as listed below. 1) The displacement of a point on the surface of a test blockiis a three-dimensional vector but ‘the output of the transducer is a scalar. 2) Displacementis altered by the presence of the transducer. SB [Page3). The face of the transducer covers an area on the surface of the test block and displacement isa function not only of time but of the position within this area. Because of these problems, transducer calibration is not feasible without making some simplifying assumptions. Various calibration approaches have been taken and they all make implicit, assumptions. + Calibration Assumptions. ‘= Regarding the vectoral nature of displacement (problem 1), itis usually assumed that the transducer is sensitive only to normal displacement. Naturally, errors will be introduced if the transducer is sensitive to tangential displacement. Calibrations for other directions of sensitivity are useful but are not routine. ‘The loading effect that the transducer has on the surface motion of a test block (problem 2) is significant but is not subject to any simple analysis. ‘© Ingeneral, the test block may be considered as having a mechanical impedance (source impedance) at the location of the transducer. The transducer also has a mechanical impedance at its face (load impedance).Interaction between the source and load impedances determines the displacement of the transducer face but both of these impedances are likely to be complex functions of frequency and no technique exists for measuring them. «For calibration purposes, the usual solution to this problem is to define the input to the transducer as the unloaded (free) displacement of the test block with no transducer attached. The calibration is then practical because its the displacement of the test block (and not the interactive effects) that are of interest. The function of the calibration ‘scheme is to determine what the displacement of the surface of the test block would be in the absence of the transducer. It must be noted, however, that when a transducer is attached to different test blocks having different mechanical impedances, it will have different calibrations. Calibrations are transferable only when the test block impedances are the same, "For several calibration procedures, the test block approximates @/Semuntinite halfspacelor ‘HGE). Steel was chosen because it was expected that acoustic emission transducers would be used more on steel than on any other material. The large size of the test block makes the ‘mechanical impedance at its surface a property of the material only, and not of its dimensions wit in the usual acoustic emission working frequency range. itis demonstrated below that test blocks made of different materials produce significantly different calibrations of the same transducer. 59 PageExperiments have been done to determine how much effect the material of the test block has on calibration results. © Acommercial ultrasonic transducer and a conical transducer were calibrated on a steel block and then subjected to surface pulse waveforms in aluminum, glass and methyl methacrylate plastic, The surface pulse waveforms were generated by a pencil break ‘apparatus having the provision for measuring the force. © For each material, the surface pulse waveform was calculated at the transducer location ‘and modified by deconvolution to remove the source characteristics. + Because the blocks were smaller than optimal, these data are approximate, The order of magnitude of the effect is clear and in the case of the conical transducer there is reasonable agreement between the theory and the experiment. © The finite size of the transducer’s face (problem 3) is often ignored. This is equivalent to 1) assuming that the diameter of the face is small compated to all wavelengths of, interest in the test block or 2) assuming that all m: in phase over the face. + The latter assumption is only true in the case of plane waves impinging on the transducer from a direction perpendicular to its face. ‘+ Ingeneral, a transducer responds to a weighted average of the displacement over its face, ‘+ This averaging or aperture effect may be considered a property of the transducer and grouped with all transducer properties in calibration. ‘+ However, it must be observed that, as a consequence, the aperture effect and therefore the calibration will differ depending on the type and speed of the wave motion in the test block. Aperture Effect and Calibration. + The aperture effect for an acoustic emission transducer may be described as follows. ‘© Neglecting interactive effects between the test block and the transducer, the response of the transducer may be written as follows: ‘ica u(t) = = SJue t) r(x,y) dyad ¥ _r(uy)is the local sensitivity of the transducer face, ¥_Sisthe region (square meter) of the surface contacted by the transducer, ¥ Ais the area (square meter) of region S and Y _ulyy-t) is the displacement (meter) of the surface. 60 PageV The xy plane is the surface of the test block, Asa special case, assume a straight line wave front incident on a circular transducer having radius a (meter) and uniform sensitivity r(x) = 1, over its face, “4 Surface Calibration. ‘+ Most calibration systems use a configuration in which the transducer under test and the source are both located on the same plane surface of the test block. The result is known as ‘Stirfacelealibration oF rayleighicalibration, so called because most of the propagating energy at the transducer is traveling at the rayleigh speed. ‘+ In this case, the transducer’s calibration is strongly influenced by the aperture effect. 4 Through-Pulse Calibration. = TRFGUBHEPUISE!ClIBFAHION is calibration systems use a configuration in which the transducer under test and the source are coaxially located on opposite parallel faces of the test block. = All wave motion is in phase across the face of the transducer (except fora negligible curvature of the wave fronts at the transducer) and the calbration Is essentally free of SSDS effect. The result i a through: pulse calibration or wave’ calibration Note that because of the axial symmetry of the through-pulse calibration, only normal displacement exists at the location of the transducer under test. Primary Calibration “Step Function Force Calibration” ASTM Standard: £1106 ‘+ The basis for the step function force calibration is that known, well characterized displacements can be generated on a plane surface ofa test block. 4 A step function force applied to a point on one surface of the test block initiates an elastic disturbance that travels through the block. ‘The transducer under testis located either on the same surface (surface calibration) or on the opposite surface at the epicenter of the source (through-pulse calibration). = Given the step function source, the free displacement of the test block at the location of the ‘transducer can be calculated by elasticity theory in both cases. ‘The calculated block displacement function is the transfer function (mechanical transfer admittance, when expressed in the frequency domain) or the Green's function for the block. ‘The free displacement of the test block surface can also be measured using a capacitive ‘transducer with a known absolute sensitivity. ‘+ tis essential to the calibration that the calculated displacement id capacitive transducer ‘measurement agree. 61 Pace+ The calibration facility at the National Institute of, Flcune 16. Schematic diagram of the surface pulse Standards and Technology has used a cylindrical steel separ pee test block 0.9 m (36 in.) in diameter by 0.43 m (17 in.) agen = oF long with optically polished end faces. The step \ ——_ function force is made by Bik aS pl? memes | ee \ A = In the case of surface calibration, free normal a iow] coun asian neac a ae capacitive sensor at a location symmetrical to tang siete ves that of the transducer under test with respect to the source location. The displacement is redundantly determined by elasticity theory from a measurement of the force at which the capillary broke. Source and receiver are 0.1m (4 in.) apart. + For through-pulse calibration, the free normal displacement is determined only by the elasticity theory calculation. = Both calibrations are absolute: the results are in output volts per meter of displacement of ‘the (free) block surface. > Following the initiation of the step function force, an interval of time exists during which the displacement at the location of the transducer under test is as predicted by the elastic theory for the semiinfinite solid (in the case of the surface calibration) 6F for the infinite plate (in the case of the through-pulse calibration). + For most transducers, the 100 ps window is long enough to capture most ofthe information in the output transient waveform in the frequency range of 100 kHz to 1 MHz. = The transient time waveform from the transducer and that from the capacitive transducer are captured by transient recorders and the information is subsequently processed to produce either a frequency response or an impulse response for the transducer under test. = The frequency response contains both the magnitude and the phase information. + Its generally assumed that a transducer has only normal sensitivity because of its axial symmetry {an assumption that may not always be justified) * Galibration by the surface pulse technique for a transducer having significant sensitivity to ‘tangential displacement will be in error because the surface pulse from the step force contains a tangential component approximately as large as the normal component.* Itcould, however, be calibrated for the normal component of sensitivity by the through-pulse technique because no tangential displacement exists at the location of the transducer under test in the through-pulse configuration + It could also be calibrated (assuming no aperture effect exists) by averaging two surface calibrations with the transducer rotated 3.14 rad (180 deg) axially between calibrations, = By combining through-pulse and surface calibration results judiciously, more information can be gained about the magnitudes of all three components of sensitivity, Reciprocity Calibration & Reciprocity applies to a category of passive electromecha important characteristics: 1) they are purely electrostatic or purely electromagnetic in nature and 2) they are reversible (can be used as either a source or a receiver of mechanical energy). = This category includes all known commercial acoustic emission transducers Without preamplifiers. + For such a transducer, reciprocity relates its source response and its receiver response in a spe way. + Iftwo exactly identical transducers are used, one as a source and one as a receiver, both coupled to a common medium, and if the transfer function or Green’s function of the ‘medium from the source location to the receiver location is known, then from purely electrical ‘measurements of driving current in the source and output voltage at the receiver, the response functions of the transducers can be determined absolutely. + With nonidentical transducers, three such measurements (using each of the three possible pairs of transducers) provides enough information to determine all of the response functions of the transducers absolutely. ‘+ The primaty advantage of the reciprocity calibration technique is that it avoids the necessity of ‘measuring or producing a known mechanical displacement or force. + Allof the basic measurements made during the calibration are electrical + tis important to note, however, that the mechanical transfer function or Green's function, for the transmission of signals from the source location to the receiver location must be known. his function is equivalent to the reciprocity parameter and is the frequency domain representation of the elasticity theory solution mentioned in the discussion on the step function force calibration. 63] Page