PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

URDANETA CITY CAMPUS, URDANETA CITY, PANGASINAN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT

RESEARCH WORK NO. RSW – MT – 01

DATE ISSUED: FEBRUARY 20, 2023

TITLE: “THE ADVENT OF SKYSCRAPERS

AND INTELLEGENT BUILDINGS”

COURSE AND TITLE: STUDENT NAME: DATE DUE: FINAL

AD 428 – ARCHITECTURAL GUMALLAOI, JUDELLE V. FEB. 27, RATING:
DESIGN 08 2023
INSTRUCTOR: COURSE/YEAR/SECTION: DATE
SUBMITTED:
AR. ALVEN T. BACTAD, uap BS-ARCHITECTURE 4-a
FACULTY INSTRUCTOR FEB. 23,
2023
 ADVENT OF SKYSCRAPERS

The first skyscrapers—tall commercial buildings with iron or steel frameworks—came about in

the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first skyscraper is generally considered to be the Home
Insurance Building in Chicago, though it was only 10 stories high. Later, taller and taller buildings
were made possible through a series of architectural and engineering innovations, including the
invention of the first process to mass-produce steel. Today, the tallest skyscrapers in the world are more
than 100 stories and approach—and even exceed—heights of 2,000 feet.

The crucial developments that allowed for the construction of modern skyscrapers
were steel, glass, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and elevators. Until the nineteenth century,
buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and
water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above about 15 meters (50 ft).
Despite this lack of sanitation, high-rise housing dates back to the 1600s in some places. The
Romans built apartment buildings
sometimes 7-8 stories high. These buildings
were unstable and dirty, and they often
caught on fire due to careless inhabitants. In
Edinburgh, Scotland, a defensive wall
defined the city's boundaries. With limited
land area for development, the houses
increased in height. Buildings of 11 stories
were common, and there are records of
buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the
stone-built structures can still be seen in the
old town of Edinburgh.
Roman skyscrapers IMPERIUM ROMANUM
 The oldest iron-framed building in the world is the Flaxmill (also locally known as the
"Maltings") in Shrewsbury, England. Built in 1797, it is considered the "grandfather of skyscrapers,”
due to its fireproof combination of cast iron columns and cast iron beams. These developed into the
steel frame, which made modern skyscrapers possible. It unfortunately lies derelict and needs much
investment to keep it standing. On March 31, 2005, it was announced that English Heritage would buy
the Flaxmill, so that it could be redeveloped.

The first steel-framed high-rise (called a skyscraper based on its structure) was the ten-story Home
Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1884–1885. Although its height is not considered unusual or
impressive today, the architect, Major William Le Baron Jenney, created the first load-carrying
structural frame. In this building, a steel frame supported the entire weight of the walls, instead of the
walls themselves carrying the weight of the building, which was the usual method. This development
led to the "Chicago skeleton" form of construction. After Jenney's accomplishment, the sky was truly
the limit so far as building was concerned.
 Another ten-story structure was Sullivan's Wainwright Building, constructed in St. Louis in
1890. It was the first steel-framed structure to have soaring vertical bands to emphasize its height.

The United Kingdom also had its share of early skyscrapers. The first building to fit the
engineering definition was the then-largest hotel in the world, the Grand Midland Hotel, now known as
St Pancras Chambers in London, opened in 1873, with a clock tower 82 meters (269 ft) in height. The
12-floor Shell Mex House in London, at 58 meters (190 ft), was completed a year after the Home
Insurance Building and managed to beat it in both height and floor count. 1877, saw the opening of the
Gothic revival style Manchester Town Hall by Alfred Waterhouse. Its 87-meter-high clock and bell
tower dominated that city's skyline for almost a century.
 Most early skyscrapers emerged in the land-strapped areas of Chicago, London, and New York
toward the end of the nineteenth century. London builders soon found their height was limited, based
on a complaint from Queen Victoria—rules that remained in place with few exceptions until the 1950s.
Concerns about aesthetics and fire safety had likewise hampered the development of skyscrapers across
continental Europe for the first half of the twentieth century. Notable exceptions were the 26-story
Boerentoren, built in 1932, in Antwerp, Belgium, and the 31-story Torre Piacentini, built in 1940 in
Genoa, Italy.

After an early competition between New York City and

Chicago for the world's tallest building, New York took a firm lead
by 1895 with completion of the American Surety Building.
Developers in Chicago also found themselves hampered by laws
limiting height to about 40 stories, leaving New York to hold the
title of tallest building for many years. New York City developers
then competed among themselves, with successively taller buildings
claiming the title of "world's tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s.
The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930, followed by
the Empire State Building in 1931. The latter became the world's
tallest building for forty years. From the 1930s onward, skyscrapers
also began to appear in Latin America (São Paulo, Caracas, Mexico
City) and Asia (Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore).
 Immediately after World War II, the Soviet Union planned eight massive skyscrapers dubbed
"Stalin Towers" for Moscow. Seven of these were eventually built. The rest of Europe slowly began to
permit skyscrapers, starting with Madrid in Spain, during the 1950s. Finally, skyscrapers also began to
appear in Africa, the Middle East, and Oceania (mainly Australia) from the late 1950s and early 1960s.
 As of this writing, New York City has 195 completed free-standing buildings over 492 ft. (150
m) tall—the largest number of such structures in the world. If one counts individually the multiple
towers that rise from a common podium (as in buildings that rise several stories as one structure, before
splitting into two or more columns), Hong Kong has 221 towers that exceed this height—the most in
the world. The number of skyscrapers in Hong Kong will continue to increase due to a prolonged high-
rise building boom there, based on demands for additional office and housing space. A new building
complex in Kowloon contains several mixed-use towers (hotel-shops-residential) and one of them will
be 118 stories tall.
Chicago's skyline was not allowed to grow until the height limits were relaxed in 1960. Over
the next fifteen years, many towers were built, including the massive 442-meter (1,451-foot) Sears
Tower, leading to its current number of 90 buildings over 492 ft. Chicago is currently undergoing an
epic construction boom that will greatly add to the city's skyline. Since 2000, at least 40 buildings at a
minimum of 50 stories high have been built. The Chicago Spire, Trump International Hotel and Tower,
Waterview Tower, Mandarin Oriental Tower, 29-39 South LaSalle, Park Michigan, and Aqua are some
of the more notable projects currently underway in the city that invented the skyscraper.

Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise known as the "the big three," are
recognized in most architectural circles as having the most compelling skylines in the world. Other
large cities that are currently experiencing major building booms in skyscrapers
include Shanghai in China and Dubai in the United Arab Emirates.
Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is scarce, as in the centers of
big cities, because of the high ratio of rentable floor space per area of land. Skyscrapers, like temples
and palaces in the past, are considered the symbols of a city's economic power.
 History of Skyscrapers

Skyscrapers appeared for the first time in 19th century in United States in the time of the
greatest development. Encouraged by the invention of commercial elevators and new ideas in design of
buildings it set the face of the country and, in time, the world today.
A skyscraper is a tall commercial building with an iron or steel framework. They were made
possible as a result of the Bessemer process of mass production of steel beams. The first modern
skyscraper was created in 1885—the 10-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago. Early extant
skyscrapers include the 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis and the 1902 Flatiron Building in New
York City. 

Early Skyscrapers - Construction of First Skyscrapers

Under the early skyscrapers is considered a range of

tall, commercial buildings that were built between 1884 and
1939, mainly in the American cities of New York and
Chicago. Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of
economic growth after the Civil War, the financial
organization of American businesses, and shortage of land
for building. New York had a colonial history and because of
that its real estate was broken up into many small parcels of
land. It became the national center of American finance in
the first half of the 19th century with banks in the financial
district of Wall Street which fought with English institutions
for international dominance. The Great Fire of 1835 destroyed most of the old financial buildings,
which had to be reb uilt in the 1840s and 1850s. Also New York's population tripled between 1840 and
1870 and property values started rising. All that was a fertile ground for building skyscrapers. At the
same time the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers was Chicago. It grew from a
village of around fifty inhabitants in 1830, to a city of 30,000 in 1850 and nearly 300,000 by 1870. It
also became the railroad center for the American West and its primary trading city. Similarly to New
York City, in October 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the
heart of the city which buildings were built of wood. Center had to
be rebuilt but not out of wood (which was logically prohibited after
the fire) and in a new grid network. These conditions resulted in
construction of tall single buildings.

Construction and practicality of skyscrapers was made

possible by technological innovations during the middle of the 19th
century. One of those innovations was the elevator building taller
than six stories were difficult for everyday climbing. The first
powered elevators appeared in England the 1830s but only in lower
buildings. Hydraulic elevator appeared in 1870 and could operate on
greater heights but it hade design flaws which were fixed by 1876.
Other invention that allowed constricting higher buildings was the
iron framed building. Traditionally, buildings were held by their walls
but if the building is higher walls had to be thicker - which has its
limitations. Iron framed buildings are supported by internal metal frames
which allowed for walls of normal thickness that hung from the
construction or stood on it.

There is no firm agreement over which building should be

considered the first skyscraper. Before for buildings, term was used in
18th century for horses, sails at the top of a ship's mast, tall hats and tall
men. At the end on 19th century it was used for large public monuments
and only after that for buildings and tall office blocks. George Post's
New York Equitable Life Building, of 1870, was the first tall office
building to have the elevator. Produce Exchange of 1884 had an
advanced metal frame design. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago,
opened in 1884, is most often labeled as the first skyscraper for the same
reasons.

Mass-Produced Steel Allows for Construction of Skyscrapers

Construction of skyscrapers was made possible thanks to Englishman Henry Bessemer, who
invented the first process to mass-produce steel inexpensively. An American, William Kelly, had held a
patent for "a system of air blowing the carbon out of pig iron," but bankruptcy forced Kelly to sell his
patent to Bessemer, who had been working on a similar process for making steel. In 1855, Bessemer
patented his own "decarbonization process, utilizing a blast of air." This breakthrough in the production
of steel opened the door for builders to start making taller and taller structures. Modern steel today is
still made using technology based on Bessemer's process.
While “the Bessemer process” kept Bessemer’s name well-known long after his death, lesser
known today is the man who actually employed that process to create the first skyscraper: George A.
Fuller. Throughout the 19th century, construction techniques had called for outside walls to carry the
load of a building’s weight. Fuller, however, had a different idea.
He realized that buildings could bear more weight—and therefore soar higher—if he used
Bessemer steel beams to give buildings a load-bearing skeleton on the inside of the building. In 1889,
Fuller erected the Tacoma Building, a successor to the Home Insurance Building that became the first
structure ever built where the outside walls did not carry the weight of the building. Using Bessemer
steel beams, Fuller developed a technique for creating steel cages that would be used in subsequent
skyscrapers.
Taller buildings were also made possible through the invention of the electric elevator in 1883,
which reduced the amount of time it took to travel between floors. Also impactful was the invention of
electric lighting, which made it easier to illuminate larger spaces.
 ADVENT OF Intelligent Buildings

Technology has been viewed at various stages of civilisation as leading to future progress. The
rate of change of technology is faster today than at any other time in history. It not only enters our work
life, but that of our home life too, where advanced communication systems are becoming common. The
world is shrinking by ever quickening communication highways. Verbal and numeric languages are
being used in the plethora of computer languages which now feature on the timetable at schools, as
well as at universities and in industry. The networked society is dawning. Intelligence is becoming an
overrated word which can be used to describe modem buildings, cameras or car cockpits. We are not
even sure what human intelligence is, so how can be ascribe this description to products? It is possible
that people will reject some of these forms of intelligent hardware in favour of using their own creative
impulses. For example consider taking a photograph. One can rely on a set of program cards which has
been produced to meet every eventuality of lighting but this takes away the human judgement that
makes photography an art. Technology must enhance the opportunity to explore not usurp human
creativity. It is therefore important for each civilisation or culture exemplified in different countries, not
to copy so called progress in other highly developed countries, but to map out their own creative future
learning from lessons in history and from a critical appreciation of what other societies in other
~countries may give priorities to.
What is the purpose of intelligent building?
Intelligent buildings are facilities that leverage complex automated systems to maximize
operational efficiency and the well-being of occupants. Historically, the term often referred to
structures built for sustainability instead of smart technology

What is the introduction and origin of the intelligent building concept?

In 1981, United Technology Building Systems coined them as “intelligent buildings”. The
first intelligent buildings were mainly used to control heating, ventilation, and airflow (HVAC
systems). These buildings boasted minimal energy consumption and better building efficiency

What are the advantages of intelligent buildings?

Eight major benefits of smart buildings

 Automation opportunities.
 Quantifiable building insights.
 Predictive maintenance.
 Better resource utilization.
 Reduced energy consumption.
 Real-time building insights.
 Reduced operational costs.
 New workplace opportunities.

What is the impact of intelligent building?

You'll see increased savings on energy costs. The maintenance costs of running the facility
will be lowered due to the various automated systems. Since the building has a longer lifecycle, you
will save on operating expenses over the long run
 History of intelligent buildings

Kell (1996) states that the intelligent building is increasingly viewed as one that provides a
responsive, effective and supportive environment within which an organisation can meet its
performance objectives. The technology, although still generally considered to be fundamental, is now
seen as the enabler rather than as an end in itself. The term 'intelligent buildings' was first used in the
United States in the early 80's and a definition given by the Intelligent Building Institution in
Washington is:
An intelligent building is one which integrates various systems to effectively manage resources
in a coordinated mode to maximise: technical performance; investment and operating cost savings;
flexibility.
The starting point of establishing a model of an intelligent building is people, because they
determine the mind force of the building against which machines have to act. The effect of an
environment at any moment is dependent on one’s past experiences. People are not passive recipients
of their environment but adapt physiologically and behaviourally. The body has five basic senses -
sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. They are part of the physiological-psychological system which
regulates the human response to environmental stimuli. People react individually and any response may
be a transient one or one that becomes an experience stored in the long term memory. The building and
its environment, the social ambience, the work and its management process all trigger the response
system. Senses are to be enjoyed but they are also employed to achieve fulfilment in work hence an
intelligent building will be sensitive to this demand.
The systems view of building design by Markus (1967) defines a client’s objectives system and
these give rise to user requirements. Another set of systems comprising construction, services and
contents constitute the building system, which in turn gives rise to the spatial, physical and visual
environments. The interface between the environmental system and the user activity system (work
flow, communication) is crucial. Similarly the interaction between the building and the environmental
systems is important. The Markus model can be interpreted in terms of building, space and business
management -the goals of an intelligent building defamed in the DEGW /Technibank report of 1992.
The building, its services systems and management of the work process all contribute to the
wellbeing of people within an organisation. Productivity relies on there being a general sense of high
morale and satisfaction with the workplace. Health, wellbeing and comfort are all important. Intelligent
buildings have a vital role to play in helping to achieve this by enhancing human resources, by
providing environmental systems which support the productive, creative, intellectual and spiritual
capacities of people. Yesterday’s environments supported mechanisation and extended our capacity to
produce goods and products; tomorrows environments which are emerging now extend the capacity of
human resourcefulness to create ideas, visions and inventions.
The individuals view of the world has changed rapidly in this century as communications and
travel have increased their awareness of distant nations. With the increase in world population and the
realisation of how we pollute the environment with waste products, as well as increasing wealth
encouraging the individual to consume more non-renewable resources, concern is now felt for our
failure to appreciate the finite and finely balanced nature of the biosphere. Developers, designers and
contractors are responsible for the resource demands of the environment they create, whereas owners
and occupants are responsible for the waste products they produce. Everyone has to contribute towards
evolving a sustainable workplace. Intelligent buildings must stem from a belief in sustainability and the
need for social responsibility.

design considerations

The buildings must support their weight, resist wind and earthquakes, and protect occupants
from fire. The weight of the structure is much larger than the weight of the material that it will support
beyond its own weight. In technical terms, the dead load, the load of the structure, is larger than the live
load, the weight of things in the structure (people, furniture, vehicles, etc.).
Good structural design is important in most building designs, but particularly for skyscrapers
since even a small chance of catastrophic failure is unacceptable given the high prices of construction.
This presents a paradox to civil engineers: the only way to assure a lack of failure is to test for all
modes of failure, in both the laboratory and the real world. But the only way to know of all modes of
failure is to learn from previous failures. Thus, no engineer can be absolutely sure that a given structure
will resist all loadings that could cause failure, but can only have large enough margins of safety such
that a failure is acceptably unlikely.
The load a skyscraper experiences is largely from the force of the building material itself. The
wind loading on a skyscraper should also be considered. In fact, the lateral wind load imposed on
super-tall structures is generally the governing factor in the structural design. Wind pressure increases
with height, so for very tall buildings, the loads associated with wind are larger than dead or live loads.

Design Principles of High Rise Buildings

Design of a high-rise building is the final result of a complicated process in which a

considerable number of elements could have reciprocating effects. Moreover, different factors such as
cultural, social and economical ones have certain effect on it. Principles and considerations resulted
from basic and practical research in the field of architectural design, structural design and
urban development (provided the formation and execution. Of necessary policies in other aspects are
coordinated) can provide criteria, requirements and constraints for appropriate and desirable usage of
high-rise buildings. In general, conditional utilization of high-rise buildings can be considered as a
realistic solution in order to accommodate people and to fulfil other related requirements for
appropriate functions in big cities.

This research indicates that high-rise buildings can be a suitable solution for criteria, requirements and
constraints of a considerable number of functions and the right answer to the needs and necessities of
surrounding. The high-rise buildings can be used as residential, commercial and administration
complexes. Furthermore, they can accommodate different activities related to each other in one
building.
 The research concludes that the application of simple and regular forms in architectural design
not only helps the stability of high-rise buildings but it increases the safety factor. Unification in
relation to close-by buildings is an effective element in producing desired appearance of high-rise
buildings. In order to reach human scale and desirable form of the building, one can produce the depth
of sight in the surrounding spot in order to achieve nice relationship between the form and the viewer.

The research presents principles of high-rise buildings design. It has been carried out, based on
theoretical study, investigation and analysis of previous research in the field, review and consideration
of different views on high-rise buildings, field study and analysis of its results based on the different
factors such as architectural design, structural design, urban development and environment.

Fundamental Principles of Tall Buildings

Tall Buildings Should Relate to the Physical Characteristics of Place

Virtual all cities have an existing physical legacy, an "evident built infrastructure" -streets,
spaces, urban axes, buildings, monuments, other objects. The tall buildings though potentially dwarfing
many of these existing elements in scale - should respect and physically embrace this existing "urban
grain" by extending circulation routes into and through the site, allowing important nearby monuments
to impact the form or expression of the building, massing the form to respect important viewing
corridors, etc. An example of this is the sloping form of the 122 Leadenhall Building London, which
came about so as to not block the views to both St. Paul's Cathedral and the existing grade 1- listed St.
Andrew Undershaft Church to the east of the site. In some cases, built legacy in the low rise realm
might influence the form of the high-rise, for example with a skyscraper forming a backdrop or frame
to an important monument.
Tall Buildings Should Relate to the Environment Characteristics of Place
This is considered perhaps the most important aspect of creating "sustainable" tall buildings,
and the aspect which the Modernist "universal" architecture most displaced. For any building to truly
be environmental, it needs to not only respect all aspects of local climate, but should maximize the
potential for using each aspect of climate within the building. Thus not only should sun, light, wind, air,
and rain be considered so as to have as minimal negative effect on the building as possible; most if not
all of this elements can be embraced into the building to positive effect.
Wind and air buoyancy should be used for natural ventilation so that all tall buildings,
irrespective of building function, should be naturally ventilator for at least part of the year (and ideally
all of the year).
Sun has long been embraced in the use of solar panels, but there are perhaps greater returns
from incorporating technologies such as solar-thermal systems into the skin of a skyscraper (especially
in intense solar environments like the desert of the Middle East), or using solar energy capture for
phase-changing materials, etc.
Wind harvesting is an interesting phenomenon in tall buildings. Much of the tall building world
thought this was the technology with the greatest potential for generating energy in skyscrapers a
decade or so ago, and yet to date we see only three tall buildings with significant wind.

Tall Buildings Should Relate to the Cultural Characteristics of Place

Whereas the physical and environmental aspects of the place are more easy to define, the
cultural aspects of the place are less tangible. Cultural is more connected with the patterns of life in a
city, and how this manifests itself in the customs, activities and expressions of the people. Culture can
thus be embraced in a literal way in the building, at demonstrated by the 1984 Dayabumi Complex in
Kuala Lumpur, with its Islamic outer facade skin an interpretation of the vernacular Jali screen (though
this also has the significant added benefit of shielding the curtain wall behind from direct solar grain).
Or it can happen by embracing an aspect of the culture directly into the building program. In 2010, for
example, a student scheme we developed in Mumbai (Wood, 2010) was placed on the site of an
existing dhobi ghat; the huge outdoor washing areas in Mumbai that account for 80% of the city's
laundry. Rather than sweep this cottage industry aside in the knowledge that everyone would have a
washing machine in the brave new world of Mumbai's future, the social housing tower that occupied
the site brought this horizontal activity into the vertical world. Each permeable residential apartment
was orientated around a terrace containing large washing vats, so that the residents could continue to
take in the city's laundry. Further, the facade became the interface for drying the clothes - thus creating
solar shade at far less embodied energy expense that the fixed shading systems of many modern towers.
And the resulting aesthetic was very much an expression of local culture with, quite literally, a facade
of cloth (anyone familiar with Asian residential towers knows that many tall buildings can reflect the
local culture in a literal way - as demonstrated here with the 1984 Dayabumi Complex in Kuala
Lumpur with its facade a modern interpretation of the Islamic jali screen - or in a more direct way, by
incorporating specific activities and ways of life into the program of the building.

Variation with Height in Form, Texture and Program

Tall buildings should not be monolithic vertical extrusions of an efficient floor plan, but should
vary in form, program and expression with height. This variance in form should be inspired by the city,
both physically and environmentally. The main difference between a tall building and a small building
is that the latter will only have a direct visual relationship with its immediate site content, whereas a tall
building potentially has a visual relationship with many places far and wide in the city, at differing
horizons within its form. This visual dialogue with these distinct places (and other buildings) can help
inform a variance in form to further connect the buildings to its locale. Further, the industry is now
realizing that climate varies significantly with height, and thus some of the great heights being achieved
with tall buildings that cut across multiple climate zones. The external air temperature at the Burj
Khalifa in Dubai, for example, is reported to be approximately 6-8 degrees centigrade cooler at the top
of the building than at the bottom, so this could be reflected in the form, facade, systems and even
program of the buildings.

Maximize Layers of Program and Usage on all Systems and Materials

Traditional programs for tall buildings
need to be challenged to increase the
usefulness of the typology in sustainable cities
of the future. This challenging of program
should occur on two levels: (i) the type of
functions that are traditionally accommodated
within tall buildings, and (ii) the number of
functions that are accommodated in an single
tall building. Tall buildings have the
versatility to accommodate uses other than the
standard office, residential and hotel functions
that currently predominate, and cross-
programming/mixed-use gives opportunities
for more duality, for aspects such as waste
heat generated through one function being
used in another, for car parking/ car sharing, for sharing supporting functions and servicing, etc. In
addition, the layers of usage that can be overlaid on all materials and systems should be creatively
considered in all aspects of life, as a response to sustainability, including tall buildings. Every
expenditure of carvon through embodied emery should be accompanied with the question "How many
layers of usage can we get from this element?"
Tall Buildings Should Provide Significant, Communal, Open Recreational Space
 More open, communal, recreational spaces (internal or external, hard or landscaped, lanrge
and/or small) need to be introduced into tall buildings. This means breaking away from the
contemporary insistence on maximum financial return on every square meter of floor space. Such
spaces have been proven to improve the quality of the internal environment, which has a direct impact
on saleable/rental return, satisfaction of occupants, productivity of workers, and so on. In addition, the
inclusion of these spaces will make the tall buildings more suitable for socio-economic groups often
marginalized from tall buildings through the lack of such vital spaces where a sense of community can
develop - families, the young, the old, etc. Social sustainability on an urban scale is a major challenge
for our future cities. The 1997 Commerzbank, Frankfurt, despite being almost two decades old, is still
perhaps the most significant tall building for skygardens in existence; every occupant has direct
physical access to one of the 10 four-story skygardens spiralling up the building (which are also part of
its natural ventilation strategy). This commercial building could also serve as an excellent model for an
idealized residential building, with narrow, cross-ventilated floors of residential apartments grouped
around a "garden in the sky" where a sense of community can develop. This is difficult to achieve
when the elevator and corridor are the only infrastructure for chance meetings.

Introduce More Facade Envelop Opacity

 Tall buildings should be designed with more envelope opacity, not as all-glass transparent
boxes requiring significant external shading devices to control the excessive light, heat and glare
created by making it all-glass in the first place. Although the impacts on both internal day lighting and
views out need to be balanced, all-glass towers do not make sense, especially in intensely hot solar
environments. In addition, greater facade opacity gives an opportunity for greater thermal mass to
allow the envelope to be more insulated from external temperature and climate variations. Greater
facade opacity also gives the opportunity for wider facade variance and expression, as evidenced by
projects such as O14 Dubai.

Embrace Organic Vegetation as an Essential Part of the Material Palette

In those climates that allow, vegetation should become an essential part of the material palette
for tall buildings, both internally and externally. The benefits of vegetation on both the building and
urban scale are now well proven and include: increased shading and thermal insulation of the building
envelope, improved air quality (both internally and externally), reduction of urban heat island effect,
carbon sequestering, oxygen generation, sound absorption, possible agricultural produce, providing
natural habitat for insects and small animals, as well as the psychological benefits for both building and
urban dwellers. Great things are now being achieved with greenery in tall buildings, particularly in
Singapore but also in other cities globally, as evidenced by the 2014 One Central Park Building in
Sydney. In the context of this paper, the adoption of local vegetation (which is already hardy to the
environment) would also contributed to the localized aesthetic of the building too, since even if every
tall buildings the world over were cloaked in greenery, they would all reflected their local indigenous
plant species, in the same way that the fields and forests of every region around the world are different.
The embrace of vegetation into our buildings would also create an aesthetic more in keeping with the
main challenges of the age (climate change and environmental challenges) than the 70-year old glass
curtain wall aesthetic that still predominates.

Introduce Physical, Circulatory and

Programmatic Connections Between
Tall Buildings: Skybridges
It seems completely nonsensical
that cities are making a push for ever-
denser, ever-taller urban form, but
allowing only the ground plane to be the
sole physical means of connection
between towers. Skybridges and

Skyplanes (wider skybridge connections that contain functional space beyond just circulation) have the
potential to enrich both talk buildings and cities, allow the sharing of resources between towers (spatial
as well as service infrastructure), improve evacuation options, and reduce energy consumption through
allowing horizontal as well as vertical movement between towers.

We Need to Bring ALL Aspects of the City Up into the Sky

If cities embrace the principle that the dense vertical city is more sustainable than the dispersed
horizontal city, then we need to recognize that the ground level is an essential support layer to the
people who live in cities now. It is the ground level where the essential elements of life in the City are
largely contained; circulation, recreation, education, shopping, health and most crucially, where a sense
of community forms.
Factors that affect High Rise Building
The problem of energy consumption of modern high-rise buildings is becoming increasingly
important. The growing number of high-rise buildings and the development of urban infrastructure
have resulted in the increased energy consumption. Modern high-rise building construction affects the
density of urban space and significantly changes local climatic conditions. The development of local
climatic factors in thigh-rise building construction and their impact on the energy efficiency of
buildings is a relevant and insufficiently studied problem. The article analyzes the influence of modern
urban development on the climatic and aerodynamic conditions of the terrain. The assessment of
climatic factors influencing heat losses of a high-rise building is carried out. High-rise buildings in the
city of Moscow are considered; calculations are made and qualitative and quantitative parameters of the
variation in the main climatic factors are given with reference to the architecture of the building. Using
the example of the Evolution Tower, calculations have been made and dependency graphs of the
temperature and wind speed on the height of the building are presented. The results of the research can
be used to assess the influence of climatic factors on the energy costs of high-rise buildings, and can be
taken into account in the design of modern energy-efficient buildings.
Being one of the main problems of modern society, lack of free space in big cities leads to an
increase in the demand for residential, public, administrative and commercial spaces, and an increase in
the number of cars. Architects seek for solutions for the maximum use of space, its multifunctionality
and accessibility. In this regard, high-rise multifunctional buildings are of great interest. On the one
hand, an increased area of the foundation is beneficial, but on the other hand, the high cost of designing
and constructing high-rise buildings results in higher maintenance costs. It is noteworthy that the higher
the building is, the more expensive it is to operate. It is known that buildings are affected by external
climatic factors, such as outside air temperature, wind, solar radiation. The intensity of the impacts of
these factors depends on both the climatic zone where the building is located, and the architectural
forms and orientations of the building. It is obvious that the natural and climatic factors influence the
choice of architectural forms of buildings and the structure of urban development [14]. Another urgent
problem of the modern world is that the cost of energy is increasing, while its reserves are decreasing
from year to year. Consequently, the issue of reducing the energy consumption of modern high-rise
buildings is becoming increasingly important.
It has been found that the energy consumption of all civil buildings is greater than the energy
costs of all industrial facilities, including factories, plants, metallurgical plants and energy spent on
transport with all its cars, trains and ships
Energy has a key role in socio-economical development of a country. By exhausting fossil fuels
as one of the largest energy consumption sources throughout the world, it seems to be vital to find
renewable alternative energy sources or ways of reducing energy demands, especially in tall buildings
with their great potential to use sustainable sources because of their height. In this study, the main
problem is that the construction builders and users do not know the excessive energy saving potential
of high-rise buildings. So, as a priority, this matter should be more concentrated on while designing by
architects. These days, in my own country Iran, due to population growth and industrial development,
the amount of energy consumption is increasing. This can show the importance of the problem. So, the
Tehran International Tower, which is the highest residential tower in Iran, was chosen as a case study.
Thus, the overall objective of this study is making tall building architects more aware of the neglected
sustainable potential ways to diminish energy consumption. Meanwhile, this study tries to illustrate the
effects of some environmental factors, such as air pressure and density, wind speed and other similar
factors in high-rise buildings, from architects and ordinary people ‫׳‬s points of view and comparing these
attitudes with each other in the case study. Finally, as buildings use a huge amount of generated energy
in the world, and high-rise buildings are an inevitable part of the community, they can meaningfully
contribute in reducing energy consumption by using renewable energies and new ideas in designing.
Moreover, the result of this research shows that sustainable skyscrapers can be energy efficient and are
closely related to their site and environment.

Elevators/Lifts
High-rise buildings exist by the grace of elevators, and not vice versa. In a functional context, a
tower’s elevator core is the building’s main artery, and in a constructional context, its spine. When
Elijah Graves Otis invented the over speed governor and safety brake in 1854, elevators suddenly
became a safe and viable option for transporting people and were no longer the limiting factor in the
construction of high-rise buildings. Since then, high-rise construction has spread like wildfire across
the globe. Principally in North America but increasingly in Asia, the limits are being pushed ever
higher. The Taipei 101 measuring 509 m (1,670 ft.) is currently the world’s tallest finished building,
but this year, the first tower measuring over 800 m (2,625 ft.) will be completed in Dubai.

ELEVATOR PLANNING
Building access plays a crucial role in the development and feasibility of high-rise construction
plans. Internal transportation systems function as the building’s main artery, determining the
functionality and quality of life within the tower block, yet they also result in a considerable loss of
rentable floor space on each level. Moreover, the elevator core is often the building’s support structure,
especially in narrower constructions. For this reason, it is very important that a traffic flow specialist be
involved in the initial orientation phases of a high-rise construction project, as well as the developer,
architect and structural engineer. Specifications for internal transportation must be drawn up whereby
routing and usage remain logical, while occupying as little space as possible. Above all, the capacity
required for stairs, elevators and shafts need to be determined.
CAPACITY AND WAITING TIME ANALYSIS
When designing an elevator system for either low-rise or high-rise buildings, the same initial
estimates can theoretically be applied to its usage and function as for any other project. The building’s
function (office space, residential, hotel or a combination of these), the probable population and peak
demand (either the up-peak, down-peak or lunch-peak) form the determining factors.

High-rise elevator systems demand meticulous and impartial capacity analysis and detailed
simulation. Not only should the building, its population and peak demands be correctly modelled, but
elevator configuration and physical and/or dynamic zoning should also be determined. The correct
choice of group control system plays a vital role, as does the correct choice of group sizing, elevator
capacity and nominal speed. Given that the elevator core forms the building’s load-bearing structure
and such factors are determined early in the design process, the right choices have to be made first time
round. There are few if any opportunities to correct mistakes later. This demands logistical and elevator
planning insight, extensive expertise and experience, and the application of correct safety margins.
Using simulations, safeguards must be in place to ensure that invalid adjustments are not made to
parameters when specifying traffic flows. A variety of additional technical measures is required to
ensure safety and comfort within the car at high speeds. Extremely high demands are placed on the
suspension, track and guidance systems, and transmission and control systems must also be heavy-duty,
reliable and accurate. The group control system’s quality and artificial intelligence levels ultimately
determine transportation efficiency. These issues cause high-rise elevator system costs to increase
proportionally by more than the square of the building’s height. Even though Dutch high-rise buildings
may not even be considered high-rise from a global perspective, high-rise elevator system logistics and
technology should not be underestimated. These issues require serious attention for continued
development of high-rise buildings in the Netherlands given that increasingly taller buildings are being
constructed and evacuation by elevators is becoming inevitable.
Structural Design and Concept
The process of designing high-rise buildings has changed over the past years. In the most recent
years it is not unusual to model full three-dimensional finite element models of the buildings. This due
to the increased computational power and more advanced software. However, these models produce
huge amount of data and results where possible errors are easily overlooked, especially if the model is
big and complex. If the engineer is not careful and have a lack of knowledge of structural behaviour
and finite element modelling, it is easy to just accept the results without critical thoughts. Furthermore,
different ways of modelling have a big influence on the force and stress distribution. This can lead to
time consuming discussion and disagreements between engineers as they often have different results
from calculations on the same building. Sweco AB were interested in initiating a Master’s thesis that
investigated different ways of modelling and how they affect the outcome. The Division of Structural
Mechanics at Lund University were interested in a similar Master’s thesis were the dynamics of high-
rise buildings were to be analysed. Furthermore, investigations of how well analytical calculations by
hand according to standards, codes and regulations of accelerations and resonance frequencies
correspond to the results of large finite element models were to be conducted.
A building needs to be stabilised for horizontal load and to achieve this, several different
structural systems can be chosen. Some of these are shown in Figure 2.5 and described in this section,
for more detailed information see . All of the different systems have evolved from the traditional
rigidly jointed structural frame. The fundamental design for all these structural systems have been to
place as much of the load-carrying material as possible around the buildings external fringe to
maximise its flexural rigidity. For all structural systems, advantage can be taken by locating the main
vertical members and, with the compressive stresses from self-weight, suppress the lateral load tensile
stresses. This to avoid net tension in the vertical members and uplift in the foundations. For some
structural systems it is necessary to have self-weighted at the outer vertical members in order to achieve
this.

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