IU CalculusI Chap2

Chapter 2: DIFFERENTIATION
AM
PH
Duong T. PHAM
T.
g.
CALCULUS I
on
Du
Duong T. PHAM March 13, 2022 1 / 65

Outline
1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems. Rates of Change
AM
2 The Derivative. Higher-Order Derivatives
PH
3 Rules of Differentiation
4 Rates of change in the Natural and Social Sciences
T.
5 Implicit differentiation g.
on
6 Differentiation of inverse functions
Du
7 Linear approximation
8 Related Rates

Tangent line
f (xQ ) − f (a)
y = lim (x − a) + f (a)
y xQ →a xQ − a
AM
t f (xQ ) − f (a)
y= (x − a) + f (a)
PH
xQ − a
T.
f (xQ )
P Q
f (a)
g. y = f (x)
on
Du
a xQ x

Tangent line
Definition.
The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line
through P with slope
AM
f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x −a
PH
provided this limit exists.
T.
Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the
point P(1, 1). g.
on
Ans: The slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1) is
Du
f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2
x→1 x −1 x→1 x − 1 x→1
The tangent line is

y − 1 = 2(x − 1) (y = 2x − 1)
Tangent line
4 y = 2x − 1
AM
PH
T.
1
g.
on
x
−2 −1 1 2
Du
Graph of function f (x) = x 2

The Velocity Problem
Example. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the
upper observation deck of the CN Tower in Toronto,
450 m above the ground. Find the velocity of the
AM
ball after 5 seconds.
PH
Ans. Denote by s(t) : the distance fallen after t
seconds. Galileo’s law gives
T.
Figure: The CN Tower in Toronto
s(t) = 4.9t 2 .
g.
We can approximate the desired quantity by computing the average
on
velocity over the brief time interval of a tenth of a second from t = 5 to
Du
t = 5.1
change in position s(5.1) − s(5)
average velocity = =
time elapsed 0.1
2
4.9(5.1) − 4.9(5) 2
= = 49.49m/s.
0.1
The Velocity Problem
Time interval Average velocity (m/s)

5≤t≤6 53.9
AM
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.1 49.49
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.05
PH
49.245
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.01 49.049
5 ≤ t ≤ 5.001 49.0049
T.
It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average velocity is
g.
becoming closer to 49 m/s. The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is
on
defined to be the limiting value of these average velocities over shorter and
Du
shorter time periods that start at t = 5. Thus the (instantaneous) velocity

after 5 s is
v (5) = 49 m/s.

Derivative
Definition.
The derivative of a function f at a number x = a, denoted by f 0 (a), is
AM
f (x) − f (a)
PH
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x −a
T.
if this limit exists
g.
on
Remark: The limit in the above definition can be replaced by
Du
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h

Derivative
Ex: Find the derivative of f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 at the number x = a
AM
f (a + h) − f (a)
PH
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
(a + h)2 + 2(a + h) + 3 − (a2 + 2a + 3)
T.
= lim
h→0 h
(a + h)2 − a2 + 2h
g. (2a + h)h + 2h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
on
= lim (2a + h + 2)
Du
h→0
= 2a + 2

Derivative
Corollary.
The tangent line to to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) is given by
AM
y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a)
PH
Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 + 2x + 3
T.
at the point (0, 3)
Ans: In the previous example, we have found that
g.
on
f 0 (a) = 2a + 2.
Du
Thus, f 0 (0) = 2. Applying the above corollary, the desired tangent line is
y − 3 = 2(x − 0) or y = 2x + 3

Rate of change
Given a function y = f (x), if the variable x change from x1 to x2 ,

then the change in x is
AM
∆x = x2 − x1
PH
and the correponding change in y is
∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
T.
The difference quotient
g.
on
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
Du
∆x x2 − x1
is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over
the interval [x1 , x2 ]

Rate of change
AM
The instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x1 is
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
PH
instantaneous rate ∆y
= lim = lim
of change ∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x1 x2 − x1
T.
Note here that g.
on
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f 0 (x1 ) = lim = lim
∆x x2 − x1
Du
∆x→0 x2 →x1

Definition.
Given f : D → R, denote D ∗ := {x ∈ D such that f 0 (x) exists}. The
mapping
f 0 : D∗ → R
x 7→ f 0 (x)
AM
is a function of x and called the derivative of f
PH
Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 − x. Find f 0 (x).
T.
Ans: We have
f (x + h) − f (x)
g. (x + h)3 − (x + h) − (x 3 − x)
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
on
h→0 h h→0 h
h[(x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x 2 ] − h
Du
= lim
h→0 h

= lim (x + h) + (x + h)x + x 2 − 1
2
h→0
2
= 3x − 1

Derivative
y y
AM
y = x3 − x y = 3x 2 − 1
PH
T.
√1
3
−1
√
3
x −1
√
3
√1
3
x
g.
on
Du

Differentiable functions
Definition.
AM
A function f is differentiable at x = a if f 0 (a) exists.
It is differentiable on an interval (a, b) or (−∞, a) or (a, ∞) or
PH

(−∞, ∞) if it is differentiable at every point in the interval
T.
Remark: The following notations can be used to indicate the the
g.
derivative of a function y = f (x) at the number x:
on
Du
dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?
x > 0: then f (x) = |x| = x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have
x + h > 0. Thus
f (x + h)−f (x) |x + h| − |x| x + h−x
AM
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
PH
= lim 1 = 1
h→0
T.
=⇒ f is differentiable on (0, ∞)
g.
x < 0: then f (x) = |x| = −x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have
on
x + h < 0. Thus
Du
|x + h| − |x| −(x + h)−(−x)

f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
=⇒ f is differentiable on (−∞, 0)

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?
x = 0: then
f (0 + h)−f (0) |0 + h| − |0| h
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
AM
and
PH
f (0 + h)−f (0) |0 + h| − |0| −h
lim = lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1.
h→0− h h→0 − h h→0 − h h→0−
T.
We note here that
g.
f (0 + h)−f (0) f (0 + h)−f (0)
on
lim 6= lim
h→0+ h h→0− h
Du
f (0 + h)−f (0)
=⇒ lim does not exist
h→0 h
=⇒ f is NOT differentiable at x = 0
Conclusion: f is differentiable in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

Differentiability
AM
2
PH
1
T.
−2
g.−1 1 2 x
on
Du
Graph of function f (x) = |x|

Differentiability =⇒ continuity?
Theorem.
If f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a
AM
f (x) − f (a)
Proof: f is differentiable at a =⇒ lim exists ( = L )
x→a x −a
PH
Then f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · (x − a)
x→a x→a x −a
T.
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · lim (x − a)
g. x→a x −a x→a
= L · 0 = 0.
on
Du
Thus, lim f (x) = lim [f (x) − f (a) + f (a)]

x→a x→a
= lim [f (x) − f (a)] + lim f (a)
x→a x→a
= 0 + f (a) = f (a).
=⇒ f is continuous at a.
Higher derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then f 0 is also function. If f 0 also has a
derivative, we then denote f 00 = (f 0 )0 , and f 00 is called the second deriva-
tive of f . We can write
d 2f

AM
00 d df
f = = 2
dx dx dx
PH
Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 − x. Find f 00 (x).
T.
Ans: On slide 52, we have found that f 0 (x) = 3x 2 − 1. Thus
f 0 (x + h) − f 0 (x)
g. 3(x + h)2 − 1 − (3x 2 − 1)
f 00 (x) = lim = lim
on
h→0 h h→0 h
3h(2x + h)
Du
= lim = lim [3(2x + h)]

h→0 h h→0
= 6x
Def: The third derivative f 000 is defined to be the derivative of f 00 , i.e.,

f 000 = (f 00 )0 and so on ...
Derivative of a constant function
Let c be a constant. Then
AM
d
(c) = 0
dx
PH
Proof: We have f (x) = c. Then
T.
d f (x + h) − f (x) c −c
(c) = lim
g. = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
on
0
= lim = lim 0
Du
h→0 h h→0
= 0.

Derivatives of power functions
The power rule: If n is a positive integer, then

d n
(x ) = nx n−1
AM
dx
PH
Proof: If f (x) = x n , then
T.
d n f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − x n
(x ) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h g. h→0 h
n−1 + (x + h) x + . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1
n−2

h (x + h)
on
= lim
h→0 h
Du
= lim (x + h)n−1 + (x + h)n−2 x + . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1

h→0
n−1
= nx

The power rule
The power rule (General version): If α is any real number , then
AM
d α
(x ) = αx α−1
dx
PH
d √

d 1
Ex: Find and x
T.
dx x2 dx
Ans: g.
d 1 d −2
on
x −2 = (−2)x −2−1 = −2x −3 = 3

=
dx x2 dx x
Du
d √ d 1/2 1 1 1 1 1
x = x = x 2 −1 = x − 2 = √
dx dx 2 2 2 x

The constant multiple rule
The constant multiple rule: If c is a constant and f is a differentiable

function, then
d d
AM
[cf (x)] = c f (x)
dx dx
PH
Proof: Let g (x) = cf (x), then
d g (x + h) − g (x) cf (x + h) − cf (x)
T.
g (x) = lim = lim
dx h→0
h h→0
h
f (x + h) − f (x)
g. f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c = c lim
on
h→0 h h→0 h
d
Du
= c f (x)
dx
d d
Ex: (3x 4 ) = 3 (x 4 ) = 3 · 4x 3 = 12x 3
dx dx

The sum rule
The sum rule: If f are g are both differentiable functions, then
d d d
[f (x) + g (x)] = f (x) + g (x)
dx dx dx
AM
Proof: Let k(x) = f (x) + g (x), then
PH
d k(x + h) − k(x) f (x + h) + g (x + h) − [f (x) + g (x)]
k(x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0
h
T.

f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x)
= lim +
h→0 h h
g.
f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x)
on
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
Du
d d
= f (x) + g (x)
dx dx
Remark: The sum rule can be extended to sums of any number of
functions. For example,
(f + g + k)0 = f 0 + g 0 + k 0
Derivative of exponential functions
AM
(e x )0 = e x
PH
(ax )0 = ax ln a
1
(ln x)0 =
T.
x
0 1 g.
(loga x) =
x ln a
on
Du

The product rule
The product rule: If f and g are differentiable function, then
d d d
[f (x)g (x)] = g (x) f (x) + f (x) g (x)
AM
dx dx dx
PH
Proof: Let k(x) = f (x)g (x), then
d k(x + h) − k(x) f (x + h)g (x + h) − f (x)g (x)
T.
k(x) = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
= lim

g.
[f (x + h) − f (x)]g (x + h) f (x)[g (x + h) − g (x)]
+

on
h→0 h h
f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x)
Du
= lim · lim g (x + h) + f (x) · lim

h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
d d
= g (x) f (x) + f (x) g (x)
dx dx

The quotient rule
The quotient rule: If u and v are differentiable function, then
u 0 (x)v (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)

d u(x)
=
dx v (x) v (x)2
AM
PH
Proof: Exercise
x2 − x + 3
Ex: Let y = . Find y 0 .
T.
x +2
Ans:
g.
(x 2 − x + 3)0 (x + 2) − (x 2 − x + 3)(x + 2)0
y0 =
on
(x + 2)2
Du
(2x − 1)(x + 2) − (x 2 − x + 3)
=
(x + 2)2
x 2 + 5x − 5
=
(x + 2)2

Differentiation formulae
AM
d d α
dx (c) =0 dx (x ) = αx α−1
PH
d x d
dx (e ) = ex x
dx (a ) = ax ln a
T.
(cf )0 = cf 0 (f ± g )0 = f 0 ± g 0
g. 0
f 0 g −fg 0
on
(fg )0 = f 0 g + fg 0 f
g = g2
Du

Derivatives of trigonometric functions
AM
1 1
Recall that sec x = and csc x = . The following identities are
cos x sin x
true:
PH
(sin x)0 = cos x (cos x)0 = − sin x
T.
(tan x)0 = 1
g.
cos2 x
(cot x)0 = − sin12 x
on
(csc x)0 = − csc x cot x (sec x)0 = sec x tan x
Du

The chain rule
The chain rule: Let f be differentiable at a and let g be differentiable at

f (a) =⇒ the composition g ◦ f is differentiable at a and
(g ◦ f )0 (a) = g 0 (f (a)) · f 0 (a)
AM
Proof: We have
PH
(g ◦ f )(a + h) − (g ◦ f )(a) g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a))
(g ◦ f )0 (a) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0
h
T.

g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a)) f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim ·
h→0 f (a + h) − f (a)
g. h
on
g (f (a + h)) − g (f (a)) f (a + h) − f (a)
= lim · lim
f (a + h) − f (a) h
Du
h→0 h→0
0 0
= g (f (a)) · f (a)
Note that in the last argument we use the fact that f is continuous at a
because it is differentiable at a, and thus f (a + h) → f (a) as h goes to 0.

The chain rule
√
Ex: Let k(x) = x 2 + 1. Find f 0 (x)
Ans:
AM
√
Denote f (x) = x 2 + 1 and g (x) = x. Then
PH
k(x) = g (f (x)) = (g ◦ f )(x).
T.
Applying the Chain Rule,
g.
k 0 (x) = g 0 (f (x)) · f 0 (x).
on
√
x =⇒ g 0 (x) = 1
=⇒ g 0 (f (x)) = √1 √1
Du
g (x) = √
2 x
= 2 x 2 +1
2 f (x)
f (x) = x 2 + 1 =⇒ f 0 (x) = 2x
2x x
=⇒ k 0 (x) = √ =√
2
2 x +1 2
x +1

The power rule combined with the chain rule
For any α ∈ R, we have
AM
d α du
u = αu α−1
dx dx
PH
Ex: Differentiate y = (x 3 − 1)100 .
T.
Ans: We have
dy
=
d g.
[(x 3 − 1)100 ] = 100(x 3 − 1)100−1 (x 3 − 1)0
on
dx dx
= 100(x 3 − 1)99 (3x 2 )
Du
= 300(x 3 − 1)99 x 2

Physics
Example. The position of a particle is given by the equation
s = f (t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t
AM
where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.
(i) Find the velocity at time t.
PH
(ii) What is the velocity after 2 s? After 4 s?
T.
(iii) When is the particle at rest?
(iv) When is the particle moving forward (that is, in the positive direction)?
g.
on
(v) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
Du
(vi) Find the total distance traveled by the particle during the first five seconds.
(vii) Find the acceleration at time and after 4s.
(viii) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
(ix) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?

Ans.
(i) The position function: s = f (t) = t 3 − 6t 2 + 9t. The velocity is
ds
v (t) = = 3t 2 − 12t + 9.
dt
AM
(ii) The velocity after 2s means the instantaneous velocity when t = 2,
that is,
PH
ds
v (2) = = 3 × 22 − 12 × 2 + 9 = −3m/s.
dt t=2
T.
The velocity after 4 s is
g.
v (4) = 3 × 42 − 12 × 4 + 9 = 9m/s.
on
Du
(iii) When is the particle at rest? The particle is at rest when v (t) = 0 ,
that is
3t 2 − 12t + 9 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) = 0 ⇐⇒ t = 1 or t = 3.
Thus the particle is at rest after 1 s and after 3 s.

(iv) When is the particle moving forward? The particle moves in the
positive direction when v (t) > 0, that is,
v (t) > 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) > 0 ⇐⇒ t < 1 or t > 3.
AM
The particle is moving backward when 1 ≤ t ≤ 3 .
PH
(v) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
T.
g.
on
Du

(vi) Total distance traveled after 5s? We need to calculate the distances
traveled during the time intervals [0, 1], [1, 3], and [3, 5] separately.
The distance traveled in the first second is
AM
|f (1) − f (0)| = |4 − 0| = 4.
PH
From t = 1 to t = 3 the distance traveled is
T.
|f (3) − f (1)| = |0 − 4| = 4.
g.
From t = 3 to t = 5 the distance traveled is
on
Du
|f (5) − f (3)| = |20 − 0| = 20.
The total distance is 4 + 4 + 20 = 28m.

(vii) The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function:
d 2s dv
a(t) = 2
= = (3t 2 − 12t + 9)0t = 6t − 12
dt dt
a(4) = 6 × 4 − 12 = 12m/s 2
AM
(viii) the graphs of s, v and a:
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

(ix) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?
AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Example. If a rod or piece of wire is homogeneous, then its linear density
is uniform and is defined as the mass per unit length (ρ = m/`) and
measured in kilograms per meter. Suppose, however, that the rod is not
homogeneous but that its mass measured from its left end to a point is
m = f (x)
AM
PH
T.
The mass of the part of the rod that lies between x = x1 and x = x2 is
given by ∆m = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ), so the average density of that part of the
rod is
g. ∆m f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
on
average density = =
∆x x2 − x1
Du
The linear density ρ at x1 is the limit of these average densities as

∆x → 0 , that is, the linear density is
∆m dm
ρ = lim = .
∆x→0 ∆x dx
Thus the linear density of the rod is the derivative of mass w.r.t. length.
Example. A current exists whenever electric charges move. The figure
shows part of a wire and electrons moving through a shaded plane surface.
AM
If ∆Q is the net charge that passes through this surface during a time
PH
period ∆t, then the average current during this time interval is defined as
Q2 − Q1
T.
∆Q
average current = =
∆t t2 − t1
g.
If we take the limit of this average current over smaller and smaller time
on
intervals, we get what is called the current I at a given time t1 :
Du
∆Q dQ
I = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Thus the current is the rate at which charge flows through a surface. It is
measured in units of charge per unit time (often coulombs per second,
called amperes).
Physics
AM
Remark. Velocity, density, and current are not the only rates of change that are
PH
important in physics. Others include power (the rate at which work is done), the
rate of heat flow, temperature gradient (the rate of change of temperature with
T.
respect to position), and the rate of decay of a radioactive substance in nuclear
physics. g.
on
Du

Chemistry
Example. 2H2 + O2 −→ 2H2 O: two molecules of hydrogen and one
molecule of oxygen form two molecules of water.
Consider the reaction: A + B −→ C, where A, B: reactants and C:
AM
product.
The concentration of a reactant A is the number of moles (1 mole
PH
= 6.022 × 1023 molecules) per liter and is denoted by [A].
The concentration varies during a reaction, so [A], [B], and [C] are all
T.
functions of t.
The average rate of reaction of the product C over a time interval
g.
t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 is
on
∆[C] [C](t2 ) − [C](t1 )
Du
=
∆t t2 − t1
Instantaneous rate of reaction is
∆[C] d[C]
rate of reaction = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Chemistry
Consider the reaction: A + B −→ C.
Since the concentration of the product increases as the reaction
proceeds, the derivative d[C]/dt will be positive, and so the rate of
AM
reaction of C is positive.
The concentrations of the reactants, however, decrease during the
PH
reaction. Thus, d[A]/dt and d[B]/dt are negative.
Since A and B each decrease at the same rate that C increases, we
T.
have
g. d[C] d[A] d[B]
rate of reaction= =− =− .
on
dt dt dt
Du
Consider the reaction: aA + bB −→ cC + dD. There holds

1 d[A] 1 d[B] 1 d[C] 1 d[D]
− =− = =
a dt b dt c dt d dt
Biology
Example. Let n = f (t) be the number of individuals in an animal or
plant population at time t. The change in the population size between the
times t = t1 and t = t2 is ∆n = f (t2 ) − f (t1 ), and so the average rate of
AM
growth during the time period is
∆n f (t2 ) − f (t1 )
PH
average rate of growth = =
∆t t2 − t1
T.
The instantaneous rate of growth is
g. ∆n dn
growth rate = lim = .
on
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Du
Strictly speaking, this is not quite accurate because the actual graph of a
population function n = f (t) would be a step function that is
discontinuous whenever a birth or death occurs and therefore not
differentiable. However, for a large animal or plant population, we can
replace the graph by a smooth approximating curve as in the figure.
Biology
AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Example. Consider a population of bacteria in a homogeneous nutrient
medium. Suppose that by sampling the population at certain intervals it is
determined that the population doubles every hour. If the initial
population is n0 and the time t is measured in hours, then
f (1) = 2f (0) = 2n0 , f (2) = 2f (1) = 22 n0 , . . . , f (t) = 2t n0
AM
The population function is n = 2t n0 . So the rate of growth of the bacteria
PH
population at time t is
T.
dn d
= (2t n0 )= n0 2t ln 2.
dt dt
g.
on
For example, if n0 = 100 bacteria. The rate of growth after 4 hours is
Du
dn
= 100 × 24 ln 2 ≈ 1109.
dt t=4

This means that, after 4 hours, the bacteria population is growing at a

rate of about 1109 bacteria per hour.
Example. When we consider the flow of blood through a blood vessel,
such as a vein or artery, we can model the shape of the blood vessel by a
cylindrical tube with radius R and length l as illustrated in the figure
AM
PH
Because of friction at the walls of the tube, the velocity v of the
blood is greatest along the central axis of the tube and decreases as
T.
the distance r from the axis increases until v becomes 0 at the wall.
The relationship between v and r is given by the law of laminar flow
g.
discovered by the French physician Jean-Louis-Marie Poiseuille in
on
1840.
Du
This law states that

P
v= (R 2 − r 2 )
4ηl
where η is the viscosity of the blood and P is the pressure difference
between the ends of the tube
P
v= (R 2 − r 2 ).
4ηl
If P and l are constant, then v is a function of r with domain [0, R].
The average rate of change of the velocity as we move from r = r1
outward to r = r2 is given by
AM
∆v v (r2 ) − v (r1 )
=
PH
∆r r2 − r1
Velocity gradient, i.e. the instantaneous rate of change of velocity v
T.
w.r.t. r is: ∆v dv Pr
velocity gradient = lim
g. = =−
∆r →0 ∆r dr 2ηl
on
Du
For one of the smaller human arteries we can take η = 0.027,

R = 0.008cm, l = 2cm, P = 4000 dynes/m2 .
4000
v= (0.0082 − r 2 )
4 × 0.027 × 2
At r = 0.002cm, the blood is flowing at a speed of
4000
v (0.002) = (0.0082 − 0.0022 ) ≈ 1.11cm/s.
4 × 0.027 × 2
AM
The velocity gradient at that point is
PH
dv 4000 × 0.002
=− ≈ −74(cm/s)/cm.
dt t=0.002 2 × 0.027 × 2

T.
(1cm = 10, 000µm). Then the radius of the artery is 80µm. The
g.
velocity at the central axis is 11, 850µm/s, which decreases to
on
11, 110µm/s at a distance of r = 20µm.
Du
The fact that dv /dr = −74(cm/s)/cm means that, when r = 20µm,

the velocity is decreasing at a rate of about 74(cm/s) for each
micrometer that we proceed away from the center.

Economics
Example. Suppose that C (x) is the total cost that a company incurs in
producing x units of a certain commodity. The function C is called a cost
function.
AM
If the number of items produced is increased from x1 to x2 , then the
additional cost is ∆C = C (x2 ) − C (x1 ).
PH
The average rate of change of the cost is
∆C C (x2 ) − C (x1 ) C (x1 + ∆x) − C (x1 )
T.
= = .
∆x x2 − x1 ∆x
g.
The instantaneous rate of change of cost w.r.t. the number of items
on
produced, is called the marginal cost by economists:
Du
∆C dC
marginal cost = lim = .
∆x→0 ∆x dt
Remark. Since x often takes on only integer values, it may not make
literal sense to let ∆x approach 0, but we can always replace C (x) by a
smooth approximating function as in the previous example.
Economics
Taking ∆x = 1 and n large (so that ∆x is small compared to n), we

have
AM
C 0 (n) ≈ C (n + 1) − C (n)
PH
Thus the marginal cost of producing units is approximately equal to
the cost of producing one more unit [the n + 1st unit]
T.
It is often appropriate to represent a total cost function by a
polynomial g.
C (x) = a + bx + cx 2 + dx 3
on
Du
where a represents the overhead cost (rent, heat, maintenance) and

the other terms represent the cost of raw materials, labor, and so on.
(The cost of raw materials may be proportional to x, but labor costs
might depend partly on higher powers of x because of overtime costs
and inefficiencies involved in large-scale operations.)

Example. For instance, suppose a company has estimated that the cost
(in dollars) of producing x items is
C (x) = 10, 000 + 5x + 0.01x 2 .

Then the marginal cost function is C 0 (x) = 5 + 0.02x.
AM
The marginal cost at the production level of 500 items is
PH
C 0 (500) = 5 + 0.02 × 500 = $15/item.
T.
This gives the rate at which costs are increasing with respect to the
production level when x = 500 and predicts the cost of the 501st
item.
g.
on
The actual cost of producing the 501st item is
Du
C (501) − C (500) = [104 + 5·501 + 0.01·5012 ] − [104 + 5·500 + 0.01·5002 ]

= $15.01.
Notice that C 0 (500) ≈ C (501) − C (500).

Implicit differentiation
If a function is given as an expression of the variable y = f (x), then

we can use definition and differentiation rules to compute y 0 .
√
AM
E.g., given y = x + 1. Then y 0 = 2√1x+1
PH
However, if the function y is given implicitly as a relation between x
and y , then we need to use the method of implicit differentiation
E.g., given x 3 + y 3 = 6xy . We need to find y 0 ?
T.
E.g., Differentiating both sides, noting that y is a function of x,
g.
on
(x 3 + y 3 )0x = (6xy )0x ⇐⇒ 3x 2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 6y + 6xy 0
Du
⇐⇒ (y 2 − 2x)y 0 = 2y − x 2
2y − x 2
⇐⇒ y 0 =
y 2 − 2x

Implicit differentiation
Ex: Find y 00 if x 4 + y 4 = 16
Ans: Differentiating both sides to obtain
AM
x3
(x 4 + y 4 )0x = (16)0x ⇐⇒ 4x 3 + 4y 3 y 0 = 0 =⇒ y 0 = −
y3
PH
Differentiating both sides of the blue equation
T.
0
x3 (x 3 )0x y 3 − x 3 (y 3 )0x 3x 2 y 3 − 3x 3 y 2 y 0

00
y =− =−g. = −
y3x y6 y6
on
3
3x 2 y 3 − 3x 3 y 2 − yx 3 4 4
2x + y
Du
=− = −3x
y6 y7
48x 2
=− 7
y

Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions
AM
(sin−1 x)0 = √ 1 (cos−1 x)0 = − √1−x
1
PH
1−x 2 2
T.
(tan−1 x)0 = 1
1+x 2
(cot−1 x)0 = − 1+x
1
2
(sec−1 x)0 = √1
g. (csc−1 x)0 = − x √x12 −1
on
x x 2 −1
Du

Differentiation of inverse functions
The inverse of f is denoted f −1 . Their two derivatives, assuming they

exist, are reciprocal, as the Leibniz notation suggests; that is:
AM
dx dy
· = 1.
dy dx
PH
Hence,
0 1
f −1 (a) =

T.
.
f 0 (f −1 (a))
g. √
Example. y = x 2 (for positive x) has inverse x = y . We have
on
dy dx 1 1
Du
= 2x, = √ =
dx dy 2 y 2x
Here, there holds

dy dx 1
· = 2x · = 1.
dx dy 2x
Linear approximation
0
y = f (a)(x − a) + f (a)
y
t
AM
f 0 (a)(x ∗ − a) + f (a))
PH
f (x ∗ )
P Q
f (a)
y = f (x)
T.
g.
on
a x∗ x
Du
The approximation f (x ∗ ) ≈ f 0 (a)(x ∗ − a) + f (a) is called the linear

approximation of f at a∗ .
The function L(x) = f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a) is the linearization of f

Linear approximation
√
Ex: Write the linearization
√ of f (x) √
= x + 3 at x = 1, then use it to
approximate the values 3.95 and 4.05
AM
Ans:
The linearization at x = 1 is
PH
1 √ x 7
L(x) = f 0 (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = √ (x − 1) + 1 + 3 = +
2 1+3 4 4
T.
The corresponding linear approximation is
g.
on
√ x 7
x +3≈ + (when x is near 1)
Du
4 4
√ √ 0.95 7
In particular, 3.95 = 0.95 + 3 ≈ 4 + 4 = 1.9875
√ √ 1.05 7
and 4.05 = 1.05 + 3 ≈ 4 + 4 = 2.0125

Related Rates
If we are pumping air into a balloon, both the volume and the radius
AM
of the balloon are increasing and their rates of increase are related to
each other. But it is much easier to measure directly the rate of
PH
increase of the volume than the rate of increase of the radius.
T.
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change
of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity
g.
(which may be more easily measured).
on
The procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities
Du
and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect
to time.

Related Rates
Ex. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume in-
creases at a rate of 100 cm3 /s. How fast is the radius of the balloon
AM
increasing when the diameter is 50 cm?
Given information: the rate of increase of the volume of air is 100
PH
cm3 /s
Unknown: the rate of increase of the radius when the diameter is 50
T.
cm?
g.
Denote V (t) : volume of the balloon at time t
on
r (t) : radius of the balloon at time t.
The rate of increase of the volume V (t) w.r.t. time is dV /dt
Du
The rate of increase of the radius r (t) w.r.t. time is dr /dt

dV dr
Hence, = 100cm3 /s. Question: =? when r = 25cm.
dt dt

Related rates
4
We have V = πr 3 . Differentiate with respect to t
3
AM
dV dV dr dr dr 1 dV
= = 4πr 2 =⇒ = .
PH
dt dr dt dt dt 4πr 2 dt
dV
T.
When r = 25 and = 100, we have
dt
g.
dr 1 1
on
= 2
100 =
dt 4π25 25π
Du
The radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of

1/(25π) ≈ 0.0127 cm/s

Ex. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the
ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top
of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft
from the wall?
AM
x(t), y (t)
PH
dx
When = 1 ft/s,
dt
dy
T.
x = 6 ft , =?
dt
g.
on
Pythagorean Theorem: x 2 + y 2 = 102 . Differentiate both sides w.r.t. t,
Du
dx dy dy x dx p
2x + 2y = 0 =⇒ =− when x = 6, y = 102 − 62 = 8,
dt dt dt y dt
dy 6 3
thus =− ·1 =− ft/s
dt 8 4
Ex. A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base
radius 2 m and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a
rate of 2m3 /min, find the rate at which the water level is rising when the
water is 3 m deep.
Denote V (t) : volume of water at time t
AM
r (t) : radius of the surface at time t
h(t) : height of water at time t
PH
dV
Given = 2m3 /min. Q: dh
dt dt when h = 3m?
T.
1
We have V = πr 2 h
3
r
= 2
=⇒ r = h
g.
1 h 2
π 3
=⇒ V = 3 π 2 h = h . Differentiate w.r.t. t,
on
h 4 2 12
Du
dV π dh dh 4 dV dV
= h2 =⇒ = 2
. Substitute h = 3m, = 2m3 /min
dt 4 dt dt πh dt dt
dh 4 8 8
= · 2 = . The water level is rising at a rate of 9π ≈ 0.28m/min
dt π32 9π

Related Rates
Strategy:
Read the problem carefully.
AM
Draw a diagram if possible.
Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are
PH
functions of time.
Express the given information and the required rate in terms of
T.
derivatives.
Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem.
g.
If necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the
on
variables by substitution
Du
Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to t.
Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve
for the unknown rate.

IU CalculusI Chap2

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IU CalculusI Chap2

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Chapter 2: DIFFERENTIATION

Duong T. PHAM March 13, 2022 1 / 65

1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems. Rates of Change

4 Rates of change in the Natural and Social Sciences

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The tangent line is

Graph of function f (x) = x 2

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Time interval Average velocity (m/s)

shorter time periods that start at t = 5. Thus the (instantaneous) velocity

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Ex: Find the derivative of f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 at the number x = a

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Given a function y = f (x), if the variable x change from x1 to x2 ,

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|x + h| − |x| −(x + h)−(−x)

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Conclusion: f is differentiable in (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

Graph of function f (x) = |x|

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Thus, lim f (x) = lim [f (x) − f (a) + f (a)]

= lim = lim [3(2x + h)]

Def: The third derivative f 000 is defined to be the derivative of f 00 , i.e.,

Let c be a constant. Then

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The power rule: If n is a positive integer, then

= lim (x + h)n−1 + (x + h)n−2 x + . . . + (x + h)x n−2 + x n−1

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The power rule (General version): If α is any real number , then

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The constant multiple rule: If c is a constant and f is a differentiable

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d k(x + h) − k(x) f (x + h)g (x + h) − f (x)g (x)

= lim · lim g (x + h) + f (x) · lim

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u 0 (x)v (x) − u(x)v 0 (x)

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The chain rule: Let f be differentiable at a and let g be differentiable at

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For any α ∈ R, we have

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3t 2 − 12t + 9 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) = 0 ⇐⇒ t = 1 or t = 3.

Thus the particle is at rest after 1 s and after 3 s.

v (t) > 0 ⇐⇒ 3(t − 1)(t − 3) > 0 ⇐⇒ t < 1 or t > 3.

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|f (5) − f (3)| = |20 − 0| = 20.

The total distance is 4 + 4 + 20 = 28m.

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