Important Points for the Classical Civilisation

(A)
Ancient Greece

Topics Important content Important terms

Division of European History

● ●
p.96 Historical periods Historians divide European history into four periods, namely, Ancient times
●
p.97 - Ancient times (4,000 BC – AD 476); Medieval times
●
p.98 - Medieval times (AD 476 – 1492) Middle Ages
●
- Modern times (AD 1492 – 1914) Modern times
●
- Contemporary times (AD 1914 to now) Contemporary times
● ●
The early civilisation in the Aegean Sea region became the origin of the ancient Greek Aegean Sea
●
and Roman civilisations, also known as the Greco-Roman civilisation. Greco-Roman civilisation
●
The Medieval Times or the Middle Ages began when the Western Roman Empire fell
in AD 476 and ended by the time when Columbus discovered America in AD 1492.
●
The outbreak of the First World War marked the beginning of the contemporary
times.

Greece and Rome – birthplaces of European civilisations

● ●
p.98 Greece and Rome Ancient Greek and Roman civilisations began in inland seas (Aegean and Minoan civilisation
●
p.99 Mediterranean Seas). Mycenaean civilisation
● ●
Ancient Greek civilization: The civilisation began in about 3000 BC around the Aegean Dorians
●
Sea, including the Minoan and Mycenaean civilisations. City-states
● ●
These two early civilisations declined later because of different reasons like the Classical civilisation
invasion of the Dorians in about 1100 BC, who moved from the north to the Greek peninsula and
built many city-states.
● th th
During the period from the 8 century BC to AD 6 century, the ancient Greek
civilisation first emerged in the Mediterranean region and then the ancient Roman civilisation.
●
The Roman civilisation was influenced by the Greek civilisation. The two civilisations
could spread to Western and Eastern Europe. The Greco-Roman civilisations could become the
foundation of the modern Western civilisation and were regarded as classical civilisations of Europe.
Civilisations in the Aegean Sea
● ●
p.98 Civilisations in the Two earlier civilisations from which the ancient Greek civilisation developed: Minoan Minoan
●
p.99 Aegean Sea and Mycenaean civilisations Mycenaean
● ●
Minoan civilisation: It began on the island of Crete in about 3000 BC. We can learn Crete
●
from the remains of palace discovered at Knossos that the Minoans were good at fishing, sailing and Knossos
●
making olive oil, wine as well as various kinds of crafts. Troy
● ●
Mycenaean civilisation: The Mycenaeans settled in the Greek peninsula in about 2000 Trojan War
BC and built Mycenae. They were warlike and conquered Crete in 1450 BC. They also started the
Trojan War against Troy in Asia Minor, which lasted for ten years.

Minoan Bull Leaping Trojan War/ Trojan Horse

Topics Important content Important terms

Life in ancient Greece

● ●
p.100 City-states The mountains in Greece made the Greeks unable to find enough flat land for farming and City-states
p.102 difficult to travel among different parts of Greece. Therefore, small city-states were formed.
●
City-state: A city-state was a small country which was made up of one city only (about 10 to
15 sq. km. in size). Each was independent with its own government and own way of life.
●
The soil in the city-states was poor and the ancient Greeks could only grow crops like olives
and grapes. Therefore, they could not produce enough food. As a result, the Greek city-states developed
trade with each other through sea routes, as there were good ports along the coastal regions.
● ●
p.102 People in a city- Citizens: They were free adult men and had many rights like voting in elections, making laws, Citizens
●
state becoming officials, owning land. Slaves
● ●
Women and children: Father were the head of family. Women stayed at home and looked after Voting
the children. Girls also stayed at home to learn how to do housework. Children did not have the rights of
citizens.
●
Slaves: They were prisoners of war or poor people who could not pay off their debts. They had
no rights and had to work for their masters until they died. They could be sold by their masters. They were
placed at the bottom of the Greek society.
● ●
p.103 Athens and Sparta Since 800 B.C., various city-states appeared in the Greek Peninsula, such as Athens, Sparta, Army
●
Corinth, Thebes, Olympia, etc. There were more than 200 city-states in Greece. Aristocracy
● ●
Location: Athens was located in the coastal region of southeastern Greek Peninsula while Democracy
●
Sparta was located in the mountain area of southern Greek peninsula Debate
 ● ●
Government: Athens was a democracy while Sparta was an aristocracy (the rulers were Navy
●
nobles) Sparta
●
Arts and culture: The Athenians loved new ideas. They were interested in arts, debate and
science. The Spartans did not like art, and they did not build beautiful houses or temples.
●
Military: Athens had a strong navy while Sparta had a strong army. The Spartans forced the
young boys to have military training to learn and practice fighting.

The Greco-Persian Wars

● ●
p.105 Greek colonies Greece has many mountains and the Greeks needed to find land to grow food when the Asia Minor
p.106 population grew and their economies developed.
●
They set up colonies in Asia Minor and along the Mediterranean Sea since 750 BC.
●
Greco-Persian At the same time, the Persians also kept expanding.
●
Wars They conquered Asia Minor. (500 BC)
●
The Greeks helped the colonies to rebel against the Persians. The Persians then attacked
Greece.
● ●
Major battles Battle of Marathon (490 BC): The Greeks defeated the Persian army which landed on the Marathon
plain of the Marathon in northeast Athens with fewer soldiers. After they won the battle, Pheidippides ran
42km from Marathon to Athens to announce the news of victory, which became the origin of modern
Marathon Race.
● ●
Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC): The Persians won (The Spartan king and his 300 soldiers Thermopylae
tried to stop the Persians at a narrow pass between the mountains. They were all killed in this battle.)
● ●
Battle of Salamis (479 BC): The Persians marched into Athens and burnt the city. Then a sea Salamis
battle broke out at the Bay of Salamis and the Persians were defeated.
●
The wars ended in 449 BC, after about 50 years, when Persia and Greece signed the peace
treaty.
● ●
p.106 End of the Greco- Athens became strong after the Greco-Persian Wars and became the leader of the Greek city- Pericles
●
Persian Wars state. The city-state reached its golden age (Classical Age) under the rule of Pericles (461 BC – 429 BC) Golden age
●
when its economy, culture and scholarship developed. Classical Age
●
Greece after the Athens grew rich and strong and Sparta was jealous.
●
Greco-Persian Sparta then united other city-states to fight against Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431 BC
Wars – 404 BC). Athens lost but the fighting among the Greek city-states continued and the city-states became
weak.
 Pericles The temple of Parthenon: built during the Classical Age of Athens

Topics Important content Important terms

Alexander the Great

● ●
p.107 The Empire of Philip II of Macedonia, taking advantage of the warfare among the Greek city-states, Macedonia
●
Alexander the Great conquered Greece in 338 BC. He wanted to invade Persia but was killed in 336 BC. Persia
● ●
Philip’s son, Alexander, who was also a student of Aristotle, became king at the age of 20. Afghanistan
He started his military campaign in 334 BC and conquered many places like Persia, Egypt,
Afghanistan, Gandhāra ( 犍陀 羅 ) and Bactria ( 大夏 ) in 10 years. He could be cruel at times. For

example, he decided to burn down Persepolis, the Persian capital, and reduced it into ashes.
●
He decided to return home because his soldiers did not want to fight anymore.
●
He built up a large Empire covering three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. That is why
some historians called him “Alexander the Great”.
●
p.107 Spread of Greek Alexander the Great died in 323 BC on his way back home at Babylon. His Empire was
civilization divided into three parts by his generals: Greece, Egypt and Syria. Greece became weak and was
conquered by the Romans in 146 BC.
 ● ●
p.108 The Greek civilization spread over a large area through the conquest of Alexander the Great. Alexandria
He spread the Greek culture from the west to the east – to as far as Gandhāra ( 犍陀羅 ) and Bactria ( 大

夏 ) along the Silk Road. Alexandria, a city in Egypt, became a famous Centre of Greek learning. The
spread of the Greek culture brought about the development of the Greco-Buddhist art ( 希臘佛教藝術) at

Gandhāra, Pakistan.

King Alexander the Great

The conquest of King Alexander the Great

(B)
Ancient Rome

Topics Important content Important terms

Origin of the Roman Civilization and the Early history of Rome

● ●
p.109 Founding of Rome Rome was located on the west coast of today’s Italian peninsula and is close to the Mediterranean Sea
●
Mediterranean Sea. River Tiber
● ●
Between 2000 BC and 1000 BC, a tribe called the Latins built villages on the seven Latins
hills near River Tiber, which then united to form Rome.
● ●
p.110 The Twins Legends had it that Romulus and Remus were once fed by a she-wolf when their bad Romulus
●
p.111 uncle ordered the servants to kill them. A shepherd later took them home. Remus
●
The baby boys grew up and started to build a new city near River Tiber. They
quarreled and Romulus killed Remus. Rome was named after him.
● ●
Three periods of the Roman Kingdom: 753 BC – 509 BC (There were seven kings in total. The Etruscans Roman Kingdom
●
Roman history conquered from the north at about 616 BC and brought the Greek civilization to the Romans. They Roman Republic
●
also taught them how to dig channels and build arches.) Roman Empire
 ● ●
Roman Republic: 509 BC – 27 BC Etruscans
● ●
Roman Empire: 27 BC – AD 476 arches

Roman Republic (509 BC – 27BC)

● ●
p.111 Roman Republic The Romans overthrew the Etruscan kings in 509 BC and they then chose their leaders Patricians
●
p.112 by elections. Rome became a republic which did not get a king to rule them. Senate
●
However, only the wealthiest families, the patricians, in Rome could serve as
members of the Senate. There were 300 members in the Senate. The Senate made laws and
controlled foreign affairs.
● ●
p.112 The poor people (plebeians) in Rome were unhappy and fought for their rights. As a Plebeians
●
result, the plebeians were allowed to elect two tribunes to the Senate. They could veto the laws that Tribunes
●
were bad for the plebeians. Later, the Roman government was changed into a government with two Assembly
●
houses under bicameralism. The upper house was the Senate controlled by the patricians. The Bicameralism
lower house was the Assembly. They could also participate in legislation. Many countries still
follow this today.
● ●
p.113 Foreign expansion The Republic began to expand when they became stable and conquered the whole of Carthage
●
Italy by 270 BC. Punic Wars
● ●
They then fought three wars against Carthage, a trading power in North Africa, Punic
●
between 264 BC and 146 BC. Phoenicians
●
The wars were known as Punic Wars as the Phoenicians who built Carthage were
called Punic by the Romans.
● ●
The Punic Wars The First Punic War (264 BC – 241 BC): It was fought over Sicily and the Romans Hannibal
●
occupied the island after winning the war. Alps
● ●
The Second Punic War (218 BC – 201 BC): Hannibal led his army, riding on Sicily
elephants, to cross the Alps and attacked the Romans from Northern Italy. The Romans lost many
battles but they then quickly attacked Carthage. Hannibal returned to save the city but he was
defeated by the Romans. Carthage made peace with Rome.
● ●
p.114 The Punic Wars The Third Punic War (149 BC – 146 BC): The Romans destroyed Carthage in this Provinces
●
war. Carthage became a Roman province. Governors
●
The Romans succeeded in conquering most of the regions around the Mediterranean
Sea and claimed the Sea as “our inland sea”. Provinces were set up in the conquered regions and
governors were sent to rule.

Roman Republic (509 BC – 27BC)

● ●
p.115 Julius Caesar Roman republic became unstable and corruption was serious after the Punic War. The Julius Caesar
p.116 poor people were unhappy and ambitious generals like Julius Caesar and Pompey began to rise to
power.
●
Caesar, a great general, came from a patrician family.
●
He was elected a consul in 59 BC and then conquered Gaul (present-day France) and
invaded Britain and parts of Germany.
● ●
He became dictator for life in 45 BC after defeating Pompey and the Senate who Pompey
started a war against Caesar in 49 BC. He introduced many reforms to improve people’s lives.
●
His enemies in the Senate thought that he wanted to destroy the republic and become
the emperor. So, they killed him on 15 March 44 BC.

Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476)

● ●
p.118 Rome became an Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son) and Mark Anthony (Caesar’s follower) defeated Octavian
●
empire Caesar’s enemies. Octavian then ruled the western part of the Republic while Mark Anthony ruled Mark Anthony
●
the east. Queen Cleopatra
● ●
Octavian then started wars against Anthony in 31 BC when Anthony married Queen Augustus Caesar
●
Cleopatra of Egypt because Octavian’s sister was Anthony’s wife. Octavian won and both Anthony Adopted son
and Cleopatra killed themselves.
●
The Senate gave Octavian the title of “Augustus” (his majesty) and Octavian called
himself “Augustus Caesar” to remember Julius Caesar. The Roman Empire began.
● ●
p.119 Roman Peace Augustus Caesar introduced many reforms. Pax Romana
● ●
The Roman Empire was rich and strong in its first two centuries. This period was Roma Peace
 called the “Pax Romana” (Roman Peace).
● rd ●
p.120 Decline of the Roman The Roman Empire had become weak since AD 3 century. Corruption
● ●
Empire Internal problems: corruption, people had hard lives, rebellions of poor people and Invasion of tribes
slaves
●
External problems: invasions of tribes from central and eastern Europe, Roman army
was weak
● ●
Division of the Empire AD 393: The Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern Roman Empires, Constantinople
●
each with their own emperor. German tribe
● ●
Capitals: Rome (western); Constantinople (eastern) Byzantine Empire
●
AD 476: a German tribe ( 日 耳 曼 部 族 ) took Rome and overthrew the Western

Roman emperor and the empire ended; Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine
Empire) lasted until AD 1453.
 Treasures of Ancient Greek and Roman Civilisations
Textbook 1A, pp. 121-146
Subjects you study in Different Aspects in Ancient
Ancient Greek civilization
WYK Greco-Roman civilizations
English Language  The Greek alphabet was used by the Romans and became
English Literature the basis of English and other European languages.
 Homer’s epics on the Trojan War and stories of Greek
gods and heroes, Iliad and Odyssey, and Aesop’s fables were important
Chinese Language works in the Greek literature. The Aesop’s fables contained many Greek
fables such as ‘The Tortoise and the Hare’, ‘North Wind and the Sun’ and
‘The Fox and the Grapes’, which are still very popular around the world
Language and Literature
today.
 Greek myths were also fine works of literature.
 The Greeks also loved to watch plays in open-air theatres.
Tragedy like Oedipus Rex and Prometheus Bound as well as comedy
were the two main kinds of Greek plays.
Mathematics  A theorem in geometry: Pythagoras’ Theorem
 Euclid: He wrote the book Elements 《幾何原本》which
Mathematics and Numbers covered geometry and mathematics. His book summarized the
development of ancient Greek mathematics.
Integrated Science  Archimedes discovered how to measure a circle’s
Physics circumference, the lever rule and the Archimedes’ Principle. He also
invented the catapult and the Archimedes’ screw
 Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine”, said that illness
Medicine was not a punishment from Gods. He studied the causes of illnesses and
cured many people.
Chinese History  Herodotus, the “Father of History”, visited many places
History like Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and the
History Black Sea and wrote about the ancient civilizations in Asia. He also
wrote a book, The Histories, which is about the history of the Greco-
Persian Wars and was considered the first History book in Europe.
Geography  The Greeks drew maps and found their way at sea by
watching the stars.
Calendar, Astronomy and Geography
 Aristarchus was the first astronomer to state that the sun
was the Centre of the universe.
Influence of Greco-Roman civilisations on
Ancient Roman civilization
subsequent times and modern days
 The Romans used the Greek alphabet but changed some of the letters. ● Some symbols used in mathematics and
 They spoke and wrote Latin. It was used all over the Empire and was physics also come from the Greek alphabet. [The
also used by the Catholic Church. The educated people in Europe read and wrote Latin English word ‘alphabet’ came from the Greek α
during the Middle Ages. (alpha) and β (beta).)]
● The Greek poems, fables, plays and
myths are still inspiring writers today. For example, the
fight between Athena and Poseidon has become a
theme for dramas and poems.
● Latin used by the Romans became the
basis of many modern European languages like
English, French and Italians.
● The Roman Catholic Church also used
Latin and spread the language and its influence on
Europe during the Medieval Times.
 The Romans developed their own numbers.  The mathematical discoveries of the
ancient Greeks still influenced the modern-day
Mathematics.
 The Roman numbers are still used by
many countries today.
 The Romans were good at building roads, bridges, aqueducts and  The discovery of Archimedes still
viaducts. influenced the science world today.
● Hippocrates wrote a code of conduct for
doctors, the “Hippocratic Oath”, which the doctors still
take the oath today.
 Julius Caesar improved the Roman calendar. The calendar had 365 days  The Julian calendar was later improved
in a year and an extra day for every fourth year. to become our modern calendar.
8
Ethics and Religious  The Greeks worshipped many Gods who lived in northern
Studies Mount Olympus. They looked like human beings and had feelings.
 Zeus was the father of the gods. Other gods like Apollo
Religion and Athena (Goddess for Athens) were also popular. Each city-state had
its own god. For example, Poseidon was the god of Corinth.
 The Greeks made use of these gods to create a lot of
popular myths
 There were many great thinkers in ancient Greece.
 Socrates taught his students to ask questions to search for
truth, kindness and beauty. He liked to use dialogue to get his students to
think deeper. He wanted to improve the government in Athens. He was
critical of/ questioned the democratic government of Athens. The leaders
hated him and accused Socrates of corrupting the minds of the young
Philosophy people. He was then forced to drink poison and died at the age of 70.
(love of wisdom)  Plato, Socrates’ student, started the Athenian Academy to
teach philosophy and science. He also wrote about the ideal political
system in his book, The Republic. He was the first man to use the term
‘philosophy’. He wanted to improve government and society.
 Aristotle, Plato’s student and teacher of Alexander the
Great, wrote books about politics, philosophy, education and science. He
contributed to the spread of the Greek culture.
Physical Education  The Olympic Games, which was held to honour Zeus,
started in ancient Greece in 776 BC.
 Events such as running, jumping and chariot racing were
held. Winners of the Games would get a crown made of olive leaves.
 The Games took place every four years in Olympia in
southern Greece. All city-states would stop fighting in times of war
during the Games to ensure safe travel for athletes and other people.
Sports
 The Romans worshipped the Greek Gods but named them differently.
Each of them had its own temple.
 Christianity began in the Roman Empire in AD 1
st
century. It was first
illegal and became lawful when Constantine I ruled Rome. It later became the official
religion of the Roman Empire.
 The Romans loved to watch gladiator fights (usually held in the
Colosseum) and chariot races (usually held in a circus, largest: Circus Maximus
holding 200,000 people).
 Gladiators were mostly slaves or criminals. They fought with weapons
like swords, clubs or net. They could get killed.
 Gladiators and early Christians might be forced fight animals.
 The Romans liked to bet on the result of the chariot races.
 Many English words today could be
traced back to Greek myths.
 Some zodiac signs also came from the
Greek myths.
 Christianity influenced the European
political and cultural development for a long time.
 Socrates was the founder of dialectics in
Western philosophy
 The Athenian Academy existed for more
than 900 years and educated many talents
 The teachings of Plato influenced the
European philosophy and the cultural development
deeply while Aristotle’s philosophy could influence the
Islamic, Judaic and Christian theology
 The ancient Olympic Games was banned
by the Roman Emperor, Theodosius I in AD 390. The
ancient Olympic Games was considered as a pagan
activity when Christianity became the national religion
of the Roman Empire.
 The Games was restored by a French
scholar, de Coubertin, in AD 1896 and was held in
Athens.
 Since then, the Games would be held in
different cities every four years. The Olympic Games
and the olive branch are still the important symbols of
international peace and friendship.
 The 2008 Olympic Games was hosted in
Beijing, China.
 The 2012 Olympic Games was hosted in
London, Britain.
 The 2016 Olympic Games was hosted in
9

Music  The Greeks built many beautiful temples, such as the  The Romans built many palaces, temples, theatres, circuses and forums.
Visual Arts Parthenon in Athens. The buildings used marble columns with triangular  They took ideas from the Greeks and used tall columns in the buildings.
walls at the top.  They invented their own method to build very large arches (first
 The Greek artists used white marble and bronze to make developed by the Etruscans) and domes.
lively sculptures, especially statues, which looked alive with motion and  Famous buildings which are still standing today: the Colosseum, the
Architecture and Sculpture
emotion. Pantheon and the Roman Forum
 Sculptures in Gandhāra also displayed features of Greek  Roman sculptures were realistic with lively images.
sculptures like curly and wavy hair, no solid eyeballs and aquiline noses,  The relief sculptures on different Roman buildings such as triumphal
etc. arches and monumental columns would usually show the faces and costumes of the
persons in great details.
Other Aspects   The Romans liked going to public baths.
 The noble families had their own bathrooms.
 The baths were the social centres of every Roman city where the people
Entertainment could meet, talk, read, exercise, clean themselves and have a meal.
 th
At AD 4 century, there were about 1,000 public baths in the city of
Rome alone and sixteen of them were grant public baths. The Baths of Diocletian were
the biggest, in which 1,000 could have bath at the same time.
  Roman towns were carefully built. The city of Rome was a good
example.
 Many roads were built to link Rome with other places in the empire.
Roman roads were straight and flat so that the soldiers and traders could travel quickly.
Towns
High bridges called viaducts were built to carry a road across a valley.
 Aqueducts, high bridges that carried canals, were built to bring fresh
water from the mountain down to the city. Some aqueducts could be as long as 80 km.
 The Romans also built viaducts to carry a road across a valley.
 The Athenians started the system of democracy at about  The Romans took the Greek idea about democracy and developed their
500 BC and they used direct democracy. For example, they discussed republican system. The English word “republic” also comes from the Latin words, res
issues at the Citizens’ Assembly. publica, meaning the public affairs of the citizens. They adopted a kind of government
 Democracy is a system of government that is ruled by the with an upper house and a lower house.
people. The English word “democracy” comes from the two Greek  The political system of the Roman Republic embodied the principle of
Government
words, demo and kratos. balance of power, which stresses that the government should make up of three
 Demo: meaning people branches: the executive, legislative and the judicial branches. The political system of
 Kratos: meaning rule the Roman Empire becomes the model for many governments nowadays like the
 The Athenians always used lots to choose their government of the United States.
representatives and officers.  The legislature of the Roman Republic is made up of two houses, the
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
 The 2020 Olympic Games was hosted in
Tōkyō, Japan.
 Modern architects continue to copy the
look of these Greek and Roman buildings.
 For example, famous modern buildings
like the British Museum and the United States Capitol
Building are influenced by the ancient Greek
architectural style. The Court of Final Appeal Building
in Hong Kong was also influenced by the ancient
Greek and Roman architecture.
 The Roman mosaics has become the
decorations in medieval churches.

 Some Roman roads are still in use today.
 The Greek political system was the
origin of parliamentary democracy.
 The political system of the Roman
Empire becomes the model for many governments
nowadays. For example, the political system in the
United States adopts the principle of balance of power.
 The legislatures of many countries
nowadays are also made up of two houses.
 Many European rulers claimed to be
successors of the Roman Empire.
10
  However, timarchy was adopted in Sparta, which meant the
city-state was controlled by a few nobles. There were two kings in
Sparta, inherited from two families. In times of war, one king would fight
in the battles, and the other would manage the internal affairs.
● The ancient Greek law stated the rights and duties of the
citizens.
● Citizens’ Assemblies were set up in many ancient Greek
city-states to protect the rights of the citizens.
Law
Senate and the Assembly.
 The political structure of the Roman Empire had deep influence on
Europe. The Roman Empire was ruled by an Emperor who had supreme power. The
Emperor would appoint governors to rule different provinces.
 The Roman Republic introduced the Laws of the Twelve Tables. It laid  The ancient Greek political system laid
down the clear steps and principles to protect the rights of common people. They were the foundation of democratic concepts in the later laws.
displayed at the Forum of Rome for public reference.  Today, the laws of many countries are
 Later, the Roman Empire set up different types of laws to govern their based on Roman law, as it laid the foundation for the
large empire. concept of the rule of law in the western countries.
 The Roman law was strict and complete. It stated that everyone was
equal before the law.
 Roman laws protected people’s right to their property. Nobody could
take land away from a poor farmer. Roman citizens who lived outside Rome could
appeal to Rome when they were not tried fairly.

Some Greek and Roman Gods

http://mistupid.com/mythology/

Greek Name Roman Name Descriptions

Zeus Jupiter Lord of the sky and supreme ruler of the gods. Known for throwing lightening bolts.

Poseidon Neptune Ruler of the sea. Brother of Zeus. Carried a three-pronged spear known as a trident.

Hera Juno Zeus's wife and sister. Protector of marriage, spent most of her time punishing the many women Zeus fell in love with. Likes cows and peacocks.

Ares Mars God of war and son of Zeus and Hera. Likes vultures and dogs.

Athena Minerva Daughter of Zeus alone. She sprang from his head full-grown and in full armor. She is also the goddess of wisdom.

Apollo Apollo Son of Zeus. Master musician, archer god, healer, god of light, god of truth, sun god. A busy god who likes the laurel tree, dolphins, and crows.

Aphrodite Venus Daughter of Zeus. Goddess of Love and Beauty. Likes the myrtle tree, doves, sparrows, and swans.

Hermes Mercury Son of Zeus. Wore wings on his sandals and his hat, thus was graceful and swift.

11
 Medieval Europe

The Medieval Times (or Middle Ages) refer to the period between the ancient times and the modern times. From the fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 to the discovery of
America by Columbus in 1492.
Characteristics of feudal society
(a) Clear social division

- It was like a pyramid with the king at the top, then the nobles and
knights. The peasants were at the bottom.
- In a feudal society, the nobles were the vassals to their kings. The nobles
would also be the lords of their knights and peasants of their own fiefs
(land owned by the nobles).
- The lords would protect the vassals and the vassals should be loyal to
their lords and responsible for different kinds of services like paying taxes
and providing military services.
- All positions were hereditary in a feudal society.
- The manor system was the economic pillar of a feudal society. The
manors were owned by the lords of different ranks, with the lord’s castle
as the centre. Peasants living in the manor had to farm for their lords and
pay taxes.

(b) Christianity in the Middle Ages

The Christian Church had great influence over political, economic and cultural affairs in the Middle Ages.
During the Middle Ages, the Pope could crown a king. It was also the largest landowner in medieval Europe. It was also responsible for poor relief, medical services and other
social welfare.
(c) The Founding of Islam
Islam was founded by Muhammad, an Arab who was born in Mecca. When he was young, Muhammad was trading in Palestine and Syria. In AD 610, when Muhammad was
40 years old, he received messages from Allah through an angel. Allah was the only God, and Muhammad was sent by Allah to this world to preach Allah’s messages and save
people. Therefore, he founded Islam.
The word Islam came from Arabic, meaning submission. Muhammad preached in Mecca but he was forced to go to Medina by the local leaders. He organised his followers into
armed forces and form institutions as well as laws.

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