LEVEL-II Training Course Prepared by Dr. Samir Saad General Manager Cutech Arabia LLCa About the Author Dr. Samir Saad General Manags Experience: 17 Years (Oil and Gas) Skills & Expertise + Welding and Welding Inspection Non-Destructive Testing Material Technology In Service & On-stream Inspection Corrosion and Management Asset Integrity Management DrSamir Saad Education Certification MSS. and Ph.D. degrees in Welding Engineering Technology. Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering. Professional Certification ‘ASME Authorized Inspector (Al), Bois and Pressure Vessel [ASNT NOT LEVEL Win 11 methods, ASNT (0: 190002, 41. Visual and Optical Teng (VT). "7. Magnetic fx leskage Testing (MFL), 2. Radiographic Testing. (FN, 8. inferred thermal testing (IR), 3. Utresonic Tesing (UN). 8. Leak Testing (LD, 4. Liquid Ponctrant esting (PT), 10. Acoust Emission Testing (AE) 5. Magnaic Testing (MM), 11. Neutron Radiography (NA) 6. Electromagnetic Tesing (EM), ‘AWIS-CWEng, -Certiiod Welding Engineer, ID NO. 17010086. AWS-CWE - Corfied Welling Educelor, 1D NO, 1902001E. ‘ANS-CWMI - Certied Welding Inspector, 1D NO. 19021321. ‘AN-CWS ~ Certied Welding Superasor, ID NO. 20030008, [AWS-CWSR - Cortiiod Welding Sales Representative, ID NO. 2003000R {CSWIP 3.22 - Senior Welding Inspector Personal, ID NO.74305, BGAS-CEWIP-Painting Inspocior Grade 2-8GAS, 10:529730 ‘API 610- Pressure Vessel Inspector ID NO_ 38376, ‘APL 870- Process Piping Inspector ID NO. 38328 [API @83- aboveground storage tank inspector ID NO. 26171 [API RP 880 -Risk-Basod Inspection professional ID NO. 82784 ‘APLRP 6T1- Corrosion and Materials Profesional ID NO. 56350 ‘API 896 - Rofractory Personnel, ID NO. 9478 [API S77 = Welding Inspecton and Metallurgy, 10 NO, 94785 [API SIFE-Source Inspector Fixed Equipment, IDNO. 95780 Lead auditor according to 180 9001:2018 from IRCChapter 1: Chapter 2 : Chapter 2 : Chapter 4 : Chapter 5 = Chapter 6 = Chapter 7 = Chapter 8 : Chapter 9 : Chapter 1 Qualification and Certification Requirements Overview of Radiographic Testing Radiographic Techniques Film Radiography Processing Film Introduction to RTFI Film quality Weld Quality Artefacts \cceptance Criteria Chapter 11: ASMEV , ARTICLE2 RadiographicExaminationcat Qualification, and Certifit cation we Remar = QD = Dr-Samir SaadXThere are three means of protection to help reduce exposure to radiation: DISTANCE SHIELDING Behind shielding our ee ead eros) reac)Restricted Areas * The actual size of the defined areas will depend up the intensity of the radiation and the time spent receiving dose.Chapiel 3 ee Techniques be & Dr-Samir SaadQ The technique applied to inspect a particular component or weld is selected by + Reference to the possible defects which may occtir, + The equipment and access available, “The material and the shape of the item,QO Radiographic Techniques . Single Wall Single Image (SWSI), . Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic . Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) |. Double Wall Double.Image (DWDI) . Multiple film¢technique (Sandwich Technique) . Parallax or Tube Shift TechniqueRadiographic Techniques...) A. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)A. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) QRadiography is usually carried out.by the single wall, single image (SWSI) technique which requires access to both surfaces of the object to be radiographed, Q The source of radiation is(placed on one side of the item and film on the opposite side,A. Single Wall Single image (SWSI) A Film CWE.Exposure | Ragioaraphie Tar Tocanon Technique | "Viewing End View Side View Placement | 'Markor SIS [Sinai Sate Sours SouresA. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) oR ic® ;8B. Single Wall Single Image- (SWS!) panoramic CO An arrangement of SWSI used for vessel girth welds or for large diameter pipe butt welds is the panoramic technique where the X-ray head or gamma radiation source is placed at the center of the vessel or pipeland film is placed around the outer circumference of the weld. Q The complete weld can be radiographed in a single exposure with this technique. QO The resulting image may he on-one single length of film covering the entire weld length or on a series of overlapping films with location markers. Q Location markers must be attached to the component and not to the film cassette.(Radiographic Techniques...) 8. Single Wall Single Image- (SWSI) panoramic8B. Single Wall Single Image- (SWSI) panoramic Exposure Technique Radiographic viewing End View ‘Sig view Tar Placement ‘Sie Tosation Marker Piacement Exposure Arrangement AQ Qa Double Wall Techniques There are many instances where radiography: by SWSI techniques is not possible due to the requirement for access to both surfaces of the item to be inspected. This occurs with radiography of pipe butt welds for example where access along the pipe is restricted by size or bendsor where the pipework is in service. In these situations techniques ate used which involve having the radiation source and film on opposite sidés external to the pipe and passing the radiation beam through both pipe walls to produce an image of part of the weld circumference on the film.C. Double Wall Double Image (DWSI) > The double wall single image (DWSI) technique is used én large diameter pipe welds greater than 3 % in. diameter. > The film is wrapped around the pipe and the exposure made by passing radiation through both pipe walls. > Only the image from the weld section closest to the film will be suitable for examination since the side furthest from the film will produce a blurred and distorted image. > For complete coverage of the weld it is necessary to make several separate overlapping exposures at positions around the pipe. > The number of exposures reqitired is dependent on the diameter and wall thickness of the pipe. > The relevant standards giye guidance on establishing the required number of exposures. Since access to the pipe bore is usually restricted film side IQIs are permitted for this technique.Radiographic Techniques...) C. Double Wall Double Image (DWSI)DWSI (Contact technique) a =x 2\__Radiographic Techniques __) J C. Double Wall Double Image (DWSI) \( J Radiographic Techniques D. Double Wall Double image ( DWDI)D. Double Wall Double Image ( DWDI) > Small diameter pipe welds up to about 3 ¥ in. diametercait be radiographed by the double wall doubleimage (DWDI) technique > Itcan be applied where the radiation source is in(line with the plane of the weld producing a radiograph where the upperand lower weld iilages are superimposed or by offsetting the source so that the upperand lower regions of the,welehare separated in the image. > Forcomplete coverage of the weld ising the superimposed technique it is necessary to produce three separate radiographs with the weld rotated by 120°between each. > Forthe offset technique only two radiographs with 90° rotation are required In bothcases the IQ must be positioned on top of the pipe closest to the radiation source.Tecwaue | grantee Eng View redhigueRadiographic Techniques...) D. Double Wall Double Image ( DWDI) Elliptical RadiographTechnique and Exposure Requirements Nominal Pipe Size Technique Type of Exposure and Viewing Min. Num. of Exposures ‘= 3-172" < 3-1/2" Elliptical DbI. Wall Exp. Dbl. Wall Viewing 2 O. 20) ‘Superimposed DbI. Wall Exp. Dbl. Wall Viewing (0. 20 120) 23-172" Contact DBI. Wall Exp. Sql. Wall Viewing O. 120, 240) = 3-1/2" Panoramic. ‘Sgl. Wall Exp. Sql. Wall Viewing a = 3-172" Single wail Single Wall Viewing (0.90, 120 270). Multiple a technique (Sandwich Technique, as. ate banal = SSS FILME FILM A: Fine Grain Medium Speed Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptableF. Parallax or Tube Shift Technique Tube !sitt —Radiographic TechniquesChapisls— a) ~ & Dr-Samir SaadQ Film Structure. The film is sandwiched between the radiographic intensifying screens ina nied protective cassette, a The intensifying screens change the xrays" (#7 —, yn into visible light. The visible light exposes tHe, i ig radiographic film acon Poser Radiographic Film has two basie’parts. Aisi coing }— sherbenite ous 1) Base ea ES 2) Emulsion Pea cue Most films have two layers of emulsion so these are referred as Double Emulsion FilmA. Transparent Base ¥ Itis the foundation of the film. ¥/150 to 300 um thick. ¥ Provides a surface and supportfor the emulsion. ¥ It must have strength, but it shouldbe flexible. ¥ Most film bases are composed of polyester. ¥ Polyester can withstand higher temperatures andis more fireproof; ¥ The base is usually tinted blue to reduce light glare.Film Radiography J QO Film Structure. m Y The emulsion is the heart of the film. Y The x-rays or light from the intensifying screens interact with the emulsion and transfer information to the film, v A homogeneous mixture of gelatin and silver halide crystals and is about 3 to 5 ym thick.Film Radiography...) Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a “light proof” cassette’ in a darkroom. This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of radiation. Filmis often placed bétween screens to intensify radiation.Film contains microscopic material called silver bromide. Once exposed to radiation and developed in a darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic silver which forms the image. latent image Image before processing = latent image After proper chemical processing = manifest VBAIITT image. Once developed, the film is typically referred to as a “radiograph.” ant manifest imageFilm Types Grain size Coarse Ultra Fine Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systemsChapter P Dr-Samir Saad Prosg@ting Film > »~,Processing, Film In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be “‘developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similarto photographic film development. Film processing can either be performed manually in open tanks or in an automatic processor.Film Radiography )Q Film processing is carried out using the following:> A. Developer tank - alkali Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic Fixer tank - acidic Final wash tank - running water Wetting agent - detergent Drying - drying.cabinet or drying room‘A. Developer De > Suppliedas a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to 1 part developer to 4 parts water. Developer temperatures for manual processing 18 to\24°C (65 to 75 °F). > Development times are 5-8 minutes . . > > > Metallic Silver converted Into Black metallic silver During the development process agitation should take place to avoid Graininess Replenishment may be added to maintain development times and the activity of the developer. "Purpose — to ensure that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains constant " Guldeline-After m2 of film has been developed, about 400 mi of replenisher needs to be added. B. Stop Bath > 3% Acetic acid - neutralises the developerC. Fixer > Suppliedas a liquid concentrated acid (Sodium thiosulphateor ammonium thiosulphate) mixed to 1 part fixer to 3 parts water. > — Functions:-1. Removes all unexposed silver grains 2. To leave the developed silver as a permanent image 2. Hardens the emulsion gelatin Fixing temperatures for manual processing 18 to 24°C (85 to 75 °F). Fixing times are twice the clearing time: * Clearing time - The time’taken for the radiography to loose its milky appearance. * clearing time about 3 minutes, ™ fixing time about minutes During the fixing process agitation should take place to avoid light spots and Graininess on the radiograph. When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer should be replaced, replenishment is not normally addedD. Final wash tank - running water/ wetting agent > > After washing in running water the films may be placedin'@.wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even drying, preventing Water spots on films. Films should be washed in a tank with constant running water for at least 20 minutes. Insufficient washing the film can caused the yellow fog appears D. Drying > > ca > ca Before drying excess water should Be removed with the use of a squeegee Drying should take place in a’dust free environment. Typical drying times, in.a drying cabinet 15 minutes ‘Typical drying times\in a drying room 45 minutes Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to appear on the drying films, this may cause black marks to appear on the radiographChapieF “— to RTED ~ a & Dr-Samir Saad+ the interpreter must have adequate eyesight, whetheregtreeted or uncorrected, and “have the ability to recognise features in the image ehused by various condit!( Introduction. to RIFI O Before viewing a radiograph The interpreter should have a basic ki owledge of how the image was created a aware of the radiographic technique used. ‘The interpreter should have details of the weld configuration and should have some knowledge of the welding procedure used, az| Introduction. to RIEFI O The standards usually quoted for eyesight require that * personnel are able to read a minimum of the J2 leveLonthe Jaeger eyesight chart with the chart at positioned a distance of 30.5 centimetres, “Ability to recognise the features on a radiograph'Comes largely with experience.Q Viewing of radiographs should be carried out using “A film viewer in a darkened room. O When entering a darkened room from bright sunlight % some time should be spent uiderdarkroom conditions prior to commencing interpretation in order that eyesight cam adjust to the low light level.introduction Q Viewer screens should be “cleaned before viewing and care must be taken to avoid marking or damaging the film. QO The area where films are viewed, should be + clean, work surfaces dry and the'films handled by the edgesfo"prevent fingerprints and damiige to the film surfaces.Introduction. to RTFI U Soft cotton gloves are often used by interpreters To limit the possibility of film Q Each radiograph is masked on the viewer so that stray light from around the film does not blind the interpreter.Q The film viewer can be activated by + A foot switch when the film to be examined is position. Q A dim side light can be used in order that > Notes can be made during the work.Chapter ~~ FilgQQuality : ie y ; Dr-Samir SaadO Radiographs should be ‘reviewed for film quality prior to interpreting the image for possible defects. ‘+ checked for identification, density and sensitivity'and also for the presence of artefacts interfere with the assessment. Q Where film quality is unacceptable ‘the area of weld covered by the film should be re-radiographed.A. Identification Q Manufacturers may have a method of radiographic identification which is “linked to a quality system but The following is a guide to the normal requireménts for details appearing on the radiograph. QO The identification should include + The manufacturer's symbol, the componentitem/weld number as appropriate, the location within the weld (such as location njatkers 1 to 2, B to C etc.) and the date radiography was carried out. pes | = Fe ol os BR ofA. Identification PJ S.C.WS PROJECTA. Identification O The identification details usually appear in the image buf Sometimes a system of "flashing" the details on to the film before exposure is used: U In allcases location markers which indicate the diagnostic length (extent of the weld on the film to be examined) must appear as radiographic images. O The repair status of the weld shouldalso be shown, usually by markers Ri (repair), R2(second repair) ete. Q Identification details mt st encroach on the weld area of interest - the length of weld and heat affected zone between the length markers.( Film. quality, ) B. Film density U Radiographicimages are viewed by transmitted light with the film placed on a light box or viewer. aa roa QO A more accurate method is to use an electronic device known as a film transmission densitométer,B. Film density U This device simply measures the logarithmic ratio of itcident to transmitted light through the image from the viewer. Incident light Transmitted light Density = Log Q Film density is therefore a.number which will vary from 0 (film totally transparent) to about 5 (film virtually opaque). In general, densities above 4 are only used for special applications.B. Film density O The densitometer must be regularly calibrated foraccaracy throughout ifs range and must be set to zero on the illuminated viewerimmediately before use. Q The blackness or density of the image can be assessed by comparison with a film strip having a range of densi QA densitometer should be calibrated using a density stripB. Film density Q Film density influences the contrast and hence the visibility. of defects on a radiograph. Q Film contrast is the difference in density between adjacentareas on the radiograph, the greater the density difference the higher the contrast. In addition, radiographié'film characteristics are such that contrast increases with film density. For this reason a minimum film density on the area being examined is required by most codes and standards.B. Film density O ASME V Article 2 requires ¢ a minimum of L.8 for x-ray techniques and minimum of 2.0 for gamma ray techniques. + For composite viewing of multiple filim exposures, each film of the composite set shall have a minimum density of 1.3... “ The maximum density shall be-4.0 for either single or composite viewing 1 BS/EN standards require “a minimum densify of 2.0 (2.3 for high sensitivity techniques) for both X and gamma rays. Q Other codes such as JIS will accept a minimum density of 1.5.Pilma quaillity B. Film density U These minimum figures for film density apply to the aréa of interest (the diagnostic length of the weld) on the radiograph.C. Radiographic sensitivity Sensitivity [Ce hs IQI sensitivity Defect sensitivityC. Radiographic sensitivity 1Q| sensitivity > The image on a radiograph which is used to determine the quality level Defect sensitivity > Ability to assist the sensitivity and locate a defect ona radiograph (Depend on the defect orientation)C. Radiographic sensitivity O The ability of a radiograph to reveal internaldefects is determined by the quality 8F sensitivity of the image produced) Q Flaw Orientation “> A significant limitation of radiography is that discontinuities must be favorably aligned with the radiation beam to be reliably detected. “> This is usually not aproblem for discontinuities such as porosity or slag since they are usually round in cross section and align with a beam from any direction.( Film quality J C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Flaw Orientation % Planarweld defects such as cracks or lack of sidewall fusion may appear faint or even be invisible if they are unfavourably orientated with the direction of the radiation beam.. Radiographic sensitivity Q Flaw Orientation ispamiee Radiography has Angle sensitivity limitations When detecting & cracks, S OL. =noteasy ~ todetect 4 X-rays ‘see" a crack adja thickness variation and the larger the variation, the easienthe crack is to detect. When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.C. Radiographic sensitivity C1 Flaw Orientation SERIE coy siscenmeLe, EXPOSED AND RS BNAE TIC MACE BECRESES BimC. Radiographic sensitivity O Flaw Orientation Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack or other linear defect is so critical, the orientation of defeet must be well known if radiography is going to be used to perform the inspection.C. Radiographic sensitivity O The sensitivity of the radiograph produced isyaffected by many factors but + basically, the higher the contrast and definition (sharpness) of the image the more sensitive the technique wilhbe for detecting imperfections in the object being examined. O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) + IQ's / Penetramétérsare used to measure radiographic sensitivity and the quality of the radidgraphic technique used. “ They are not used to measure the size of defects detectedC. Radiographic sensi O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Standards for IQM’s include: > ASTM > BS3971 > BSEN 462 > DING Two types of indicatorare in common use > The wire type and > The plate/hole type.Filla quailitcyC. Radiographic sensitivity O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Placement of IQI IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of weld Thinnest required step or wire “shim “ must be placed at the extreme edge of section under test IQI material(chosen should have similar radiation absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen .C. Radiographic sensitivity Ci Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) > Placement of [QI Step/Hole Type IQ!Filna quality C. Radiographic sensitivity O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Placement of IQI( Film. quality, ) C. Radiographic sensitivity C Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) > Placement of [QI > In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the film side of the object, letter “F” should be placed beside the QI. > — 10I must be placed at the source side TOE these vices amesC. Radiographic sensitivity QO Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) ‘Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “ The left side 01,02,03,04,05 gives the material Grouping and on the right A,B,C & D gives the four sets of wires. Each penetrameter contains 6 wires out of which 1 wires shallbe repeatedin the nexf)adjacent set. Totally the fourset#A;B,C & D will therefore account21 wire diameters. ‘The diameter varies by a geometric progression of 1.25.C. Radiographic sensitivity Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) o Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type * Magnesium Steel Aluminium bronzes & Nickel Aluminium bronze Nickel-chromium-Iron alloy ‘Nickel copper Tin bronzeincluding Gun metal & valve bronzeC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) + Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “ > Finding Sensitivity: Sensitivity = Least wire pie wisible x100 % ickness. Y Acceptable sensitivity shall be 2% (Pressure Vessels& Pipelines). Y Hence penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material thickness.O The thickness of a test piece is 20 mm and the ASTM wire type IQI visible on the filmis 9™ wire. Find the sensitivity achieved. > Finding Sensitivity: Sensitivity = Least wire dia visible x100 % Thickness. > Visible IQ] 9th wiresize is 0.51 mm. > —% sensitivity achieved is = 0.51x100 = 2.55% 20Q Using the ASTM wire type IQI , How many IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity of 2% if Total weld thickness is 16 mm? > Finding Sensitivity: Least wire Dia. visible = Sensitivity Thickness 100 > — Least wire dia visible = 2.x 16 =0.32 mm 100 7 wires visibleC. Radiographic sensitivity .,cimeter Desion CO Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) * HOLETYPE IQ! (7) Penetrameter designation/Thickness in Thou/ mils IQI Sensitivity 1 Hole visible = 4T 2 Holes visible = T 3 Holes visible = 2T 1mm =40ThouC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) % HOLETYPE IQI “Sensitivity Levels “ Sensitivity Level_2~-1T. Here 2 implies penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material thickness and the least visible hole was 17. Obtained Sensitivity. = 100 TxH. x VG Where X- material thickness in Thou. T- Penetrameter thickness in Thou. H- Hole dia visible. ooGiven:- Q > JobthicknesX = 20mm =800 Thou Q > 1QI Thickness T= 15 Thou GQ HolediaH = 2T=2x 15 Thou=30 Thou) > Determine the HOLE TYPE !QI Sensitivity Levels Sensitivity= 100 —([ x 2 Where X- material thickness in Thous Sensitivity = 100, T- Penetrameter thickness in Thou. 800 H- Hole dia visible. = 1.875%C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Scatter * Scatter will lead to poorer contrast and definition and create spurious indications ¢ Internal scatter originating within the specimen © Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path of the primary beam ¢ Back scatter materials located behind the filmC. Radiographic sensitivity O Scatter ¢ Internal scatter : originating within the specimenC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Scatter " Side scatter : walls and nearby objects in the path of the primary beam. Radiographic sensitivity O Scatter * Back scatter : materials located behind the filmC. Radiographic sensitivity OBack scatter Back scattered radiation from surfaces and objects behind the film during exposureean degrade the image and reduce radiographic sensitivity. Code requirements specify thata lead letter "B" must be attachéd to the back of the film cassette before exposure.Film quality C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Back scatter + During interpretation, If a light image of the “B,”/appears on a darker background of the radiograph would indicate that excessive Backscatter had been present during exposure and that the radiograph is unacceptable, The absence of the lead letter image or / A dark image of the “B” on a lighter background, indicates that acceptably low scatter levels haye been achieved ,Chapter 8 Weld Quality > ; x y ; Dr-Samir SaadQ Following the review of film quality, > Radiographs should be examined for the presence of defects in the weld and adjacent material. Examination should be carried out even if the film @ffality is unacceptable since gross defects may be visibleand the component could be rejected without the need for further radiography. Defects visible shouldbe noted andthe component sentenced according to the applicable acceptance criteria. ‘Where there is doubt whether an image is due to an internal defeet ora surface feature the weld area should be examined visually to establish the cause.A. Weld surface features, C2. Listed below are some of the irregular weld/stirface conditions that can be seen in radiographic images. Q The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting is difficult to judge using radiographic evidence alone. CO Wherever possible defects of this type should be judged for acceptability by visual examination Of the weld.Weld Quality A. Weld surface features, BB Excessive root penetration Root concavity Undercutting Oo BD incompletely filled groove a oO SpatterWeld Quality y A. Weld surface features, 1) Excessive root penetration. Excess weld material protruding through the Podtof a fusion weld made from one side appears in the radiograph as a continuous or interniittent light irregular band within the image of the weld.Weld Quaility _) j se Weld surface features, 1) Excessive root penetration.( Weld Quaility J A. Weld surface features, 2) Root concavity. is a shallow groove which ma¥-oecur in the root of a single sided weld. ‘Tt appears in the radiograph as a series/of dark areas along the centre of the weld varying in density according to the depth of imperlection. rn ae)( Weld Quality J . Weld surface features, 3) Incompletely filled groove (lack of fill/ underfill). + This isa continuous or intermittent channel in the surfacé‘f the weld, running along its length, due to Insufficient weld material. The channel may be.alongéthe centre or along one or both edges of the weld. radiograph of @ dak band or dark patches within the image of the weld. Where It produces an image this occurs at the edge of the weld cap i is Wistinguished from undercutting by the straight edge of the weld preparation on the parent materfaly( Weel Quuailtty ) ‘A. Weld surface features, An irregular groove at the toe the weld in’the parent material due to burning away during welding. It appears in 4) Undereutting the radiograph as a dark / irregulaé /interimittent band along the edge of either the cap or root bead or between adjacent capping runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside the weld image on the radiograph.| Weld Quality ~ A. Weld surface features, 5) Spatter *% — Globules of material expelled during arc weldinig on to the sui 4 Spatter appears in the r aph aysmaill light spots on the weld and adjacent parent material,B. Weld defects, Q Weld defects can occur in any position in-the weld and may be visible on the radiograph for assessment. Suspected defects which appear to be surface breaking should be confirmed by visual or NDE surface inspection techniques.B. Weld defects, Cracks Lack of fusion Incomplete root penetration Slag inclusions Metallic inclusions Gas porosity otlow bead/piping) Crater cracks and pipesB. Weld defects, 1) Cracks ‘Cracks due to welding may occur at the point of solidification, during the deposition of subsequent welding runs or at’ time alter the completion of welding. “ Cracks may occur either inthe wéld deposit or in the parent material. + Cracks are usually parallél to the welding direction but can also occur in the transverse plane. + Crater eracks at stop/start positions can also occur,B. Weld defects, 1) Cracks + ‘The ability of the radiographic technique to detect a crack is dependent on the crack orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. Even a slight deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the chances of detection. When they are detected they:appear in the radiograph as dark, fine and often branching lines which are usually diffuse or discontinuous.( Weld Quality B, Weld defects, 1) Cracks YYB. Weld defects, Perecteets( Weld Quailitty ) B, Weld defects, 1) CracksWeld Quality ff B. Weld defects, | 1) Cracks 2 oe oe oe eeWeld Quality // B. Weld defects, —_B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion * Lack of fusion in welding can occur either between the weld deposit and the parent material or between successive layers of weld material.B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion ‘The ability of radiographic techniques to detect lack of fusion is strongly dependent on the orientation of the defect with respect to the incident beam of radiation. Lack of fusion with the parent material will appear as a fine dark straight line which may be continuous or intermittent. Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with the parent material may sometimes be detected due to the presence of associated slag inclusions or porosity. a slag inclusion with a'straight edge normally indicates lack of fusion. Gas escaping from an area of lack of fusion during welding may show as linear porosity.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quality /’B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quality // B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion aa _ aWeld Quality // B. Weld defects, \ 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quality // B. Weld defects, \ 2) Lack of fusion( Weld Quality J B. Weld defects, k of fusion 2)( Weld. Quality ) B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion lack of root fusionB. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration Incomplete penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or intermittent linear band, the edges of which will be straight. Where welds are deposited without a root gap, lack of penetration may appear as a single continuous or intermittent straight dark line.B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration + — Root gaps frequently close during welding and even in cases where there should have been a root gap the lack of penetration niay still appearin the radiographs a single fine dark line.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration es eeeWeld Quality /’B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetrationB. Weld defects, Incomplete root penetration PO ae)Weld Quality // B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetrationWeld Quaility J B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetrationB. Weld defects, 3) IncompleteB. Weld defects, 3) Slag inclusions “Slag inclusions are irregularly shaped, they may be either rounded/isolated or linear/elongated. — Linearslag inclusions with a straight edge may indicate lack of fusion.B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusions * Sometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two irregular parallel lines referred to as tram lines or waggon tracks. ‘Most weld slag and other possible sources of ston-metallic inclusions are radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding’metallic material and appear in the radiograph as dark images.( Weld Quality J B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusions( Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusions“B. Weld defects, Sree Cre i,Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusionsWeld Quality // B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusionsB, Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusions ‘Materials such as tungsten or copper can be accidentally. introduced into the molten weld pool during welding, the materials usually coming from the welding equipment in-use. ‘Tungsten inclusions are associated withthe tingsten inert-gas welding process and are caused by the break-up of the non- consumable tungsten electrode during welding. ‘Tungsten is very dense and the inclusions always appear as bright images which tend tobe sharp and angular. They are usually small “typically 0.5 to 1 mm.Weld Quality 7B. Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusionsB. Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusions “Copper inclusions can occur with submerged-are or other welding processes where the consumable electrode is fed through a copper contact. If the copper touches the weld pool it will melt and become included in the weld. Copper is radiographically more absorbing than steel so the inclusions are bright with diffuse edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds can cause cracking.Weld Quaility fo B. Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusionsB. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity. ‘Gas pores are easily detected by radiography since they are not sensitive to the direction of radiation and the gas is many times less dense than the surrounding material.B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity. Gas pores appear on a radiograph as sharply@efined dark circular spots. ‘They may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed. Linear porosity is usually an indicdtion of lack of fusion.( Weld Quality ) B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity.Weld Quality // B. Weld defects, \ 6) Gas porosity.Lu Well Quality 7 B. Weld defects, \ 6) Gas porosity.Weld Quality // B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity.Weld Quality // B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity.B. Weld defects, 7) Elongated Cavities (hollow bead/piping) + These will generally only occur at the roots of welds deposited by manual metaL-are. — Onthe radiograph they have an appearance similar to that of slag.B. Weld defects, 7) Elongated Cavities (hollow bead/piping) ‘The radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and is usually situated above the center of the root bead.Weld. Quality J B. Weld defects, 7) Elongated Cavities (hollow bead/piping) ‘+ The radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and is usually situated above the center of the root bead.B. Weld defects, 8) Worm Holes ‘These are gas pores which have become frozen in the weld pool while migrating towards the surface. ‘© They appear on thé radiograph as a dark shadow ,the shape of which depends on the orientation of the defect.B. Weld defects, 8) Worm Holes If the worm hole is in line with the radiation a very dark rounded shadow is formed. If the wormhole is not directly in line with the radiation beam then the dark spot has a faint tail. Where a lamination in the parent material or a lack of fusion is the source of wormholes they are often apparent in the radiograph ina herringbone shaped linear group.Weld Quality 4 B. Weld defects, 8) Worm Holes{ Weld Quaility =) . Weld defects, 8) Worm Holes. Weld defects, 8) Worm HolesWeld Quality B. Weld defects, 8) Worm Holes. Weld defects, 9) Crater cracks and pipes ‘They often have a star like appearance in the radiograph and their radiographic image rarely measures more than 3 or 4 mm.B. Weld defects, 9) Crater cracks and pipes( Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 9) Crater cracks and pipes ‘Crater pipes appear on the radiograph with an image similar to that of an isolated wormhole and may be associated with cracking.Practice Problem Vf 01: is the result of gas entrapmentin the solidifying metal and “ \ , , can take many shapes ona radiograph but often appearsas dark roundor irregular | spots or specks appearing individually, scattered, in clusters, in aligned rows, and elongated (often with a tail). es “ =Practice Problem Vf 01: Porosity is the result of gas entrapmentin the solidifying Wy metaland can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or ) irregular spots or specks appearing individually, scattered, in clusters, in aligned rows, and elongated (often with a tail).( Practice Problem ) ”’Q-02: One specific type of gas entrapment is elongated with appearance of a tail. This ‘occurs when gas attempts escape with metal still ina liquid state. It is called( Practice Problem ) Q-02: One specific type of gas entrapment is elongated with appearance of a tail. This ‘occurs when gas attempts escape with metal still ina liquid state. It is called _“Wormhole”Practice Problem Q-03: Another type of gas entrapmentis caused when flux coated electrodes become contaminated with moisture. Moisture turns into gasés when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during welding with indications grouped very closely together. It is calledQ-03: Another type of gas entrapmentis caused when flux coated electrodes become \ ! ; || contaminated with moisture. Moisture turns into gasés when heated and becomes _| trapped in the weld during welding with indications grouped very closely together. It is~, / Q-04: Another type of “gas entrapment” is caused when individual \ | , defects are in a row or along a line. We must then measure the cumulative length. It is called~, / Q-04: Another type of “gas entrapment” is caused when individual \ | , defects are in a row or along a line. We must then measure the cumulative length. It is called___“Aligned( Practice Problem J Q-05: This defect (also gas entrapment) is abbreviated as “HB”. Itusually runs only along the length of the root pass and within the root pass. It is called( Practice Problem J Q-05: This defect (also gas entrapment) is abbreviated as “HB”. Itusually runs only along the length of the root pass and within the root pass. It is called__Hollow Bead (HB)__.Practice Problem Q-06: is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal. In radiograph, appears dark, jagged asymmetrical shape(s) within or along weld joint areas.Practice Problem Q-06: ag or Slag Inclusion is nonmetallic solid materialentrappedin ‘\ weld metal or between weld and base metal. In radiograph, appears dark, jagged asymmetrical shape(s) within or along weld joint areas. WUE: | AnaChapter ( = ee Dr-Samir SaadQ An artefact on a radiograph is any image on the film which is not related to the object being radiographed. Q Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or ¢hemical damage to the film before or after processing and by damaged or dirty intensifying screens. O Artefacts are cause for rejection of the film only if they interfere with the image in the area of interest of the weld being examined. Some examples of artefacts are described below.Artefacts A. Seratches U A seratch on the film can appear as a dark or light image in the radiograph. 1 Images resulting from film scratches can usuallybe identified by viewing the film in reflected light and should be visible on one ide of the film onl( Artefacts J A. Scratches C Scratches on the lead screen or damaged lead caused by excessive bendingB. Crimp marks “Finger prints “ O. Crimp marks take place when the film is bent during the handling of the film.( Artefacts C. Processing marks Examples of processing marks include > Roller Marks which are caused by poor maintenance of automatic film processors and > Streakiness Or Mottling which can be due to insafficierttagitation during manual development. > Under or over development usually leads to amottled effect on the finished radi aph. > A similar effect is produced by exhausteddeveloper.Artefacts C. Processing marks O Watermarks > These are easily seen on the radiograph both by transmitted and reflected light and are due to a dry or partially dry film being wetted locally either by-splashing or by water running down from a film hanger clip.C. Processing marks O Chemical Stains cei ai ean avai( Artefacts J C. Processing marks O Reticulation > When the film subjected to a sudden temperature chariges between the developed water. Appear as cracked filmArtefacts C. Processing marks Q Dust/Grime MarksArtefacts D. Static Electricity a In very dry conditions static charge can build up on the film/fi)the°plastic film cassette or when removed from the film storage box. This may discharge when the film is removed for proéessing or loading. The discharge sparks cause dark marks in the image due to the exposure to light. The marks can appear as dark star shapes or finie branching dark lines.Artefacts /’ D. Static ElectricityArtefacts ff ¥. Light LeaksChapter 1 10> 7 Acceptance Criteria > > ney & Dr-Samir SaadQ The following tables are provided as a guide only. Code or contract governs. A. ASME SEC I, Paragraph PW-51, B. ASME SEC VIII D1, C. ASME B31.1, Paragraph'136.4.5, D. API STD 650 Note :- Rounded Indications shall be judged against the standards set forth in ASME SEC VIII D1, Appendix 4.Liu Asseptance Criteria) Yable 1-1 — Maximum Discontinuity Size Allowed ASME SEC ASME 834.1 ASME SEC Vili D7, Fara. UW.-51; API STD 650 ASME SEC VIII D4 Goomm G2) incisive: A/Sb ror trom 13. 0mm G2) 1S.57.0 mm (Dis) Inclusive: oir Bort over SO FCS EP oom Gay Astron t trom ’3g°O mm e2"> thicknoss of the wold Fointorcomant Skcopt when the gretance whore Lis the longest “whore Lis the longest Thaication in tho group Shorter than 32° shall be Bccontabie Tor any plate Rater to Table 22 ot hie Aopends Reterto Table 22 oF HE Aepende ‘Round indications are nots Rater to Tabs 27 one ‘Apponan ‘Abponane tungsten wnelusions are, Shaceopeabie. Rest Concaviy Unacceptable 1S Sonsity fe greater than that St'the parsnt mater