Resident Physics Lecture

1
Quickly
Science
Review

2
 Abbreviations
109 giga G (billion)
106 mega M (million)
103 kilo K (thousand)
10-1 deci d (tenth)
10-2 centi c (hundredth)
10-3 milli m (thousandth)
10-6 micro m (millionth)
10-9 nano n (billionth)
10-12 pico p (millionth millionth)

Angstrom = A = 10-10 m
3
 Energy Aside

• Kinetic Energy
– Energy of an object by virtue of
its speed
– K.E. = (1/2) X mv2
» m is mass
» v = velocity

• Potential Energy
– Energy of an object by virtue of
its position

4
What’s the Smallest Thing
that is Sugar?
• Divide, divide, divide
• The smallest entity
that is still sugar is the
sugar molecule

5
But What’s in that Sugar
Molecule?
• Different color balls?
• No. of Atoms

6
Ever Seen This?

7
 Composition of the Atom
• Protons
+

• Neutrons

• Electrons
-

8
 Protons

• Positive charge +

• Live in nucleus

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 Neutrons

• No charge (free?)
• Live in nucleus
• Ever-so-slightly
more mass than
proton
• Better than
oldtrons?

10
 Electrons
-

• Negative charge
• Found -

surrounding the
nucleus
– Exist only in designated
shell locations

• Weighs only
1/1836th as
much as proton +

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 Atomic Number
• # protons
• Defines element & its properties
– Color
– State

• Helium is helium because it has 2

protons
– # neutrons does not affect chemistry

+ + +
- +
-

- 12
-
 Atomic Weight
• # protons + # neutrons
– # nucleons

• A specific element often found

with multiple atomic weights
– Always the same # protons
– Different # neutrons

Helium Helium
Atomic Weight=4 Atomic Weight=3

+ + +
- +
-

- 13
-
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
• Nominally
– 1 amu = the weight of a proton or neutron

• Officially
– 1 amu = 1/12 the weight of a carbon-12 atom
» 6 protons
» 6 neutrons

Particle Amu
Proton 1.00728
Neutron 1.00867
Electron .000549
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 Atomic Symbol

Atomic Weight
(# protons + # neutrons)
4
2
He + +
Atomic # -
(# protons)
15
-
 How Many Electrons?

• In a neutral atom (not negative

or positive)
• # electrons = # protons

+ +
-

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 Charge Theory

Unlike charges Like charges

attract repel

- + + +
17
 Coulomb Forces

- +
k q1 q2
• Equation F = ------------
r2
F = Coulomb force
q’s = charges of the two objects
k = constant
r = distance between objects

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 Coulomb Equation Story

k q1 q2
F = ------------
r2
• Force proportional to the
magnitude of the charges

+
+ +
- +
+
-
+
+
+ 19
 Coulomb Equation Story
k q1 q2 • Force falls off with the square of
F = ------------ distance
r2 – Twice as far: one quarter the force
– Three times as far: one ninth the force

+ +

+ + +
+
- -
+ +
+ +
+ +

+ +
-
+
+
+ 20
 Orbital Electrons
• Electrons
“-” charge
very small mass compared with protons / neutrons

• Electrons reside only at certain

energy levels or Shells L
Designations start at K shell
K
K shell closest to nucleus -
L shell next closest ~ +
~ +
Shells proceed up from K, L, M, N, etc. + ~
Except for K shell, all shells contain
sub-shells (s p d f) X- -
-

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 Electrons & Shells

• Atom mostly empty space

– If atom were a baseball stadium nucleus would be size of baseball

• Nucleus contains almost all of atom’s

mass
• Electron shells determine element’s
chemical properties

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Shell Capacities

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 Shell Capacities

Shell Electron Capacity

(2x2)
1 (k) 2
2 (l) 8
3 (m) 18
4 (n) 32
5 (o) 50
6 (p) 72
7 (q) 98
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 Binding Energy
• Negative electrons attracted to L
K
positive nucleus -
~ +
• more binding energy for shells ~ +
+ ~
closer to nucleus
– K shell has highest binding force -
-
• higher atomic # materials (higher Z)
result in more binding energy
– more positive charge in nucleus

• energy required to remove orbital

electron from atom
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 Electron Shells

• electrons attempt to reside in

lowest available energy shell

L
K
-
~ +
~ +
+ ~

-
- 26
 Electron Shells

• electrons attempt to reside in

lowest available energy shell

L
K
-
~ +
~ +
+ ~
-

- 27
*
The Shell Game
• Electrons can move from shell to
shell
• to move to higher energy shell
requires energy input equal to
difference between the binding
energy of the two shells
L
K Requires
energy
- input!
~ + -
~ +
+ ~

-
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-
 The Shell Game
• An atom with a gap in a lower
shell is unhappy (unstable)
• Electrons will attempt to drop
to lower shells to fill the gap L
K
BUT -
~ +
~ +
• to move to a lower energy + ~

shell requires the release of - -

energy equal to the difference -
between shells Energy
– characteristic x-rays released

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Electromagnetic Radiation

• Transport of energy through space

• Properties of EM are combination of
– electric fields
– magnetic fields

• X-rays are one form of

electromagnetic radiation
• No transport medium required

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Electromagnetic Radiation

• Examples
– x-rays
– radio waves
– microwaves
– visible light
– radiant heat

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Electromagnetic Radiation

•EM sometimes act like

particles, sometimes like waves

•Particle concept explains

•radiation interactions with matter

•Wave concept explains

•refraction
•diffraction
•polarization 32
 Particle concept (cont)
•X-rays are discrete bundles of energy
•quantum or photon
•Photon Energy proportional to frequency
•higher frequency = higher energy
•energy measured in electron volts (eV)
•amount of energy gained by an electron
accelerated by potential of 1 volt

Energy = Planck’s Constant X Frequency

E = hn 33
 Wave Properties of EM
•Wavelength
• distance between successive waves
•Frequency
• number of waves passing a particular point per unit time
•Velocity (“c”) of light / x-rays
• 186,000 miles/second
OR
• 3 X 108 meters/second
•Wavelength & frequency
• inversely proportional

Velocity = Wavelength X Frequency

c=l X n 34
 Wavelengths and EM

Highest wavelength = lowest frequency

Radio
Infrared
Visible light
Ultraviolet
Soft x-rays
Diagnostic x-rays
Therapeutic x-rays & gammas

Lowest wavelength = highest frequency

Velocity = Wavelength X Frequency

c=l X n
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 Energy vs. Wavelength as Equations
Energy = Planck’s Constant X Frequency
E = hn
but
Frequency = Speed of Light / Wavelength
n=c/l
so

E = hc / l
Energy (keV) = 12.4 / Wavelength (in Angstroms)
E = 12.4 / l 36
 Any
Question?

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