The Babcock Institute
Improving
University of Wisconsin
Dairy Updates
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
Introduction
Managers of high producing dairy herds have
known for some time that optimizing
reproductive efficiency is an essential issue in
maintaining profitability of a dairy herd. A
recent survey by the University of Wisconsin
Center for Dairy Profitability asked a random
sample of 2,700 dairy producers in Wisconsin to
rank the importance of different dairy issues to
the future profitability of their businesses. Herd
health and reproduction were ranked as the top
priority for future farm profitability out of a 52
possible items.
Many of the costs associated with
reproduction are readily apparent from a quick
glance at the balance sheet, such as semen costs,
drug costs, and veterinary fees. Most dairy
producers also realize that there are major
opportunity costs associated with culling a high-
producing dairy cow that does not become
pregnant. Other opportunity costs, such as
decreased milk production due to excessive days
open and decreased genetic progress in
replacement heifers, are also costly on a dairy
operation although they are difficult to precisely
quantify.
What determines reproductive efficiency on a
dairy operation? There are multitudes of
management, physiologic, nutritional, genetic,
and disease issues that can dramatically alter
reproduction. In this presentation, I will focus
on improving reproductive efficiency in
lactating dairy cows and will primarily use data
from high-producing dairy cattle in the United
States.
In dairy operations that use artificial
insemination (AI), reproductive efficiency
depends on how efficiently cows are detected in
estrus and serviced (service rate) and fertility to
each service (pregnancy rate per AI [PR/AI]).
Calculation of these two key rates can help in
evaluating current reproductive programs and in
The Babcock Institute
Reproductive
Efficiency
Author: Dr. Milo C. Wiltbank
designing and monitoring the success of new
reproductive programs. In dairy operations with
high producing cows, there are a variety of
management and physiological factors that are
having a serious impact on these two rates and
this will be discussed in some detail in the
subsequent section. First, it may be useful to
discuss mathematically how changes in these
two rates can change the dynamics of
reproduction in a dairy herd.
Figure 1 shows two graphs that illustrate the
potential effect of management changes that
affect PR/AI (Figure 1A) or service rate
(Figure 1B). The top line in both graphs shows
the rate of pregnancies for a herd with 40%
PR/AI and 40% service rate. The herd with
40% for both rates has a median days open of
150 days. Interestingly, at 250 days there are
about 20% of the cows that are still not
pregnant. It should be remembered that this is a
theoretical herd with all cows having the same
fertility of 40%. There are no sterile or severely
infertile cows in this theoretical herd.
Nevertheless, it is likely that many of these
"normal" cows would be culled if this situation
occurred in a dairy herd. Thus, this theoretical
herd illustrates that it is likely that many dairy
operations may be culling cows for reproductive
reasons that may have become pregnant if the
pregnancy rate per AI and service rate had been
optimized. The next paragraph considers how
changes in these rates im-
pact reproductive efficiency. In this
In Figure 1A the Dairy Update
pregnancy rate per AI is 1
improved from 40% to 50%. Introduction
This type of improvement 2
may be possible in some Service Rate
herds with careful 9
management decisions. Pregnancy Rate
Obviously, this results in per AI
some improvement in days 14
open to 135 days; however, Final Remarks
©Milo Wiltbank at University of Wisconsin
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

Figure 1: Mathematical calculation of the days to pregnancy in herds of different pregnancy rates
per AI (PR/AI) and service rates (heat detection rate). The top line in both A and B are the same
for a theoretical herd with 40% PR/AI and 40% service rate.
there are still about 12% of these "normal" cows Holstein dairy cows show estrus for a
that are open at 250 days in milk. Figure 1B surprisingly short time period, only 7.3 hours on
shows the effect of improving service rate to average. Heifers show heat for a much longer
90% with the same 40% pregnancy rate per AI. period of time. Similar trends are present in
Median days open is now reduced to about 100 Jersey cattle, with lactating cows averaging less
days and by 200 days in milk almost all normal than eight hours in heat, while heifers are in heat
cows are pregnant. An improvement to 90% more than 12 hours.
service rate is possible; however, a significant The difference in duration of estrus between
effort is required. heifers and lactating cows is probably primarily
Service rate and pregnancy rate per AI both due to physiological factors, but has important
have physiological and management factors that management implications. For example, in
influence the rate. It is generally fairly difficult lactating dairy cows, it would require at least
to alter the physiological factors; whereas, three heat detections per day to even have a
management factors can be altered by chance of catching most of the "average" cows
development of a consistent management during each estrous cycle. In contrast, heat
program for regulating reproduction. Many detection could be at about 12-hour intervals in
times it is difficult to separate the physiological heifers. The time of estrus onset or termination
and management factors in an on-farm situation. is randomly distributed throughout the day (RL
In the next two sections I will discuss these two Nebel, personal communication) and therefore
key rates, the physiological and management heat detection times need to be evenly spaced
factors that influence these rates, and potential throughout the day.
methods to improve these rates. In addition to the physiological factors that
are reducing the duration of estrus and the
number of standing events during an estrus,
Service rate there are also many management factors that
 General aspects of service rate either increase or decrease service rate on a
dairy farm. In fact, the variation in service rate
This rate is controlled by both physiological between farms accounts for over three times as
and management factors. As shown in Table 1, much of the variability between farms in days
Table 1: Differences in behavioral estrus in virgin heifers and lactating cows as detected by the
HeatWatch® estrus detection system (data from Nebel et al., 1997)*
Virgin Heifers Multiparous Lactating Cows
Holstein Jersey Holstein Jersey
No. of Animal 114 46 307 128
Duration of Estrus, h 11.3 ± 6.9 13.9 ± 6.1 7.3 ± 7.2 7.8 ± 5.4
No. of Standing Events 18.8 ± 12.8 30.4 ± 17.3 7.2 ± 7.2 9.6 ± 7.4
*Values are mean ± standard deviation

2 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
Table 2: Various heat detection aids and current prices for these aids in the United States
Device Method
Kmar Mounted on Tailhead
Activated if cow is mounted
Bovine Beacon Mounted on Tailhead
Fluorescent if cow is mounted
Tail Paint Painted on Tailhead
Rubbed off if cow is mounted
Tail Chalk Marked on Tailhead daily
Rubbed off if cow is mounted
HeatWatch® Mounted on Tailhead
Radio signal if cow is mounted;
Duration and time of all mounts
recorded in computer
Heat Seeker™ Mounted on leg
Pedometer Increased Activity = Estrus
Androgenized Cow Freemartin receives 10 Synovex-H
using Synovex-H® ear implant; Effective for 6 months ~80% response rate
May use Chin-ball marker
open as is accounted for by variation in
pregnancy rate per AI (Barr, 1975). Factors that
cause variation in service rate are numerous
such as: number of heat detections during each
day, timing and duration of heat detection,
surface used for heat detection, individual doing
heat detection, use of heat detection aids, and
use of synchronization procedures.
 Heat detection aids for
improving service rates
Service rate can be improved in many
different ways. The first and most obvious is to
increase the amount of time and the quality of
the time spent in heat detection. It is much
better to do a short but intensive heat detection
at multiple times during the day than for a long
time period once or twice per day. To approach
90% service rate with heat detection alone
would probably require four 15-20 minute heat
detections per day at evenly spaced intervals. In
addition, the time of day, activity of cows
(feeding, milking etc.), and location of heat
detection (slippery cement vs. pasture) can have
substantial effects on the quality of heat
detection (Britt, 1985).
Another method that can improve service rate
is use of a natural service bull. On most farms
using a bull will have little impact on pregnancy
rate per AI unless bull fertility, accuracy of
heats, or insemination efficiency are causing
significant fertility problems on the farm. In
some situations, bull fertility will actually be
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
Cost Manufacturer
$0.80/detector Any Ag Suppliers
Kmar Company
$1.40/detector Select Sires
614-873-4683
~$0.20/cow Ag Suppliers
In US 800-680-3167
Less than $0.10 Ag Suppliers
Reapplied every 1-2d
$55/transmitter DDx Technology
$2-5000/system 1-800-375-6624
$125/pedometer BouMatic
$2-5000/system 608-222-3484
hardware
$15/treatment Check with
Veterinarian
lower for a natural service bull than for AI
because the bull may not have had a semen
evaluation and may have fertility problems due
to genetic factors, heat stress, or disease. In
contrast, service rate is likely to increase by
using a bull because the bull can be more
persistent and adept at checking for heats than
are humans. Obviously, use of natural service
bulls rather than proven AI sires will decrease
genetic gain in dairy herds and will bring
possible safety and disease problems. Thus, it is
recommended that other methods be used for
improving service rate rather than using natural
service bulls.
There are numerous other aids to improve
detection of estrus. Table 2 summarizes some
of these aids and their general prices. Heat
mount detectors, paint, or chalk can be placed
on the tailhead of cows to monitor mounting of
a cow. The tailhead must be checked at least
daily to provide efficiency with these techniques
and tail chalk should be reapplied on a daily
basis. A new electronic heat detection system
called HeatWatch allows continuous monitoring
of mounting activity. Frequent interaction of
cows increases efficiency of devices that
monitor mounting activity and therefore these
devices are more efficient in open lots or free
stalls than in tie stall or stanchion facilities.
Other devices have also been used to monitor
the increase in movement or activity that
accompanies estrus. Pedometers are devices
that attach to the leg of a cow and produce a
3
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

signal that is proportional to the movement of SUN MON Tues Wed Thur Fri Sat
the leg. Pedometers have been successfully Give
used to increase heat detection efficiency when PGF
cows are evaluated on a daily basis with direct
comparison to the individual cow's activity prior Check Heat and Breed
to estrus. Some dairy producers also use Give
androgenized animals to improve heat detection. PGF
 Use of PGF2α to improve Check Heat and Breed
service rate Give
Many dairy managers use hormonal PGF
programs to improve service rate in their dairy Timed AI @ 80h
herds. The most common hormonal programs
use prostaglandin F 2α (PGF2α ). Dairy producers Figure 2: Calendar for a typical breeding protocol
can obtain different brands of PGF2α from their that uses prostaglandin F2α (PGF) to synchronize
veterinarians. Currently in the U.S., Lutalyse estrus. This is the protocol used to collect the data
(Pharmacia-Upjohn) and Estrumate (Bayer) are shown in Figure 3 and 4.
available. These products work by regressing
the corpus luteum. Normally, cycling cows will this increases sexual activity and improves
have a corpus luteum that is responsive to detection of heats. Third, cows will come into
PGF2α only about 60% of the time. Thus, a heat earlier than normal because PGF2α
single injection of PGF2 α will only cause about regresses the corpus luteum, leading to a shorter
60% of cows to have a synchronized estrus and
this synchronized estrus will occur between
days two and seven after the PGF2α injection. Time to AI after PGF2α for lactating cows
Figure 2 illustrates a typical protocol with 1st PGF40
49% Bred
PGF2α given every 14 days to all non-pregnant 30 46% Pregnant/Bred
Percent Bred

cows that were past the voluntary waiting 20

period. We have evaluated this program in 10

0
heifers and lactating dairy cows (Figures 3 and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4; Pursley et. al., 1997a). 50

40
2nd PGF 33% Bred
In lactating cows about 80% of cows receive 30 46% Pregnant/Bred
AI after the first two PGF2α treatments and 46% 20

of bred cows became pregnant. The other cows 10

0
received timed AI after the third PGF2α with 0 1 2 3 4
Day after PGF
5 6 7 8

very poor fertility (4% PR/AI). In heifers, 3rd PGF - 18.1% Bred - 4% Pregnant/Bred
~80% also received AI after two PGF2α Figure 3: Time of AI after PGF2α in lactating
treatments—much better fertility is found after dairy cows (n = 154)
each treatment and after the 3rd PGF2α
treatment (half-timed AI and half in estrus).
Thus, PGF2α synchronizes estrus but time of
estrus varies over about a five-day period. This
is not due to differences in time from PGF2α to
luteal regression, but due to differences in
maturation state of the future ovulatory follicle
at time of PGF2α treatment.
Reproductive management programs using
PGF2α have been used on dairy farms
throughout the world with good success. These
programs increase service rate in three ways.
First, the producer knows approximately when
cows should be in heat and can watch
intensively for these heats. Second, there can be
a greater number of cows in heat or close to heat Figure 4: Time of AI after first or second
if multiple cows are given PGF2α injections and injection of PGF2α in heifers (n = 78)).

4 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
than normal cycle.
There are also some reported difficulties with
PGF2α programs. First, cows must still be
detected in heat because timed AI after PGF2α
has led to reduced pregnancy rate per AI
(Stevenson et al, 1987; Figure 3). This is
particularly important in lactating dairy cows in
which pregnancy rate per AI is decreased to
about 50% of normal rates (for example 40%
would be reduced to 20%). Second, PGF2α does
not appear to cause cyclicity in non-cycling
cows. Lack of cyclicity should not be confused
with lack of detection of heats. On most dairy
farms, non-cycling cows are probably less than
10% of the total cows; however, in some
situations a much greater proportion of cows
can lack cyclicity during the first 80 days of
lactation. Third, cows with follicular cysts will
not be effectively treated with only PGF2α
treatment.
 Use of synchronization of
ovulation (Ovsynch) to
increase service rate
In order to alleviate some of these problems,
we have developed a program that allows timed
AI of lactating dairy cows without the need for
detection of heats. This program requires three
injections, as shown in Figure 5. After the
second injection of GnRH, the cows are bred
without regard to behavioral estrus. We have
found that acceptable calving rates are obtained
with breeding cows anytime from 0 to 24 hrs
after the second GnRH injection but the
optimum was found at 16 hours after GnRH
(study with 733 cows bred at different times
after GnRH; Pursley et al., 1998). The
pregnancy rate per AI is similar for cows that
have a timed AI after this protocol as if bred to a
normal heat. This program only synchronizes
ovulation in about 60-70% of heifers, as
compared to about 90% of lactating dairy cows.
Thus, this new protocol allows more effective
Figure 5: Timing and purpose of hormonal injections during the synchronization of
ovulation procedure (Ovsynch).
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
management of reproduction in lactating dairy
cows because cows can be bred at the correct
time without a need for continuous detection of
heats.
The service rate is dramatically improved
after using this program that we have called
synchronization of ovulation or Ovsynch. This
is because all cows can be routinely serviced on
a given day of lactation. We recently performed
a study in three Wisconsin dairy herds to
evaluate the efficiency of the Ovsynch program
for reproductive management. All cows were
randomly assigned (n = 333 cows) to either a
control group with the herd’s typical
reproductive management (heat detection with
occasional PGF 2α use) or to the Ovsynch group
with all cows bred only to timed AI on one day
of the week. Cows remained on the
reproductive management programs throughout
lactation so that days open could be compared.
Cows in the Ovsynch group that were detected
in heat could not be bred until they were
detected not pregnant at a pregnancy check and
resynchronized with Ovsynch. Thus, no heat
detection was used in the Ovsynch group and
even cows observed in heat could not be bred if
they were in the Ovsynch group. Not
surprisingly the Ovsynch cows had fewer days
to first AI (54 vs. 81 days). This is illustrated in
Figure 6A showing the time to first AI—they
were all serviced between 50 and 58 days in
lactation. However, pregnancy rate after the
first AI was not different between the two
groups (37% vs. 39%). Interestingly, days open
were less in the Ovsynch cows even though no
heat detection was utilized (Figure 6). Thus, it
is possible to have a good reproductive
management program without heat detection.
What are the disadvantages of Ovsynch? The
most obvious disadvantage is the cost of the
hormones. It is a good possibility that the
improvements in reproductive efficiency more
than pay for the increased hormone costs;
however, this needs to be carefully evaluated on
5
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

A. Days to First A.I. B. Days Open

1.0 1.0
Control Control
Proportion of Cows not Inseminated
Ovsynch Ovsynch
0.8 0.8

Proportion of Cows Open

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300
Days Postpartum Days Postpartum
Figure 6: Survival curves comparing efficiency of reproduction in control cows (typical
reproductive management) or cows bred after synchronization of ovulation without any heat
detection (Ovsynch). Panel A shows days to first AI. Panel B shows days open.

each farm. We have just completed a study in stress will continue to cause early pregnancy
which we evaluated the effect of using a half losses. This can also be the case during
dose of GnRH (50 µg) rather than the typical nutritional deficiencies etc. in dairy herds.
dose used for treatment of cystic cows (100 µg). Thus, careful attention must be paid to cow
We have found identical synchronization rates fertility with the Ovsynch program as with any
and conception rates (41%) with either the full reproductive management program.
or half dose (Fricke et al., unpublished results). This Ovsynch program has been successfully
We had previously found that ovulation rates used on many dairy farms around the country in
were the same with full or half dose but the last two years. It can dramatically improve
dramatically decreased with a quarter dose. service rate on a farm with resulting
Thus, the Ovsynch protocol can be done with improvements in overall reproductive efficiency
one dose of GnRH (~$4.50 US dollars) and one (see Section C). Interestingly, it does appear to
dose of PGF2α (~$2.50) making the total be effective in non-cycling and cystic cows. It
protocol cost only about $7 in the U.S. at this is important to remember that it was not
time. designed for heifers and does not effectively
A second disadvantage is that the Ovsynch synchronize ovulation in heifers.
program only allows a normal pregnancy rate
per AI and therefore there needs to be an  An example of improving
effective method for detecting non-pregnant service rate in lactating dairy
cows after Ovsynch. Obviously there is no
other method at this time that allows higher than cows
normal pregnancy rates and therefore all General aspects of reproduction in
methods will require effective procedures for herd M
diagnosing open cows. The most practical
method is probably an intensive heat detection I visited Herd M in March 1998 to analyze
program at 18-25 days after the Ovsynch reproduction. The farm has ~350 lactating cows
program potentially with an estrus detection aid. in a free stall barn. The current rolling herd
Some veterinarians will also use ultrasound to average is 12,400 Kg of milk with 3.1% protein
detect early pregnancies. Third, the safeguard and 3.56% fat. The average milk production in
of cows not showing heat during times of low the herd has been between 36 and 41
fertility is removed with the Ovsynch program. Kg/cow/day (range from 2/97 to 2/98) for the
For example, during a hot summer many cows last year. The veterinarian visits the farm every
will not show heat and therefore not be bred two weeks on Monday morning. Breedings
during this time of low fertility. With the were done in this herd by a professional AI
Ovsynch program many cows will continue to technician. There was also a natural service bull
be bred during the summer even though heat

6 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
in one of the freestall pens where nonpregnant
cows were placed after about 160 days in milk.
I made an examination of reproduction in this
herd. The conception rate for all breedings
during the last year was 30% for lactating dairy
cows and 69% for heifers. The same technician
breeds both heifers and cows. We have done
some preliminary analysis of factors reducing
conception rate in the lactating cows but have
not reached a firm conclusion at this time. I
want to present more depth on my analysis of
service rate in this herd and my suggestions for
improving this aspect of the reproductive
program in the lactating dairy cows.
The overall service rate can be evaluated in a
number of different ways (Heersche and Nebel,
1994). Below I give a formula that is a slight
variation of the formula derived by Jones and
Stewart, 1992.
Overall SR = (22 days * ASPP)
(DO - VWP + 11d)
Overall service rate (SR) for cows that are
pregnant is provided by this formula. We have
used 22 days as the estrous cycle length in
lactating dairy cows. The term ASPP is the
average services per pregnancy and is usually
provided directly by the DHI records or other
herd records. It should be mentioned that this is
the services per conception for the pregnant
cows and is not derived from the overall
conception rate in the herd. The overall
conception rate takes into account all breedings
even in cows that do not become pregnant. The
term DO is the days open and usually can be
directly obtained from the dairy herd reports.
The voluntary waiting period or VWP refers to
how many days in milk will the producer delay
before he will begin to attempt the first
breeding. In some cases producers have a
"flexible" voluntary waiting period in their herd
and this value becomes very difficult to
calculate. The last term is 11 days because the
normal estrous cycle length is 22 days and the
"average" cow will be bred at 11 days if there is
100% estrus detection intensity.
In Herd M the ASPP was 2.4, the DO was
130 d, the VWP was 50 days and so we can
calculate an overall service rate of 58%. This is
a fairly good value but, as will be discussed
below, it could be improved. The producer uses
a three-time-a-day tail chalking program with
three-time-a-day heat detection by an employee.
Obviously, the bull is also being used to
improve service rates for cows that do not
become pregnant with AI.
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
I have divided the rest of the analysis into
two sections below. First, the service rate to the
first AI. This represents how quickly the
producer breeds the cows after the voluntary
waiting period. The herd manager has the
greatest control over this rate because all cows
are known to be non-pregnant before the first
breeding. For example in the University of
Wisconsin dairy herd, our service rate to first AI
is greater than 300%. This is because we
synchronize all cows for the first AI with
Ovsynch. We synchronize cows each week and
therefore all cows are bred for the first time
between 67 and 73 days in milk.
The service rate to the second and later AIs is
another essential rate to evaluate. This rate
relates to how quickly cows are rebred when
they do not become pregnant to the first or
subsequent AIs. Obviously, the methods for
pregnancy diagnosis, including heat detection at
about 18-25 days after each AI, are the primary
factors for controlling this rate.
Service rate to first AI
The service rate (SR) to first AI can be
calculated with a simplified formula.
SR to First AI= (22 days) .
(DFS - VWP) + 11
The service rate to first AI relates to how
quickly cows are bred after the voluntary
waiting period. The term DFS is the days to
first service and can usually be directly obtained
from herd records. Again the voluntary waiting
period (VWP) must be obtained from the dairy
producer. The 11-day time is used because it is
half of the normal estrous cycle length of 22
days. For example, if service rate to first AI is
100%, then the days to first service would
average 11 days.
In herd M, there were 74 days to first service.
Thus, the service rate to first service was 45.8%.
This value is lower than the overall service rate
of 58%. In some herds this value can vary even
more from the overall service rate being either
much greater in herds that use intensive
hormonal programs or much less in herds that
do not have intensive programs for breeding
cows in early lactation. The service rate to first
AI of less than 50% is a clear indication that
improvements should be made. I made two
specific suggestions.
7
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
Table 3: Distribution of breeding intervals in Herd M
Days between breedings
0-16 17-26
Number of Intervals 32 99
% of Intervals 14% 45%
a. Voluntary waiting period (VWP) could be
increased to 60 days in order to allow cows
a longer period for uterine involution before
first AI. When high-producing cows
become pregnant between 45 and 60 days
(lactations of fewer than 280 days), optimal
profitability may be reduced. This herd uses
bST and should be able to maintain
profitability in cows that do not become
pregnant early in lactation (see Galton et al.,
1997 for impact of bST on profitable calving
intervals). Further, first service conception
rate was only 25% and there were 20% of
cows with uterine problems. Delaying
breeding may improve fertility at first AI.
b. All cows that were past the VWP on the day
of the veterinary visit would receive
Ovsynch. I also suggested that all cows
have tail paint applied to the tail head at
time of first GnRH. The tail paint should be
checked daily. This could be done by the AI
technician as he comes for his normal
breedings each morning. Any cows with
rubbed off tail paint should be bred.
Obviously a Kmar, Bovine Beacon or chalk
could be used in place of the tail paint as a
heat detection aid.
Using this program, 100% of cows would
receive AI by 84 days. Although the average
days to first AI may be only slightly different
than with the current program, there will not be
cows receiving first AI in very early lactation or
later lactation. In other words, the variability in
time to first AI will be much lower. This will
increase the voluntary waiting period to about
70 days. The service rate to first AI will be
increased from 46% to 157%.
The costs for the above suggestions can be
calculated with an average cost for GnRH (100
µg) of $4.50/dose and for PGF 2α of $2.50 per
dose in U.S. dollars. We only need 50µg per
treatment and therefore will need one dose of
GnRH and one dose of PGF 2α for a total of
$7.00 per cow. In addition, all cows will
receive tail paint at a cost of $0.20 per cow.
The total cost for these treatments excluding
labor is $7.20. I believe that less time will
8 Dairy Updates
27-36 37-60 61-84 Total
28 51 12 222
13% 23% 5% 100%
actually be spent in implementing the current
program as compared to previous program.
An alternative method that some producers
have found attractive in place of the complete
use of Ovsynch for first AI is to use a
prostaglandin program combined with Ovsynch.
In this program, the cows would receive a
PGF2α treatment at the first veterinary visit after
60 days in milk. They would also receive tail
paint. About 50% of cows should be bred after
this first PGF 2α treatment (see Figure 3). At the
next veterinary visit (14 days later), any cows
that did not receive AI after the first PGF2 α
treatment would receive a second treatment with
PGF 2α . About 30% of the cows should be
detected in estrus after this second PGF2 α
treatment (see Figure 3). At the next veterinary
visit, any cows that had not yet received AI
would receive the Ovsynch protocol and would
have timed AI 10 days later.
In this alternative program, 50% of cows will
receive AI by 70 days in milk, 80% by 85 days,
and 100% will receive at least one AI by 110
days (see Figure 3 for data used to make these
calculations). The aggressive use of PGF2α and
Ovsynch after the voluntary waiting period will
increase service rate to first AI from 46% to
65% and will decrease variability in time to first
AI as compared to the previous program. The
costs for this program can also be calculated.
All cows would receive tail paint at $0.20/cow.
All cows would receive the first PGF 2 α
treatment at $2.50/cow. Another 50% would
receive a second treatment with PGF2α at an
additional cost of $2.50 for these cows or an
average cost of $1.25/all cows. Another 20% of
the cows will receive Ovsynch at $7.00/cow or
an average of $1.40/all cows. The average cost
per cow will be $5.35/cow. So this program
would reduce the cost about $1.85/cow, would
require heat detection after the first two PGF2α
treatments, and would increase service rate to
first AI only about 40% as compared to the
more than 3-fold increase in the first program.
Service rate to second and later AI
The service rate to second and later AIs can
be calculated as 22 days divided by the average
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
Table 4: Dairy cattle pregnancy rate from the beginning of AI until 1995
Pregnancy Rate Per AI
Year Lactating Cows
1955 60%
1975 50%
1995 40%
breeding interval. An easy method to use from
herd records is:
SR to > 1st AI = 22 days * [ASPP-1]
(DO - DFS)
Thus, the service rate to second and later AIs
(SR to >1st AI) is equal to the estrus cycle
length (22 days) times the average services per
pregnancy in pregnant cows minus 1. This is
divided by the days open (DO) minus the days
to first service (DFS). In Herd M this is
calculated as:
(22 days * 1.4) = 55%
(130 - 74)
I have found it very valuable to plot the
distribution of breeding intervals. This does not
take a lot of time once you classify breeding
intervals in the five categories shown in Table 3.
The 0-16 day interval usually indicates cows
that have inaccurate heats recorded at the start
or end of the interval or possibly some cystic
cows. The 17-26 day interval is the normal
breeding interval. The 27-36 day interval may
be cows that have had early pregnancy loss (18-
30 days). The 37 or greater intervals generally
result from cows that have at least one missed
estrus; although, some later pregnancy losses
may also contribute to these numbers. In this
herd, 45% of intervals were of normal duration.
I made the following suggestions to increase
service rate to second and later AIs.
a. All cows should receive tail paint on the day
after AI. This will be used to catch any
cows that are in heat after this AI.
b . Pregnancy diagnosis would occur on all
cows over 30 days (ultrasound) or over 40
days (rectal palpation). Cows bred to
Ovsynch and not detected in heat would be
at 46 days at this pregnancy diagnosis
(possible chance for detecting two estruses
[~day 22 and 44]). Any cows found to be
non-pregnant would receive the Ovsynch
program and receive AI 10 days later.
All open cows would either be bred before
pregnancy diagnosis (removal of tail paint) or
would be bred by 10 days after being diagnosed
non-pregnant (Ovsynch). This should increase
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
Milk Production
Heifers (lb/lactation)
66% ~5,000
65% ~11,000
70% ~20,000
heat detection intensity to second and later AIs
from 55% to about 67% and will assure that all
cows are definitely bred every 56 days. This
will also eliminate all breeding intervals greater
than 56 days, which represented 9% of breeding
intervals in my analysis of Herd M. Obviously
most cows will be bred at shorter intervals due
to the intensive heat detection program after
each AI and prior to pregnancy evaluation.
This program would cost for tail paint and
Ovsynch. I calculate that 84% of cows should
be bred before pregnancy diagnosis (two estrus
periods with 60% detection of estrus) and 16%
should be bred by Ovsynch. How many cows
are represented by these percentages will
obviously vary according to the pregnancy rate
per AI in the herd. In Herd M (30% pregnancy
rate per AI), I estimate that costs for Ovsynch
will average another $3.50/cow and costs for tail
paint will average another $0.40 for all
breedings.
The total cost of the program is therefore
about $11. The economic benefits are difficult
to calculate. There should be an average
decrease of 17 days due to the first AI program
and of nine days due to the program for second
and later AIs. Thus, the new program should
achieve half the pregnancies in 54 days as
compared to 80 days required in the current
program. The economic benefits for this
improvement in reproductive efficiency should
be between $50-100/cow (Ferguson, 1996).
Pregnancy Rate per AI
 General aspects of pregnancy
rate per AI
The pregnancy rate per AI (PR/AI), or
fertility of dairy cattle, is only about 40% in
high-producing lactating dairy cows, with not a
great deal of variation between high-producing
herds when sufficient numbers of AIs are
evaluated (mean of 40.9% with a range of 32.0
to 49.7% for 19 intensively monitored herds in
New York; Butler et al., 1995). Similarly,
Ferguson, 1996 showed a 36.9% (5249 cow
records from 39 herds) or a 40.9% (191,165 cow
9
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

Table 5: General factors that change pregnancy rate per AI (PR/AI)

PR/AI = Cow fertility X Bull fertility X Accuracy of heats X AI efficiency
A. 73% = 85% X 95% X 95%
B. 38% = 85% X 95% X 95%
C. 41% = 50% X 95% X 90%
D. 21% = 50% X 95% X 90%
records in Northeast U.S.) pregnancy rate to
first AI. As shown in Table 4, fertility of dairy
heifers continues to be high (about 70%) in
modern dairy herds. This high heifer fertility
indicates that the decrease in lactating dairy cow
fertility is not due to selection of poor fertility
genetics or use of poor fertility semen. The
increase in milk production in lactating cows
seems to be primarily responsible for the
decrease in fertility; however, the exact
mechanism causing this decrease in fertility is
not clear. It should be noted that fertility for
cows in 1995 was from a study done by five
Midwestern experiment stations in herds that
had milk production of about 20,000 lb. per
lactation.
In evaluation of pregnancy rate per AI, it is
particularly important to base judgments on
sound assessments of this rate. Many times a
producer, consultant, veterinarian, AI technician
etc. will say that conception rate is either poor
or very good based on two to 10 breedings.
Statistically it is not possible to accurately
evaluate pregnancy rate per AI (conception rate)
with only a few breedings. You may be able to
convince yourself of this by doing a simple coin
flipping exercise. If you flip a coin four times
on many occasions you will obtain the
following results: all heads (6.25% of the time),
three heads and one tail (25%), two heads and
two tails (37.5%), one head and three tails
(25%), and four tails (6.25%). Thus, you
obtained the correct answer of 50% heads less
than 40% of the time and over 12% of the time
you had either all heads or all tails. It is difficult
to not get excited when three or four cows in a
row are pregnant or are open; however, it should
be remembered that an accurate assessment of
pregnancy rate per AI requires at least 20
breedings.
Pregnancy rate per AI is due to a multitude of
factors that interact in a complex manner. As
shown in Table 5 there are at least four general
factors that impact this rate. Cow fertility refers
to any factors within the cow that may alter her
Situation
X 95% (Heifers)
(AI problems in
X 50% heifers)
(Lactating dairy
X 95% cows)
(Lactating cows
X 50% + AI prob.)
probability of becoming pregnant, including
heat stress, nutritional deficiencies, etc. Bull
fertility is due to the fertility of the semen that is
used for AI. Accuracy of heats refers only to
whether a cow was in actual heat (near time of
ovulation) and not to service rate or efficiency
of heat detection (discussed in section II). AI
efficiency refers to any aspect of the AI
technique that may alter pregnancy rates to that
AI (thawing technique, semen placement, etc.).
Line A shows a situation that may be typical in
a well-managed group of heifers. In a recent
study, we found a 74% pregnancy rate per AI in
dairy heifers bred to a standing heat on a small
group of well-managed Midwestern dairy farms.
Line B shows what happens in this group of
heifers if AI efficiency is decreased to 50%, for
example by inconsistent technique in handling
semen. Obviously, a decrease in this one factor
can have a major impact on overall pregnancy
rate per AI! In a group of heifers that have a
lower than expected pregnancy rate per AI,
there are multiple factors that could be
responsible. Cow fertility could be low due to
nutritional problems, environmental stresses,
etc. Bull fertility is generally quite good from
the major AI organizations; however, there can
be some small differences in bull fertility
between different bulls. Accuracy of heats and
AI efficiency can be optimized with careful
management. Line C shows what we think is
the situation for lactating dairy cows on many
well-managed dairy farms. On many farms,
bull fertility and AI efficiency are optimized
with good accuracy of heats. The problem is
low cow fertility. As mentioned above, it is not
clear what is the cause of this low fertility, but it
continues to be low even on well-managed
farms with excellent nutritional and general
management programs.
To maximize pregnancy rate per AI, each of
these rates must be maximized. The paragraphs
below will discuss bull fertility, accuracy of heat
detection, and AI efficiency. Separate sections

10 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle
will discuss the optimal timing of AI and factors
affecting cow fertility.
Bull fertility is probably high for most semen
purchased from reputable AI organizations.
Semen evaluations are done on each ejaculate
and all young sires have been checked for
fertility. There is now a website that can be
checked for "Estimated Relative Conception
Rate." It does not give the absolute conception
rates for bulls and compares only those bulls
that have been used in at least 1000 AIs in the
last three years. The website is:
http://www2.acs.ncsu.edu/drpc/fertility.html.
You should obviously not use this index as a
primary method for selection of bulls. There is
relatively little difference between most bulls;
however, there are a few bulls that appear to
have much lower estimated conception rates.
There may be some bias in these data based on
the fertility of cows that are bred to a particular
bull (very good bulls may be used on higher
production cows that may have lower fertility).
The interpretation and use of this index is
provided on the website.
The accuracy of heat detection will
profoundly affect pregnancy rate per AI. It
should be remembered that accuracy of heat
detection is not the same as service rate. In fact,
as more secondary signs of estrus are used to
designate cows for AI, the service rate will
increase but the accuracy of heat detection will
decrease. Accuracy of heat detection can be
estimated by evaluating milk progesterone at the
time of AI. Theoretically, milk progesterone
concentration should be low in all cows at the
time of AI. If more than 10% of the milk
progesterone concentrations are high, then there
is a problem with heat detection accuracy.
There are two milk progesterone kits that I
currently know about. One is the TARGET
Bovine CL Check. It is available from
BioMetallics (1-800-999-1961). They have a
12-test kit for $49 and a 20-test kit for $75. So
it is about $4/test. This kit is very easy to run
and we have had very accurate results in our
experience. You will have to pay for
shipping/handling/taxes, etc. The other kit is
Accufirm Rapid Progesterone Test Kit (1-800-
345-8846). I do not have the details about this
kit.
Another way to check for accuracy of heat
detection is to evaluate the intervals between
AIs. An interval of 17-26 days is fairly normal
and a value of 60-70% might be considered
normal (Heersche and Nebel, 1994). If there are
a large number (>10%) of intervals less than 18
Reproduction and Genetics No. 601
days, you might suspect a problem with heat
detection accuracy. Some producers and
veterinarians have used the Ovsynch protocol
for evaluating whether heat detection accuracy
is a major problem. If PR/AI are very low
(10-30%), then a group of cows can be
synchronized with Ovsynch and bred by timed
AI. The PR/AI after Ovsynch should be about
40%. If it is much lower, then there is probably
another problem causing the low PR/AI. If
PR/AI after Ovsynch is about 40%, then it is
likely that heat detection accuracy is the major
problem.
Efficiency of AI technique may reduce
PR/AI in certain situations. Records should be
kept on each AI technician and retraining in
current AI technique should occur about every
one to two years. Correct thawing of semen is
critical. Thawing should be rapid in water of
95-98F (35-37C). A recent study was done in
hot weather (temperature humidity index above
72) in which four straws of semen were thawed
at one time (Lee et. al., 1997). The PR/AI was
highest for the first straw used in AI and was
lowest for the last straw, going from 48% to
41% to 38% to 25%. A technician must be
careful not to lower sperm viability by exposing
sperm to ambient environment. The placement
of semen is also critical. This can be accurately
evaluated with ultrasound. A small brass bead
is attached to fishing line and an AI rod is
modified so this bead can be inseminated
similar to a straw of semen. AI is done and
placement of the brass bead is checked by
ultrasound (Beal et. al., 1989). At times AI
technicians can develop bad habits and semen
placement can be too far into the uterine horn or
still within the cervix. Optimization of AI
technique should be a priority for each
technician involved with AI breeding.
 Optimal time for AI
Time of AI in relation to onset of estrus and
time of ovulation is one factor that can influence
PR/AI. This could be considered an effect on
cow fertility or AI technique. Early studies
suggested that there might be a fairly narrow
time for optimal success with AI (Table 6).
This information led to the AM/PM rule for AI.
However, it should be noted that this study
suffered from low numbers of cows per
treatment group and a lack of statistical
comparisons. A number of studies from AI
organizations have shown similar non-return
rates from once-a-day vs. twice-a-day AI. Data
11
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

Table 6: Effect of time of insemination on fertility in beef cows (Trimberger and Davis, 1943)
Time of Breeding Cows Inseminated Cows conceiving
Start of estrus 25 44%
Middle of estrus 40 82%
End of estrus 40 75%
After estrus - 6 hours 40 63%
12 hours 25 32%
18 hours 25 28%
24 hours 25 12%
36 hours 25 8%
48 hours 25 0%

from Mississippi also shows that one AM Table 10: Effect of time from estrus to AI
breeding is similar to breeding at both AM and # Bred % Pregnant
PM (Table 7; Gonzalez et al., 1985) and that AI a.m. - a.m. 112 51.8%
at the onset of estrus only is similar to AI at the
onset of estrus and again 12 hours later a.m. - p.m. 109 59.6%
(Table 8; Wahome et al., 1985). In addition, p.m. - a.m. 116 65.5%
Jersey cows bred once per day had similar
pregnancy rates as AI by the AM/PM rule Some recent data further suggests that there
(Table 9; Graves et. al., 1997). There was a is about a 24-hour time period during which
reduction in those cows that were first in heat acceptable PR/AI can be obtained. Diskin, 1996
and bred in the same AM (Table 10). in Ireland reported the results of 1200
inseminations from bulls of average to above-
Table 7: Conception rate after AI in AM only average fertility (Table 11). Insemination any
or at 12 hours after estrus (AM/PM) time from right after onset of estrus until 24
Treatment # of heifers Conception rate hours after onset of estrus gave acceptable
PR/AI. In addition, after synchronization of
a.m./p.m. 132 62.9% ovulation (Ovsynch) there is substantial
a.m. 129 62.0% flexibility in the optimal time of AI (Table 12).
Similar PR/AI was observed with cows bred
Table 8: Conception rate after one or two AI from 0-24 hours after the GnRH injection
Treatment # of heifers Conception rate (similar to onset of estrus) with an optimum at
One AI 84 70.2% 16 hours. In all cases, it appears to be better to
Two AI 86 68.6% breed too early than too late in relation to
ovulation.
Table 9: Effect of once versus twice daily AI
# Bred % Pregnant  Cow fertility
am-pm rule 172 60.5% Cow fertility is probably the major factor
Once per day 165 57.6% changing PR/AI in lactating dairy cows. There
are numerous factors that alter cow fertility such
as nutrition, age, heat stress, milk production,
etc. Precise measurement of cow fertility and

Table 11: Effect of time of breeding, relative to first observation of heat, on calving rate.
Interval (hrs) 0-12 12-18 18-24 24-36
Calving rate (%) 51% 58% 54% 35%
Table 12: Hours from GnRH to AI in lactating cows (* - significantly different; P<0.05).
Hours: 0 8 16 24 32
Number of cattle 149 148 149 143 143
Pregnancy rate per AI 37% 41% 45% 41% 32%*
Calving rate 32% 34% 36% 32% 23%*

12 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

Table 13: Effect of calving to service interval on calving rate in beef cattle, %
Interval (days) 1-28 29-42
Calving rate (%) 15% 45%
Table 14: Effect of time from calving on PR/AI after Ovsynch in lactating dairy cattle
Time from Calving (days) 50-75
No. of cows 428
Pregnancy rate per AI 35%*
* Significantly less (P<0.05) than other values
alteration of this variable is difficult and there
are numerous claims that various products will
have dramatic effects on this variable.
Calving rate will increase as interval from
calving until first AI increases up until about 70
days after calving (Table 13; Diskin, 1996).
Our results using Ovsynch also suggest that
fertility increases until about 75 days after
calving (Table 14).
Nutrition can have a major impact on the
fertility of dairy cows. Diets must obviously be
balanced for energy, protein, vitamins and
mineral requirements of the cow to assure
adequate reproduction. A recent review by
Ferguson, 1996 indicated that nutritional causes
of low fertility are more likely first due to
energy management, second to excessive
protein feeding, and third to trace element and
vitamin deficiencies.
There is always a period of negative energy
balance during the first few weeks post-partum
in dairy cows. Dry matter intake increases and
cows progress to a positive energy balance by
about eight weeks after calving (range 4-14
weeks). An equation has been given by
Canfield and Butler, 1991 that explains the days
to first ovulation as a function of days to lowest
energy balance:
Days to first ovulation =
10.4 + (1.2 x days to energy nadir) (r2 = 0.77)
43-56 57-70 71-98 >99
50% 56% 62% 66%
76-100 >100
96 199
47% 43%
The average days to first ovulation for ten
studies (reviewed by Ferguson, 1996) is 33.3
days (mean, SEM 2.09) in U.S. Holsteins.
Thus, negative energy balance produces a
longer period of post-partum anestrus.
Obviously, if cows are not cycling they will not
be bred to an ovulation. In addition, if cows are
bred to the first post-partum ovulation a short
cycle will result in most instances. Short cycles
will not result in a pregnancy because the corpus
luteum is not present for a long enough time to
allow maternal recognition of pregnancy by the
developing conceptus. Most cows reinitiate
cyclicity well before the time of first AI and
anestrous cows are generally only a minor
problem in most dairy operations.
In most studies, cows that lose greater
amounts of body condition from calving until
breeding have lower conception rates
(Table 15). Thus, greater loss of body condition
reduces days to first ovulation and may reduce
PR/AI.
High energy intake is desirable for initiating
a resumption of cyclicity. However it may be
detrimental to achieving a high conception rate.
In recent studies from Ireland feeding 150% of
NRC requirements for energy vs. 50% of NRC
requirements for energy for the 10 days prior to
AI reduced pregnancy rates per AI from about
70% (low energy diet) to 40% (high energy
diet). The mechanism for reduction in fertility

Table 15: Effect of change in body condition from calving to AI on PR/AI (Ferguson, 1996; n=531)
Body condition change +0.51- 1.0 +0.01 - 0.5 0 -0.01 - 0.5 0.51 - 1.0 > -1.0
Pregnancy rate per AI 56% 50% 46% 43% 37% 29%
Table 16: Effect of high protein feeding on reproductive performance
Barton et al., 1996 n Dietary CP PUN PR/AI Overall PR Days Open
Moderate Protein 32 13% 8.5 mg/dla 41% 75% 71
b
High Protein 32 20% 22.1 mg/dl 44% 88% 81
Canfield et al., 1990
Moderate Protein 32 16.5% 12.9 mg/dla 48%a -
High Protein 33 19.2% 19.2 mg/dlb 31%b

Reproduction and Genetics No. 601 13

 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

Table 17: Effects of Vitamin E supplementation on PR/AI in dairy cattle

Temperature Controls Vitamin E-supplemented
Heat-stressed 21/87 = 24.1% 19/99 = 19.2%
Cool weather 48/154 = 31.2% 55/163 = 33.7%

was not clear but may involve an increased
metabolism of progesterone.
Another factor that may be of importance in
some herds is the amount of rumen degradable
protein in the diet. In general, increasing rumen
degradable protein in excess of requirements for
milk production has been shown to decrease
fertility; however, this has not always been the
effect. Table 16 shows the results of two trials.
High protein may be causing embryonic death
due to a poor uterine environment. However, as
shown in Table 16, the trial by Barton et al.,
1996 showed no effect of feeding excess rumen
degradable protein on PR/AI, overall pregnancy
rate (overall PR), or on days open. In sharp
contrast, Canfield et al., 1990 showed decreased
PR/AI with high protein diets. Overfeeding of
protein should be avoided, although it may not
be the major problem causing low fertility in
most dairy herds.
There are numerous components of a diet that
could be rate-limiting to production or
reproduction. Some circumstantial information
is consistent with vitamin A or beta-carotene
improving reproduction. Two recent studies
specifically tested this hypothesis. In three
experiments done in Florida, cows were
supplemented with beta-carotene for at least 20
days prior to first AI and compared to non-
supplemented controls. There was no effect of
beta-carotene on pregnancy rates (Arechiga et
al., 1997). In a recent study done in our
laboratory (Fricke et al., unpublished),
supplementation with vitamin A and vitamin E
did not improve PR/AI to an Ovsynch timed AI
program. Vitamin E was also not found to
improve PR/AI in either heat-stressed dairy
cows or dairy cows in cool conditions
(Table 17; Arechiga et al., 1994).
Much of the decrease in calving rates are
probably due to pregnancy losses. Fertilization
rates appear to approach 90-95%. We recently
did a study (Vasconcelos et. al., 1997) that
examined the pregnancy losses from day 28 of
pregnancy until calving (Figure 7). There were
substantial pregnancy losses in this study (25%),
with most of these losses (17%) occurring
during the first 60 days. It is very likely that
there are substantial numbers of losses occurring
prior to day 28; however, we do not have an
accurate early pregnancy test for cattle.
Final Remarks
Thus, reproductive efficiency can be
improved in dairy herds by optimizing PR/AI

100
Compared to Day 28 (%)

90
Pregnancies Present

80

70

60

50
20 60 100 140 180 220 260
Days of Gestation
Figure 7: Pregnancy losses in cattle from day 28 of gestation until calving (n = 512). Cows
were examined for pregnancy by ultrasound at 28, 42, 56, 70, and 98 days and calving was
recorded. The PR/AI at 28 days was 32% (1600 AIs analyzed with 70% of AIs during the
summer).

14 Dairy Updates
 Improving Reproductive Efficiency in High Producing Dairy Cattle

and service rate. Pregnancy rate per AI must be
carefully evaluated to optimize the many factors
that can influence this rate. There is still a great
deal of research that is required to develop
methods that can reliably increase this rate.
Service rate can probably be improved on
most dairy operations and can be dramatically
improved in some situations. Heat detection
aids and hormonal programs should be
considered for use in many herds by carefully
analyzing the costs that are associated with poor
reproductive efficiency. Service rate to first AI
should be evaluated separately from service rate
to second and later AIs. The service rate to first
AI can be dramatically improved by using an
effective hormonal program such as Ovsynch
with little or no change in PR/AI.
Improvements in service rate to second or later
AIs should focus on effective methods for
diagnosing open cows at the earliest possible
times.
Expectations from reproductive management
programs must be realistic so that management
schemes can be profitably matched to
availability of labor and facilities.
Unfortunately, changes in reproductive
parameters due solely to random chance
(pregnant/non-pregnant like a flip of a coin)
make analyzing and correcting reproductive
problems particularly problematic. All
members of the management team (nutritionist,
veterinarian, AI technician) should be consulted
on an ongoing basis to assure that an optimal
reproductive management program is
implemented and continuously active.

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16 Dairy Updates