URBANIZATION

By

Sarthika Singhal

21LLB141

Semester II

Name of the Program: 5 Years B.A., LL.B.(Hons.)

Professor (Dr.) Ganta Satyanarayana

Date of Submission:

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

NYAYPRSTHA, SABBAVARAM,
VISAKHAPATNAM – 531035, ANDHRA PRADESH
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................2
SYNOPSIS.................................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................4
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY.............................................................................................5
LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................6
SCOPE OF THE STUDY......................................................................................................6
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.......................................................................................6
RESEARCH QUESTIONS....................................................................................................7
MODE OF CITATION..........................................................................................................7
THE DECLINE OF AMERICAN HEGEMONY CAUSED BY AMERICAN
DISCONTINUED FOREIGN POLICY....................................................................................7
American hegemony..............................................................................................................7
The discontinued foreign policy.............................................................................................8
Lack of American leadership puts the world's security at jeopardy.......................................8
China's Failure to Replace the United States.......................................................................10
Remarks................................................................................................................................11
TERRORISM...........................................................................................................................12
What exactly is terrorism?...................................................................................................12
Why is it the most significant global threat?........................................................................13
Global problem evaluation...................................................................................................15
Statistics of International Terrorism.....................................................................................17
THE POSSIBILITY OF NUCLEAR TERRORISM...............................................................18
TACKLING TERRORISM.....................................................................................................20
International efforts..............................................................................................................21
Domestic efforts...................................................................................................................22
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................22
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................23
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank and express my indebtedness to our Sociology professor Dr. Ganta
Satyanarayana Sir for her immense support and directions in the making of the project. The
making of this project would not have been possible without her assistance.

I would like to extend my gratitude to the DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL

LAW UNIVERSITY library and the academic department for their continuous support and
availability of resources and books without which it would have been impossible to complete
this project within the stipulated time frame.

I would also like to express my gratitude to my parents and classmates for their unconditional
support, as well as their ideas and viewpoints, which helped me move forward with my
project.

Thankyou.

Sarthika Singhal
 SYNOPSIS

ABSTRACT
Globalization has had a significant influence on countries like India, resulting in increased
economic growth and, as a result, an increasingly urbanised India. Historically, India's
population has been largely rural, but since 1991, the urban population has grown, and it now
accounts for more than 30% of the country's overall population. Although, in India,
urbanisation has been fuelled by significant economic expansion, particularly in the latter
decade of the twentieth century, and there has been a shift from a rural economy focused on
agriculture and associated industries to a modern one centred on industrial activity. However,
as India's urbanisation process accelerates, we are witnessing its negative consequences in
metropolitan areas by the way of lack of basic facilities like safe drinking water, shelter,
transport etc. Based on Indian census data from 1901 to 2011, regional differences in urban
population distribution are considerable. Due to fast industrialisation and rural-to-urban
migration, India's urban population has expanded from 2.58 crores in 1901 to 37.71 crores in
2011. The percentage of people living in cities has climbed from 11% in 1901 to 31% in
2011, indicating that urbanisation is causing problems. As a result, a major makeover of
Indian cities is urgently required.

The research thus examines recent trends of urbanisation in India and draws a comparison as
to what all have changed since the past. Further, the researcher has tried to present to the
readers an in-depth paper relation to the factors concerning urbanisation and consequent
effects of urbanisation in India. The study also try to give particular attention on the
emerging issues and challenges. The study also concluded by stating recommendations to
overcome the negative consequences of urbanization through policy changes and societal
changes in India.
INTRODUCTION
"As a process that manifests itself via temporal, geographical, and sectoral changes in the
demographic, social, economic, technical, and environmental components of life in a
particular society," defines urbanisation. Urbanization is the gradual concentration of people
in urban areas. These changes are manifested in the rising concentration of population in
human settlements bigger than villages, in people's increased engagement in secondary and
tertiary production activities, and in the progressive adoption of some social qualities typical
of traditional rural civilizations." Urbanization is not just tied to industrialization, but it is
also linked to modernization, and the three of them can occasionally operate together. In
wealthy countries, the trend of urbanisation has been sluggish but steady.

Globalization has resulted in tremendous expansion in the global economy, as well as faster
and easier movement of people, goods, and capital. And, as a result of globalisation, one
notion that has taken off is urbanisation. The notion of urbanisation is an important aspect of
the development process. Industrialization and urbanisation are inextricably linked; just as
agriculture promotes the establishment of villages, industry promotes the rise of cities.

The many established or industrialised countries, as well as a few emerging ones, have a tight
association between urbanisation and economic growth. As a result, many people today live
in cities, towns, and other urban regions, which have fostered the evolution of knowledge and
served as incubators for civilization and growth engines. Almost every country's urban
population will increase, since urban areas now house the majority of the world's population
for the first time in human history. However, the urbanisation process is accompanied by a
number of issues, which are connected to the provision of fundamental infrastructure and
services in urban areas, such as water supply, sanitation, housing, and transportation, and are
related to the uncontrollable expansion of people in urban regions.

The urbanisation process has been rising at a rapid pace in India, which is one of the world's
fastest emerging economies. Since the 1990s, our country's concentration on economic
liberalisation, banking sector reforms, and the decentralisation process has contributed to
greater economic growth, putting the economic importance of cities into closer focus.

It is pertinent to identify the main issues which are concern with the process of urbanization
in India and other developing countries as well. These are economic, demographic, political
and social and Cultural. Urbanization has been viewed as an important factor in the areas of
economic transformation, orchestrating the breakdown of the feudal order and taking
societies to higher levels of social formation. Urbanization is intrinsically connected and
irrevocably enlaced with the development process, as an essential strand in the contemporary
economic system. At the same time, some scholars argue that “urbanization is not merely a
concomitant of industrialization, but a concomitant of the whole gamut of factors underlying
the process of economic growth and social change.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

o To examine recent trends of urbanisation in India and draws a comparison as to what
all have changed since the past.
o To present to the readers an in-depth paper relation to the factors concerning
urbanisation and consequent effects of urbanisation in India.
o To give particular attention on the emerging issues and challenges.
o To recommendations to overcome the negative consequences of urbanization through
policy changes and societal changes in India.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The researcher has taken help of journals and books to analyse urbanisation and its trends. By
the middle of the twenty-first century, India's urbanisation will have engulfed more than half
of its inhabitants. However, India's urbanisation process differs significantly from that of
other nations, particularly the Western world, where it arose as a result of the gradual
integration of industry and urbanisation. As a result, there is a wide range of literature on the
subject of urbanisation in India. The following are some of the most important literatures:
Lalit Batra, 'A Review of Urbanization and Urban Policy in Post-Independent India,' (2009)
In this paper, he tries to provide insight into the existence of urban policy from the British
rule to the post-independence period (here the shift in urban policy in every Five Year Plan
period) and, more importantly, he tries to provide insight into the existence of urban policy
from the British rule to the post-independence period (here the shift in urban policy in every
Five Year Plan period. 'Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services,' Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India, 2011. According to this report, India's
urbanisation is unavoidable, so addressing the various issues that come with it will necessitate
a combination of actions, beginning with increased investment, strengthening the governance
framework, and, most importantly, capacity building for people and institutions involved in
urban affairs. In her book 'Transforming Our Cities: Postcards of Change,' (2014), Isher
Judge Ahluwalia addresses how the majority of cities in India have been suffering significant
issues on all fronts, or in other words, how the government manages urban areas. The absence
of essential amenities such as excellent roads, water, housing, parks, and power are among
the reasons. Although Isher Judge Ahluwalia also provided references to other Indian cities
that have taken positive initiatives to address urbanization-related challenges. As a result, a
major makeover of Indian cities is urgently required. As a result, there are several relevant
literatures on the subject of this study, and the writers attempted to bring them all together in
one piece to provide a unique study on the subject of urbanisation in India.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The researcher has used primary as well as secondary sources of data to provide support to
this paper. It is a composite research paper where the researcher has used descriptive,
narrative, expository and analytical methods to study urbanisation and its principles in India.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The paper has been confined to the study of the urbanization and trends in India, but is not
concerned with Urbanization in countries other than India. Further, the Census of India is
only used to support researcher’s stances on urbanisation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is necessary to identify the major factors that are affecting India's and other emerging
countries' urbanisation processes. Economic, demographic, political, social, and cultural
factors all have a role. Urbanization has long been seen as a key component in economic
transition, orchestrating the fall of the feudal system and propelling civilizations to higher
social levels. As a crucial strand in the present economic system, urbanisation is inextricably
linked to and irreversibly entwined with the development process. At the same time, other
researchers contend that "urbanisation is a concomitant of the entire gamut of forces
underpinning the process of economic expansion and social transformation, not only of
industrialization." Thus, in light of following events, it becomes necessary to understand what
factors cause urbanization, what are the consequent effect and whether trends in urbanization
have changed from then and now.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
o WHETHER THE FORM OF URBANISATION HAS CHANGED BEFORE AND
AFTER THE ECONOMIC REFORMS?
o WHETHER THE NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF URBANIZATION BE
DEHURDLED BY POLICY CHANGES? IF YES, SUGGEST CHANGES.

MODE OF CITATION
Oxford mode of citation 4th edition is being used in this research paper.
 URBANIZATION
The Concept
In 1950, only around 30 percent of the world's population resided in urban regions; by 2012,
that number had climbed to more than 50 percent. According to estimates, more than 70
percent of the world's population would reside in urban regions by 2030. The word
'urbanization' refers to the rising proportion of a nation's population that resides in urban
regions [and hence the decreasing proportion that resides in rural areas]. A nation's urban
population can grow through natural increase [births minus deaths], net rural to urban
migration, and reclassification as what was previously a rural settlement becomes classified
as urban or as the boundaries of an urban settlement are expanded, bringing people who were
previously classified as rural into its population.1

According to the 2011 Census of India2, a metropolitan area comprises of the following:

I. All Statutory Towns: All localities having a Municipality, Corporation,

Cantonment Board, or Notified Town Area Committee, etc., as proclaimed by
State legislation; and 2) All Statutory Towns Other Than Those Listed Above
II. Census Towns: locations that meet the following criteria: • a minimum
population of 5,000; • at least 75% of male working population engaged in non-
agricultural activities; and • a population density of at least 400 individuals per
square kilometre.

Moreover, the Population Census in India categorizes urban settlements into six size
groups based on the following criteria3.
Category Population size
Class I 1 lakh and more
Class II 50,000 to 1,00,000
Class III 20,000 to 50000
Class IV 10,000 to 20,000
Class V 5,000 to 10,000
Class VI 0 to 5,000

1
Satterthwaite, David; Gordon, McGranahan and Tacoli, Cecilia. 2010. Urbanization and its implications for
food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 365 (1554), 2809-2820. s
2
Census of India, 2011
3
Kundu, Amitabh. (2001). Infrastructure Financing and Emerging Pattern Of Urbanisation: A Perspective.
Retrieved from http://planningcommission.nic.in/ reports/genrep/bkpap2020/9_bg2020.pdf
The Urbanisation of India
The expansion of urbanization in India is mostly due to two factors: an increase in the urban
population, which will occur naturally, and migration, which is the consequence of people
moving from rural to urban regions and also from minor towns/cities to major metropolitan
areas. However, throughout the 1990s, when the Indian government opened their economy,
the country's economic development accelerated. However, this economic expansion was
mostly urban, resulting in a massive movement of rural residents to urban regions. In 1951,
just five cities in the United States had populations of over one million, compared to 53 in
2011 and an expected 70 in 2031. Similarly, three cities had populations above 10 million in
2011, while six cities are projected to have populations over 10 million by 2031. Thus, it was
anticipated that the urban population would account for 40 percent of the country's overall
population by the year 2030, totalling 610 million people4. Five of the twenty most populous
cities in the world, including Kolkata and Mumbai, are located in India.5

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON URBANIZATION

Functionalism
The relative virtues of cities and urbanization are the subject of a fundamental functionalist
dispute. How and to what degree are cities helpful and even damaging to society? Simply put,
are cities positive or negative?

In essence, there is no single response to this issue, since cities are too complicated to for a
simple one. Cities are both beneficial and detrimental. Cities are centres of innovation, high
culture, demographic variety, and excitement, but also crime, impersonality, and other
difficulties.6

Since sociologists started examining urbanization in the early years of the profession, the
degree to which cities are impersonal and alienating for their citizens has been an essential
subject. German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies (1887-1963) posed this topic in 1887 when he
wrote on the transition from small, rural, traditional cultures to bigger, metropolitan,
industrial settings. He said that a feeling of Gemeinschaft, or community, distinguishes
4
Mohan, Rakesh. 2012. Long Term Urban Transport Policy. Centre for Policy Research, Urban Workshop
organized on May 29th. Retrieved from http://www.cprindia.org/sites/default/files/28_mohan.pdf
5
Confederation of Indian Industry. 2010. A Report on Intelligent urbanization- Roadmap for India, Prepared by
BooZ & Co in association with CISCO: New Delhi.
6
at request of original publisher] [Author removed, “14.2 Sociological Perspectives on Urbanization – Social
Problems” (14.2 Sociological Perspectives on Urbanization – Social Problems)
<https://open.lib.umn.edu/socialproblems/chapter/14-2-sociological-perspectives-on-urbanization/> accessed
June 15, 2022
traditional communities. In these communities, familial, clan, and community relationships
are fairly strong, and people watch out for one another. He believed that as civilizations
expanded and industrialized and as people went to cities, social relationships deteriorated and
became less intimate. Tonnies referred to this sort of society as a Gesellschaft, and he was
very critical of this trend. He regretted the decline of deep social links and a strong sense of
community in metropolitan communities, and he believed that a sense of rootlessness is
replacing the stability and steadiness typical of tiny, rural civilizations.

French philosopher Émile Durkheim, one of the founding fathers of sociology, was more
optimistic than Tonnies regarding the nature of cities and urbanized society. Certainly, he
valued the social links and sense of community, which he referred to as mechanical solidarity
and which are distinctive of tiny, rural civilizations. Nevertheless, he believed that these
civilizations limited individual liberty and that social bonds still persisted in big metropolitan
communities. He referred to these links as organic solidarity, which he believed is the result
of labour division. He argued that when there is a division of labour, everyone must rely on
one another to execute their duties. This interdependence of duties strengthens a feeling of
community that is prevalent in small rural communities.7

Current study tends to stress the existence of strong social links in urban areas. Although
cities may be anonymous (see the mass of people passing each other on a busy street in a big
city's centre), many city inhabitants live in communities where neighbours know, associate
with, and watch out for one another. Indeed, a feeling of community and strong social
relationships exist in these areas.

In his landmark 1938 article "Urbanism as a Way of Life," University of Chicago sociologist
Louis Wirth expressed both a positive and negative perspective of urban life. He agreed with
Tonnies that urban regions had a lesser sense of community and social links than rural places.
However, he agreed with Durkheim that urban areas foster more creativity and tolerance for
novel ways of thinking. Specifically, he said that urban citizens are more tolerant of
unorthodox attitudes, behaviours, and lifestyles than rural residents, in part because urban
residents are far more exposed to these non-traditional methods than rural ones. Current
research confirms Wirth's notion that urban dwellers have more tolerant perspectives on a
variety of topics.

7
Durkheim, É. (1933). The division of labour in society. London, United Kingdom: Free Press. (Original work
published 1893).
Conflict Analysis

We have just shown that functionalism has contradictory perspectives on the pros and cons of
cities and urban living, and consequently urbanization. In contrast to this ambivalence, the
perspectives of conflict theory are universally negative. Recall from Chapter 1
"Understanding Social Problems" that conflict theory presupposes a fundamental conflict
between the "haves" and "have-nots" of society, or between the economic and political elites
and the poor and people of colour. According to conflict theory, this sort of conflict is most
prevalent in cities, where the "haves" and "have-nots" live vastly different lifestyles. On the
one hand, the wealthy in American cities live in opulent apartments, work in skyscraper
office buildings, eat at the best restaurants, and shop at the priciest shops. On the other side,
the poor and people of colour live in deteriorating homes and frequently struggle to satisfy
their basic needs.

Conflict theorists add that the different histories and interests of city inhabitants often lead to
conflict since the ideas and behaviours of some citizens collide with those of other residents.
In one of the first articulations of this view, sociologist Thorsten Sellin (1938), who was
writing at a period of enormous immigration of people from other countries into American
cities, said that crime is the outcome of "cultural war." Specifically, he claimed that
immigrant criminality is often the consequence of a confrontation between their conventional
ways of thinking and behaving and the standards of American culture. As an example, he said
that a Sicilian immigrant father in New Jersey murdered a teenager who had slept with his
daughter. In traditional Sicilian society, a man is authorized and even expected to protect his
family's dignity by doing like the father did!8

Recent applications of conflict theory to urbanization emphasize political economy, or the

connection between political and economic institutions and processes. Political and economic
elites of a city (bankers, real estate investors, politicians, etc.) combine to promote their
respective interests, according to this theory. Thus, urban development often involves the
displacement of impoverished urban dwellers in order to construct condos, high-rise banks
and other corporate buildings, upscale shopping malls, and other structures that benefit the
wealthy. In general, these elites see cities as settings for the expansion of their money and
power, rather than as places where actual people live, attend school, work, and socialize. John

8
Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology, 44, 3–24.
Logan and Harvey Molotch, sociologists, utilize the phrase growth machine ideology to
describe the perspective of the city that governs the policies and actions of these elites.9

Symbolic Interaction

Consistent with the general approach of symbolic interactionism, this method focuses on the
nature of urban people' interactions with one another, the causes for their interaction patterns,
and their views of many elements of urban life. Their efforts have produced several colourful,
detailed accounts of urban life. The majority, if not the vast majority, of these reports have
focused on the lives of the poor and people of colour. Elliott authored two of the most
renowned accounts. The first was the magnificent Tally's Corner, which represented the lives
of African-American males who "hung about" a certain street corner in a huge metropolis.
Tell Them Who I Am: The Lives of Homeless Women featured, as the title suggests, the lives
of homeless women in metropolitan areas. William Foote Whyte's Street Corner Society
(1943), which explored leadership in a Chicago, Illinois street gang, is another famous study.

These and other stories portray cities as locations where a variety of rules and values
predominate, in contrast to perspectives that portray cities as wild and chaotic. Sociologist
Elijah Anderson's new research stresses that the majority of impoverished urban inhabitants
are "decent" (as they describe themselves), law-abiding individuals who strongly disapprove
of crime and drug usage in their areas. 10 In addition, he highlights that cities are packed with
parks and other public spaces where people from many ethnic and socioeconomic
backgrounds assemble daily and engage in a variety of ways that build intergroup
understanding. Anderson refers to these environments as "cosmopolitan canopies" and states
that they "provide a reprieve from urban life's residual tensions and a chance for varied
peoples to come together... Through personal observation, people may grow to recognize and
sympathize with one another's differences in the spirit of humanity. 11 Thus, according to
Anderson, individuals of diverse races may at least partially alleviate the racial tensions that
plague many American communities.

9
Logan, J. R., & Molotch, H. L. (2007). Urban fortunes: The political economy of place (2nd ed.). Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
10
Anderson, E. (2011). The cosmopolitan canopy: Race and civility in everyday life. New York, NY: W. W.
Norton
11
Anderson, E. (2011). The cosmopolitan canopy: Race and civility in everyday life. New York, NY: W. W.
Norton
 THE REASONS FOR URBANIZATION

There are three competing urbanization factors. Scholars have discovered that there are three
basic paths to urbanisation:

I. Western Liberal
II. Marxist Capitalist and Islamic.
III. Ecological

Western Liberal

This concept views urbanization as a result of economic progress. It asserts that rural
residents are drawn to metropolitan areas by the availability of jobs. It is supported by both
the rural push and urban pull ideas.

According to the modernization idea, industrial employment pulls rural residents to

metropolitan regions. This resulted in the formation of social classes as a result of economic
development, non-agricultural vocation emphasis, disparity in welfare, and fast rural-to-urban
migration; as a result, Africa and Asia nations had significant setbacks and inefficient
economic growth.12

Marxist Capitalist

According to this theory, urbanization is the product of capitalism. In an effort to maximize

their fortune, capitalists made choices that favoured them the most. They manage the
economy and ensure that people migrate to metropolitan areas so that they can equip their
global enterprises, local, national, and regional businesses. The worst issue is that these
capitalists are primarily focused on the nations of Africa and Asia.13

Ecological or Autogenous

Ernest Burgess and Robert Park introduced the urban ecology theory in the 1920s. The urban
metropolis, according to these sociologists, is a complicated reaction to opposing external
influences. The urban ecology is founded on two assumptions. The first is that the city
12
Eckert S, Kohler S (2014). "Urbanization and health in developing countries: a systematic review". World
Health & Population. 15 (1): 7–20. Doi:10.12927/whp.2014.23722. PMID 24702762.
13
Ibid.
consists of a number of sectors, each of which is dominated by a specific activity, such as
heavy industry or upper-class living. Second, when urban space grew constrained and
competition intensified, a segment with the most economic value would emerge, albeit the
longest-established sector would be determined by the concentric zone extending outward
from a central business centre.14

Significant Factors Favouring Urbanization Prior to the Industrial

Revolution

As the dominating industry, agriculture provided excess food for human use. At route
intersections, commerce and permanent communities are prevalent. Wall of defence around
towns and administrative command

I. First Phase: Establishing a distinctive economic advantage via agricultural

development. This resulted in friction and discrepancies or class conflict, and
finally we achieved unity via control.
II. Second Phase: Military conquest and control of economically prosperous regions.
III. Third Stage: Trade inside and between empires; increase of wealth; adoption of a
monetary system to assist trade. The evolution of capitalism began.
IV. Fourth Stage: The dissolution of the Roman Empire into city-states based on the
economic design for capital investment — roads, shipping, and architectural
growth.

Substantial Elements that Favoured Urbanization Following the Industrial

Revolution

I. High regard for the productive components of land, labour, capital, and technology.
II. Agriculture required less human labour due to technological advancements.
III. More scientific discoveries led to the construction of larger machinery, improved
modes of transportation, and the distribution of completed goods to rural areas.

14
Eckert S, Kohler S (2014). "Urbanization and health in developing countries: a systematic review". World
Health & Population. 15 (1): 7–20. Doi:10.12927/whp.2014.23722. PMID 24702762.
RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

Migration is a kind of geographical or spatial movement between geographical units. Rural-

rural, rural-urban, urban-urban, and urban-rural movement make up internal migration. Also,
variable is the duration of migration, which may be periodic, seasonal, or permanent.15

Migration is the primary factor behind urbanization. The rural-to-urban, urban-to-rural, or

rural-to-rural urbanization mobility trend may take any of the three forms listed. This is fairly
frequent in Nigeria, for instance.16 Changes in structure and the adoption of a capitalist
orientation led to the expansion of the merchant class. New institutions were founded and
existing ones were modified. New freedom of mobility that led to urban expansion and the
invasion of adjacent villages and towns.

PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

People may relocate to the city because they are forced there by hardship in rural areas, or
they may be drawn there by the allure of city life. The combination of these push and pull
variables may also contribute to urban migration. These situations force farmers to migrate as
their only option. The situation is made worse by environmental degradation.17

Push elements

The typical push factors for rural residents include situations that make it hard for them to
earn a livelihood, land degradation, insufficient land, unbalanced land distribution, droughts,
storms, and clean water shortages. These severe obstacles make farming, the rural populace's
means of subsistence, difficult and occasionally hopeless. Inadequate access to contemporary
resources, firewood shortages, religious tensions, and local economic decreases are other
significant factors for urban migration.

Pull elements

The high industrial earnings in metropolitan regions are one of the greatest draws for rural
residents. People will continue to relocate to cities as long as they anticipate that urban
15
. Barney Cohen (2015). "Urbanization, City Growth, and the New United Nations Development Agenda".
Cornerstone, The Official Journal of the World Coal Industry. 3 (2). pp. 4–7.
16
Ibid.
17
Premi, M. K. (2006b) India’s urbanisation and its future implications, Man and Development, March, pp.
21_38.
earnings will surpass rural wages. Employment possibilities, greater wages, joining fellow
rural refugees, liberation from an oppressive way of life, and access to better health care and
education are the "bright lights" for rural residents.18

EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION

Urbanization has significant consequences on both individuals and society. The following
consequences are classified as economic, environmental, health, and social:

ECONOMIC EFFECT

As cities expand, one of the repercussions may be a major rise and shift in expenses, which
often prices the local working class, including municipal workers, out of the market. For
instance, Eric Hobsbawm's The age of revolution: 1789–1848 (published in 1962 and 2005)
stated, "Urban development in our period [1789–1848] was a gigantic process of class
segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the
centres of government and business and the newly specialized residential areas of the
bourgeoisie".19

As a way of absorbing the flood of low-skilled and unskilled workers, think tanks such as the
Overseas Development Institute have advocated policies that promote labour-intensive
development. Attracted by economic prospects in metropolitan regions, rural-urban low-
skilled or unskilled migrant workers sometimes cannot find jobs or afford housing in cities,
forcing them to live in slums.20 Urban issues and infrastructural advancements contribute to
suburbanization tendencies in emerging countries, although the central cities of these nations
tend to grow ever more crowded. Individuals and families may take benefit of closeness and
variety when they reside in cities (Brand, 2009).

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Urban heat islands have been an increasing cause for worry over the years. More heat is
emitted by vehicles, industries, and industrial and residential heating and cooling systems.

18
Premi, M. K. (2006b) India’s urbanisation and its future implications, Man and Development, March, pp.
21_38.
19
Davis, K. (1965). The urbanization of the human population. Scientific American,13(3), 41-53.
20
Visaria, P. (1997) Urbanisation in India: an overview‟, in Urbanisation in Large Developing Countries: China,
Indonesia, Brazil, and India, eds G. Jones & P. Visaria, Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 266_288
Consequently, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than the surrounding
countryside.21 The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs stated in a
study published in July 2013 (Jiang et al., 2008) that with 2.4 billion extra people by 2050,
particularly in nations currently confronting food insecurity owing to changing climatic
circumstances, food insecurity would worsen. According to UN experts, the combination of
changing climatic conditions and rising urban populations would strain basic sanitation
infrastructure and health care, and may trigger a humanitarian and environmental
catastrophe.22

HEALTH AND SOCIAL EFFECTS

You have a highly uneven society, and that inequality is expressed where people live, in our
communities, which means there is less capacity for empathy and less growth for all of
society.23 Urbanization does not correlate with a substantial rise in life expectancy in Africa
and Asian nations. Variations in mortality due to infectious illnesses depend on the specific
disease and locale.24

Average urban health levels are superior than rural health levels. Residents of disadvantaged
urban settings, such as slums and informal settlements, are disproportionately affected by
sickness, injury, and early mortality, and the combination of poor health and poverty
entrenches disadvantage over time. "Agriculturists have investigated the consequences of
urbanization and globalization on health. Fast food is frequently chosen, resulting in a decline
in health.25 Less difficult access to non-traditional foods may result in less healthful eating
habits. In India, diabetes seems to be more than twice as prevalent in urban regions than in
rural ones. In general, significant chronic illness risk factors are more prominent in
metropolitan contexts.26

21
Glaeser, Edward (Spring 1998). "Are Cities Dying?” The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12 (2): 139–60.
Doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.139.
22
Ibid.
23
Auber, Tamar (2013) "Climate change and rapid urban expansion in Africa threaten children’s lives."
UNEARTH News. Retrieved 10 June, 2022.
24
. Eckert S, Kohler S (2014). "Urbanization and health in developing countries: a systematic review". World
Health & Population. 15 (1): 7–20. Doi:10.12927/whp.2014.23722. PMID 24702762.
25
Food and Agriculture Organization 2004).
26
Davis, Kingsley; Hertz Golden, Hilda (1954). "Urbanization and the Development of Pre-Industrial Areas".
Economic Development and Cultural Change. 3 (1): 6–26. Doi: 10.1086/449673
 FORMS OF URBANIZATION

Various kinds of urbanization may be categorized based on architectural style, planning

techniques, and the historical development of locations.

In cities of the industrialized world, urbanization has historically been characterized by a

concentration of human activity and settlements in and around the city centre, a phenomenon
known as in-migration. This has been made feasible by advancements in communications,
and has been brought about by causes such as fear of crime and deteriorating urban settings.
It is known as suburbanization when the residential area moves outward.

In both developed and emerging nations, such as India, a number of academics and authors
argue that suburbanization has reached a stage where it has created new concentrations of
people outside of the city centre.27 An emergent type of urbanization takes into account this
networked, polycentric kind of concentration. The most well-known example of this form of
urbanization is Los Angeles. As of 2011, this trend has reversed in the United States, with
"re-urbanization" happening as suburban flight owing to persistently high travel costs.

Migrants from rural areas are lured to the opportunities that cities provide, yet they often
settle in shantytowns and live in abject poverty. The failure of nations to provide appropriate
housing for these rural migrants is a result of overurbanization, a phenomenon in which the
pace of urbanization develops faster than the rate of economic growth, resulting in high
unemployment and high resource demand.28

CHANGING TRENDS IN URBANIZATION

As our nation continues along the road of urbanization, new difficulties and challenges will
emerge, some of which are already being felt. While the urbanization process led to economic
development in our society, it is also true that urbanization is accompanied with a variety of
issues. Several are explored in detail below: Urbanization is also one of the causes of global
warming and climate change, even in India, where we are already seeing the effects of

27
Varshney, A. (1993). "Beyond Urban Bias", p. 5. London: Frank Cass.
28
Overseas Development Institute. (2008) "Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets".
climate change on the monsoon pattern and will see more in the near future in other regions.
The climate change is mostly caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and others, which has caused the
earth's temperature to increase. Climate change is mostly caused by human activities such as
agricultural systems, industrial operations, fossil fuel usage, and land use patterns, among
others.29

Instead of those that arise spontaneously in biophysical contexts. Although agriculture is

partly to blame for the aforementioned problem, it was mostly due to the rise in the number
of automobiles in cities and towns, the increased use of fossil fuels, and the clearance of
green and unoccupied land for the construction of buildings, roads, highways, malls, etc.
According to the well-known Indian campaigner Medha Patkar, more than 18 lakh hectares
of agricultural land have been converted to non-agricultural use during the last decade 30. As
more than 55 percent of the country's customers currently get their living directly from
agriculture as farmers and agricultural laborers, the climate change will have a significant
influence on agriculture. In addition, rural non-farm employees, such as rural craftsmen and
rural service providers, rely on the expansion of farmer earnings. 31 As a result of climate
change, there has been a great deal of desperate migration of poor villagers to towns and
cities in search of ways to make a living; and this will increase when the land becomes
unproductive or when severe drought, flood, and other extreme weather conditions render
farming impossible. This will also have political repercussions, since climate change
migrants would exacerbate metropolitan regions' pre-existing lack of infrastructure and basic
services. This will also have an effect on food production in the nation, since a big number of
rural people rely on agriculture for their livelihood, and migration to the city would impair
India's food security.

This issue will become more prevalent as the population grows, since food inflation in our
nation is already rising and affecting both rural and urban residents. However, the focus will
be mostly on the first group, and even in metropolitan areas, on the urban poor. In addition, it
will expand further, since the contribution of agriculture and its affiliated industries to the
GDP has been declining in recent years. Also, as the urban population grows, more and more
29
Ramachandran, M. (2011, October 1). Proper development strategy needed for Indian cities and towns. The
Economic Times. Retrieved from http://articles. economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-10-
01/news/30233075_1_urban-development-urban-slumpopulation-basic-facilities
30
Patkar, Medha. 2012, August 23. Nailing the lie of the Land. The Hindu. Retrieved from
http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article3808362.ece
31
Singh, Satpal. (2004). Urban Poverty and Gender in India. Nagarlok- An Urban Affairs Quarterly, 36(1), 1-3.
agricultural land or regions will need to be converted for the construction of dwellings,
bridges, and roads, which will have a negative impact on agriculture productivity in the near
future.32

The population growth in urban regions will rise over the next several decades due to rural-
urban migration and natural population growth in urban areas. Urban poverty, however,
continues to be an essential problem in urban development and governance, and it continues
to grow more pressing. The urban poor inhabit the lowest socioeconomic rungs and lack
access to basic services and facilities. They inhabit the periphery of the sociocultural structure
of the communities.33 Since the Fifth Five Year Plan [1974-1979], the Indian government has
prioritized the eradication of urban poverty and implemented several policies and programs in
this regard. The most significant was the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana, which
aimed to give meaningful work to the urban poor by promoting the establishment of self-
employment initiatives and providing wage job possibilities to families living below the
poverty line in urban areas.34 Nonetheless, urban poverty remains the government's most
pressing issue. A factor impeding the elimination of urban poverty is the movement of a
significant number of people from rural to urban regions, which causes urban areas to have
worse living conditions than rural ones. These individuals often live in slums and
occasionally on the side of the road, with temporary tents or without any shelter at all
[particularly in all major metropolitan areas]; they are visible during the day and especially at
night while touring the city. Due to a lack of control, monitoring, and coordination on the part
of government agencies, the policies and programs established by governments to reduce
urban poverty were partially ineffectual. Former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi
famously said that barely 15 paisa out of 100 paisa reaches the target recipient of different
rural development programs. This proverb also applies to the targeted urban beneficiaries of
any development programs.

There are several social ramifications of the notion of urbanization, with one of the most
significant being that, as a result of urbanization, there is a great deal of building activity in
metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Chennai, etc. In addition, there is a rise in the number of
automobiles, which has led to a scarcity of parking spots and traffic congestion, particularly
on Delhi's roads. This has resulted in a lot of quarrels and heated debates amongst the people,
32
Singh, Satpal. (2004). Urban Poverty and Gender in India. Nagarlok- An Urban Affairs Quarterly, 36(1), 1-3.
33
Ibid.
34
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India. 2007. National Urban Housing and
Habitat Policy-2007’. Retrieved from http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/dvepa/housingpolicy2007.pdf
and in some instances, even minor injuries and fatalities. The second social effect is an
increase in the number of street children, who either reside with their parents or are orphaned.
Our constitution has a lot of unique measures for the protection and development of children,
yet none of them are effective in practice. The activities of street children include cleaning up
trash, begging, selling little products [toys, balloons, etc.], shoe polishing, loading and
unloading, etc. The prevalence of child labour increased in many cities and towns, including
the capital of India. Children are hired because they are inexpensive and willing to labor long
hours without complaint.35 In addition to being subjected to dangerous employment, street
children are the most mistreated and exploited group; they also confront the problems of child
trafficking, pornography, prostitution, and begging, and as a consequence, they live in a
precarious manner in cities and towns. In the state of Delhi, street children under the age of
18 make about 1 percent of the overall kid population, which is a significant amount.
According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in 2014, the crime rate* against
children was highest in Delhi, at 166.9 percent, among the different Indian states. In addition
to drug addiction, children are never able to get timely or effective medical care. 36 As a
consequence of not having access to school, health care, and other services, some street
children engage in small crime as youngsters, and as they become adults, the nature of their
crime becomes more severe.

The third societal aspect that cannot be disregarded is the problem of suicide, which is
increasing annually in urban areas. According to the NCRB, there were over 1.31.666
suicides in India in 2014, with more than half of these occurring in metropolitan areas. The
suicide rate* in cities were greater (12,2 percent) than the suicide rate in India as a whole,
which was 8.4 percent (10.6 percent). In 2004, there were 1,13,697 reported occurrences of
suicide. Consequently, between 2004 and 2014, there has been a 15.8 percent rise in suicide
incidents. Maharashtra had the highest proportion of suicides among India's leading states, at
12.4%, followed by Tamil Nadu at 12.2%, West Bengal at 10.9%, and Karnataka at 8.4%.
These are the top ten most urbanized states in India, which is rather interesting. Thus, the four
metropolitan cities with the greatest number of suicides are Chennai (2214), Bengaluru
(1906), Delhi (1847), and Mumbai (1192). (National Crime Records Bureau, 2015). In the
1990s, when liberalization policies were implemented in India, there was an upsurge in the
number of suicide cases. Although the country's economic development progressed slowly, it

Staff Reporter. 2012, August 6. Lajpat Nagar market kindling a revolution. The Hindu: New Delhi.
35

36
Shajan Binda Perappadan. 2012, August 6. Delhi the country’s Capital for crime against street children. The
Hindu: New Delhi
had a favourable influence on the lives of the people. Due to the difference in earnings, the
race to the top of the professional ladder, and excessive competitiveness, this has also led to a
rise in the number of incidents of suicide among the population. Thus, the post-liberalization
climate, which is also a factor in the growth in urbanization, has led to a tremendous
aspirational reaction, prompting thousands of Indians, ranging from students to techies and
corporate executives to housewives, to commit suicide.37

RECOMMENDATIONS ON URBANIZATION38

I. Programmatic Interventions for planning of healthy cities

A government initiative entitled '500 Healthy Cities' Program' for a duration of five years.
The scheme's specific design would The Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, in
cooperation with the states and territories, must work out the details. Priority Class I and
other size classes of communities would be determined regionally. MoHUA and NITI Aayog
co-organized meetings with the States and UTs. An Indicative selection criterion for a
priority city or town would be incorporated into the design of the plan for maximizing impact
and diversity. Therefore, it is recommended that:

 Development of specific provisions pertaining to the localization of the sustainable

development goals, the local economy, the health and education infrastructure, the
circular economy, gender equality, universal access, inclusiveness, environmental
sustainability, spatial sustainability, migrants, walkability, and so on. Inclusion of
necessary scale-appropriate provisions in the master plan or its specific layouts.

37
Punj, Deepshiksha. 2012, August 5. Urban Suicide-The New Killer. The Sunday Standard Magazine : New
Delhi.
38
Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September 2021
  Develop and include in the master plan report detailed suggestions with defined
agency responsibilities and a budgetary implementation strategy.

 Identification of quantitative indicators to evaluate the success of these master plans

yearly and at the time of their modification five years later. Inclusion of these
indicators in the master plan report and on the planning authorities' websites.

 The development of technology-enabled systems for monitoring construction

operations in order to avoid haphazard or unapproved building. Using a GIS-based
map to dynamically represent these alterations and other current infrastructure
development initiatives.

 On the websites of the local government and planning agencies, create

videos/reports/infographics on the plans and proposals that are accessible and simple
to comprehend, including opportunity for public feedback.39

Ramping up human resources in public sector

In the public sector, town planners are tasked with techno-legal responsibilities such as
building/plan approvals, techno-managerial responsibilities such as project management, and
core technical responsibilities such as plan preparation (master plan/regional
plan/layout/zoning development plan/local area plan/development plan, etc.). Currently, there
is not a single planner15 available each city or town in the town and country planning
departments of the United States (only 3945 sanctioned posts of town planners, of which 42
percent are lying vacant). Furthermore, research undertaken by TCPO and NIUA for NITI
39
Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September 2021
Aayog reveals that the nation needs around 12,000 urban planners (refer to Section 4.1.2 for
more details). ii. The Advisory Committee observes that cities are grossly understaffed to
carry out urban planning duties. Quantity and quality of human resources are essential for
enhancing a nation's urban planning capabilities. Therefore, the Advisory Committee
recommends that the States/UTs a) accelerate the filling of empty jobs and b) also designate
8268 town planner positions as lateral entry positions for a minimum of three years and a
maximum of five years.

Ensuring 'qualified' urban planners in services 40

State urban and rural planning agencies confront a severe lack of urban planners. This is
exacerbated by the fact that, strangely, in a number of states, a certification in urban planning
is not even a requirement for such positions. In this context, MoHUA has given many
warnings to State/UT governments over the last few years. ii. There is also a trend to see
architecture, civil engineering, and urban planning as similar fields. Employing a professional
skilled in other disciplines for urban planning might result in inefficiencies; or, in the worst
case scenario, restrict all inputs and choices oriented towards the spatial issues (Dubey,
2016). The Advisory Committee believes the following:

 The complexity of urban environments and their growth has expanded throughout
time. Urban planning or town planning has a distinct course curriculum that equips
graduates with a multi-sectoral perspective and set of skills to solve these issues.

 Urban planning, architecture, geography, and civil engineering all contribute

significantly to the growth of cities. However, equating these streams with urban
planning or vice versa is an inadequate strategy.

 Each year, roughly 1800 planners with diverse specializations graduate from Indian
institutions. They are qualified candidates for employment in town planning.
40
Ibid.
Mainstreaming capacity building41

The Advisory Committee believes that the States/UTs must make deliberate efforts to ensure
that their town planning staff receives regular capacity development. These consist of:
Annually, the States and Territorial Units (States/UTs) must set aside sufficient funds for the
staff's ongoing capacity development. Annual capacity-building efforts may be carried out by
establishing a dedicated cell within the state's urban and rural planning departments.
Whenever possible, participation in capacity-building programs might be made obligatory.
Each participant's performance must be assessed objectively so that the findings may be
utilized to determine their career advancement. v. The Ministry of Housing and Urban
Affairs' National Urban Learning Platform may be used for this purpose. State/territorial
governments may be required to designate renowned planning education institutions and sign
a memorandum of understanding with them for participation in academic juries and exhibits,
classroom sessions, and the organization of training programs, etc. vi. A proportionate
amount of AMRUT or other relevant mission monies should be designated for this
endeavour.

Re-engineering urban planning governance

The proliferation of organizations dealing with planning of land and sectors such as water,
sewerage, and solid waste, among others, has resulted in both functional silos and overlaps.
This results in a lack of responsibility, incoordination between departments, delays, waste of
resources, etc. The Constitutional (Seventy-Fourth Amendment) Act of 1992 has not been
fully implemented. Specifically, the majority of state governments have not yet transferred
the complete "urban planning" duty to urban local governments.

The Advisory Committee suggests that states may need reengineering and strengthening of
urban governance mechanisms. This may be done in light of the second Administrative
Reform Commission's recommendations (ARC). Relevantly, the following components may
be considered: Clear allocation of tasks and responsibilities among different authorities,
updating of rules and regulations as necessary, etc. Creation of a more dynamic
organizational structure, standardization of job descriptions for urban planners and other
41
Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September 2021
specialists, etc. Extensive use of technology to facilitate public involvement, inter-agency
collaboration, etc.

Town and country planning act revision42

Therefore, the institution of a state-level apex body to conduct periodic reviews of planning
laws is suggested (including town and country planning or urban and regional development
acts or other relevant acts). There may be a need for coordination between the HPC proposed
in Section 7.7 and the State's apex planning body. The apex committee should consist of
important decision-makers and diversified experts. The scope of this committee's work would
need to include (but not be limited to) the following: a. A review of the effectiveness of the
current Act; b. Identification of the issues related to spatial plan preparation, plan
implementation, and policies towards violations; c. Provisions to ensure interoperability of
base maps of cities and regions among various agencies; and d. Provisions to adapt city
planning to technological disruptions that lead to changes in lifestyles, mobility patterns, and
other factors. e. Provisions for integrating urban and regional planning and focusing on the
spatial design of communities and their clusters.

De-mystifying planning and involving citizens43

A significant disparity between plan preparation and acceptability on the ground is an

adequate involvement of citizens in the planning process. The preparation and the nature of
processes has become very technocratic. While it is essential to Maintain their scientific rigor
while demystifying them for the public is of equal importance is by allowing people to
participate in pertinent phases. A viewpoint must be developed among people about the
ideals of Urban planning and public engagement possibilities in the planning procedures. The
utility of urban design in terms of its influence on everyday living, walkability, Safety, open
areas, travel lengths, air quality, etc. must be communicated on a sign. Consequently, the
Advisory Committee highly suggests a 'Citizen Outreach' initiative: A Campaign for
demystifying and democratizing urban planning.

The following tactics may be helpful in this regard. It is possible to create interactive or self-
explanatory videos to show how planning works can make living conditions more efficient,

42
Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September 2021
43
Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September 2021
egalitarian, sustainable, and inexpensive. The Videos must be basic enough for everyone to
understand them published on ULB websites or aired in public spaces. It is possible to create
videos demonstrating how planning reduces complications and benefits Reducing impact on
topics like inclusive development and gender equality global warming and air pollution,
mobility, universal access, and senior-friendly and child-friendly construction, etc.
Opportunities for citizen engagement may be publicized on the website or application of any
authority/organization engaged in urban planning. An annual national urban and rural
photography competition may be held to stimulate discussion about the advantages of urban
and rural planning areas

Miscellaneous Recommendations

Climate change measures should be made key to India's urbanization goals for the long run.
Especially if we see a significant water and electricity crisis in large cities and towns, this
may be partly resolved by holding every resident responsibility for climate change.
Beginning with the upper middle class who reside in affluent colonies or neighbourhoods, it
will be required for them to catch rainwater and install solar panels on their rooftops. The
reason to begin with the wealthy is because they have the resources and space to do it.
Governments should gradually adopt it for the middle and below middle classes, however it
will be difficult for the latter two categories due to budgetary and space constraints.

But more than the lack of room, the financial limitation is a significant obstacle. Here, the
Central and State governments must take the initiative to provide free rain water collection
and install solar panels on the roofs of 2382 buildings. Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla
Tabassu, "Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and difficulties in the 21st century," Trends
of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st century. These government projects
should be implemented as a trial program. If the findings are favourable, it must be enlarged;
if they are not, it must be redesigned by addressing the existing issues. However, it must be
kept in mind that the policy for rain water collection and solar plant construction cannot be
placed on hold or abandoned; rather, it must be executed in a more efficient way. Along with
this, water and energy conservation policies should be taken seriously, since they go hand in
hand. Despite the fact that the Indian government announced its NAPCC [National Action
Plan on Climate Change] on 30 June 2008, which includes eight national missions, one of
which relates to the National Water Mission and the other to the National Solar Mission.
Nonetheless, recent research by two writers, Sujatha Byravan and Sudhir Chella Rajan, who
reviewed India's NAPCC, and some of which were published in a reputable English national
daily in India named 'The Hindu', indicates otherwise.

If sustainable development is a major guiding concept in India's climate policy, it has not
been emphasized in the methodologies and results of particular missions, according to two of
them. The categorization of these tasks into eight distinct bins has resulted in a sector-specific
perspective on issues and solutions. According to them, India need a strategy that is inter-
disciplinary in nature, transcends conventional ministerial boundaries, and swiftly learns from
the continuing consequences of global warming and our achievements and failures in
addressing them.44

44
Dr. Sadashivam and Dr. Shahla Tabassu, Trends of urbanization in India: Issues and challenges in the 21st
Century
 CONCLUSION

The well-established geographical concepts of inhibited area, state population, and population
density are gradually becoming less meaningful and pertinent as the country's growing
population concentrates on less and less land and links together more and more tightly in an
expanding network of large cities. The blind forces of urbanization, flowing along the lines of
least resistance, show no aptitude for establishing a stable, self-sustaining, and renewing
urban and industrial pattern. The pinnacle of urbanisation is neither the obliteration of the
landscape nor the elimination of the city. Rather, it is the foresight and provident balance of
city populations and regional resources in order to keep all of the required for their survival in
a high-development condition.

The rate of urbanization expansion is geometrical. Structured facilities, residential,

employment centre, communication network, infrastructural facilities, size, population
density, family, marriage, profession, class extremes, social heterogeneity, social distance,
interaction system, and mobility are features of urbanization. There are western liberal,
Marxist capitalist, ecological, and self-generated reasons of urbanization. After the industrial
revolution, the key causes that contributed to urbanization were rural-urban migration, push
and pull forces, and push and pull factors. It is advised that the government develop a strategy
to prevent this exodus of the populace. This will lessen, if not eliminate, the unemployment
crisis in the state.

In India, urbanisation policies have typically been negative, and no administration has ever
made a real effort to adopt a unified and cohesive urban reform programme to better handle
this ongoing issue since independence. It has to be adjusted so that the urbanisation process is
seen as a constructive force in the country's progress. Policies relating to urbanisation and
development must give special emphasis to increasing the poor's access to urban earnings and
facilities so that they can benefit from urbanisation as well. A mechanism for long-term urban
environmental management should be in place so that the urban environment can support the
needs of a rapidly growing urban population. Urbanization is always a positive factor for
economic and social progress, and it should be embraced; moreover, we must find innovative
and sustainable ways to speed it up in the interests of both the general public and the
environment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Census of India. 2011. Press Release: Rural-Urban distribution of Population
(Provisional). Retrieved July 15, 2012, from Press Information Bureau website,
http://pibmumbai.gov.in/English/PDF/E2011_PR1143.PDF
 Confederation of Indian Industry. 2010. A Report on Intelligent urbanization-
Roadmap for India, Prepared by Booz & Co in association with CISCO: New Delhi.
Isher Judge Ahluwalia. 2012, April 25. Indian cities as engines of growth. The Indian
Express. Retrieved from http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/indian-cities-
asengines-of-growth/941048/
 Isher Judge Ahluwalia. 2016, April 20. Cities at Crossroads: Setting cities free. The
Indian Express. Retrieved from
http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/indiasmart-city-project-amrut-
mission-2761155/
 Kundu, Amitabh. (2001). Infrastructure Financing And Emerging Pattern Of
Urbanisation: A Perspective. Retrieved from http://planningcommission.nic.in/
reports/genrep/bkpap2020/9_bg2020.pdf
 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India. 2007.
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy-2007’. Retrieved from
http://mhupa.gov.in/policies/dvepa/housingpolicy2007.pdf
 Mohan, Rakesh. 2012. Long Term Urban Transport Policy. Centre for Policy
Research, Urban Workshop organized on May 29th. Retrieved from
http://www.cprindia.org/sites/default/files/28_mohan.pdf
 Patkar, Medha. 2012, August 23. Nailing the lie of the Land. The Hindu. Retrieved
from http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article3808362.
 Planning Commission, Government of India. 2011. Report of the Working Group on
Urban Poverty, Slums, and Service Delivery System. Steering Committee on
Urbanization of Planning Commission.
 Sadashivam, T. 2010a. Climate Change and Rural Development: The Challenge for
Agricultural Dynamics. International Journal of Rural Studies, 17(2), 22.
 Singh, Satpal. (2004). Urban Poverty and Gender in India. Nagarlok- An Urban
Affairs Quarterly, 36(1), 1-3.
 Singh Sodhi, Inderjeet. 2003. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission-A
Road to Urban Sector Reforms in India. Nagarlok-An Urban Affairs Quarterly, 38(3),
8-9
 Staff Reporter. 2012, August 6. Lajpat Nagar market kindling a revolution. The
Hindu: New Delhi
 Davis, K. (1965). The urbanization of the human population. Scientific
American,13(3), 41-53.
 Premi, M. K. (2006b) India’s urbanisation and its future implications, Man and
Development, March, pp. 21_38.
 Shaw, A. (2005) Peri-urban Interface of Indian cities: growth, governance and local
initiatives‟, Economic and Political Weekly, 8 January, pp. 129_136.
 Visaria, P. (1997) Urbanisation in India: an overview‟, in Urbanisation in Large
Developing Countries: China, Indonesia, Brazil, and India, eds G. Jones & P. Visaria,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 266_288
 Food and Agriculture Organization 2004).
 Davis, Kingsley; Hertz Golden, Hilda (1954). "Urbanization and the Development of
Pre-Industrial Areas". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 3 (1): 6–26. Doi:
10.1086/449673
 Varshney, A. (1993). "Beyond Urban Bias", p. 5. London: Frank Cass
 Glaeser, Edward (Spring 1998). "Are Cities Dying?” The Journal of Economic
Perspectives. 12 (2): 139–60. Doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.139.
 Auber, Tamar (2013) "Climate change and rapid urban expansion in Africa threaten
children’s lives." UNEARTH News. Retrieved 10 June, 2022.
 . Eckert S, Kohler S (2014). "Urbanization and health in developing countries: a
systematic review". World Health & Population. 15 (1): 7–20.
Doi:10.12927/whp.2014.23722. PMID 24702762
 Punj, Deepshiksha. 2012, August 5. Urban Suicide-The New Killer. The Sunday
Standard Magazine: New Delhi
 Reforms in urban planning capacity in India, Niti Ayogaya, Final Report September
2021