2.

Learning theories
1 1)Goals and Objectives of  Foreign Language Teaching
(FLT).
What are the main objectives of a foreign language
teaching?
To develop students' communication abilities such as
accurately understanding and appropriately conveying
information, ideas, etc., deepening their understanding
of language and culture, and fostering a positive
attitude toward communication through foreign
languages
Aims are the first and most important consideration in
any teaching. Hence the teacher should know exactly
what his pupils are expected to achieve in learning his
subject, what changes he can bring about in his pupils
at the end of the course, at the end of the year, term,
month, week, and each particular lesson, he should
know the aims and objectives of foreign language
teaching. The changes the teacher must bring about in
his pupils may be threefold: practical —pupils acquire
habits and skills in using a foreign language;
educational — they develop their mental abilities and
intelligence in the process of learning the foreign
language; сultural — pupils extend their knowledge of
the world in which they live. Therefore there are three
aims, at least,  which should be achieved in foreign
language teaching: practical, educational, and cultural.
Behaviorism - As Simply Psychology puts it: "Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-
response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner."
Learning is based on a system of routines that "drill" information into a student’s memory bank, as well
as positive feedback from teachers and an educational institution itself. If students do an excellent job,
they receive positive reinforcement and are signaled out for recognition.
Cognitivism - Learning relies on both external factors (like information or data) and the internal thought
process.
Developed in the 1950s, this theory moves away from behaviorism to focus on the mind’s role in
learning. According to the International Bureau of Education: "In cognitive psychology, learning is
understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs
information, undertakes cognitive operations on it and stocks it in memory."
Constructivism - The learner builds upon his or her previous experience and understanding to "construct"
a new understanding. "The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled
with knowledge," explains Simply Psychology, "whereas constructivism states that learners construct
meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem
solving)."
Humanism - A "learner-centric approach" in which the potential is the focus rather than the method or
materials.
With the understanding that people are inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment
conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and they are then free to determine
their own goals while the teacher assists in meeting those learning goals.
Connectivism - Informed by the digital age, connectivism departs from constructivism by identifying and
remediating gaps in knowledge.
Strongly influenced by technology, connectivism focuses on a learner’s ability to frequently source and
update accurate information. Knowing how and where to find the best information is as important as the
information itself.

Language acquisition theories. Methods and approaches to FLT.

Language acquisition refers to how humans can develop the
ability to understand and use language. Numerous language
acquisition theories in the English Language aim to understand
and explain how the process begins and progresses.
There are 4 main theories of language acquisition that we learn in
English Language. These are:
Behavioural Theory
The Behavioural theory of language acquisition, sometimes called
the Imitation Theory, is part of behaviourist theory. Behaviourism
proposes that we are a product of our environment. Therefore,
children have no internal mechanism or ability to develop
language by themselves. BF Skinner (1957) suggests that children
learn the language first by imitating their caregivers (usually
parents) and then modifying their use of language due to operant
conditioning.
Cognitive Theory
The Cognitive theory of language acquisition suggests that the
primary drives behind our actions are our thoughts and internal
processes. Jean Piaget (1923) assumes that children are born with
relatively little cognitive ability, but their minds develop and build
new schemas (ideas and understanding of how the world works)
as they age and experience the world around them. Piaget
believed that cognitive development had to come before
language development because it would be impossible for
children to express things that they don't yet understand. For
example, a younger child with no sense of time couldn't express
things in the future tense or speak hypothetically, no matter how
much they are taught language.
Nativist Theory
Noam Chomsky (1957) proposes that children are born with an
instinct or drive for language learning which he calls the language
acquisition device (LAD). He argued that even if a child is not
educated in their country's language, so long as they grow in a
normal environment, they will still devise a system of verbal
communication. Therefore, there must be an innate, biological
component to language acquisition.
Interactionist Theory
Jerome Bruner (1961) believed that children are born with an
ability to develop language but they require regular interaction
with their caregivers or teachers to learn and understand it to a
level of full fluency. This idea is known as the Language
Acquisition Support System (LASS). Caregivers tend to correct
mistakes that children make when using language and also
regularly teach them what objects are and what their purposes
are
Grammar translation
As the name suggests, both translation and grammar play an important role in this method. It
originated in Germany and became popular in the 1840s and 1940s. Being one of the oldest
methods of teaching in English, it is also referred to as the classical method. It focused on the
translation of a language pattern and grammatical explanation. The medium of instruction in
this method is the mother tongue which is used to cite the explanatory situation. Learners
must memorize the grammatical rules and translate the passage from their mother tongue to
English.
Direct method
Direct method refers to the method of teaching English where it is taught directly using the
target language. A teacher doesn’t use the mother tongue in the class and the students are
not allowed to use it either. It is the opposite of the Translation Method.
 Structural/ Situational Approaches
The structural approach to teaching English is based on the belief that the scientific selection
and grading of vocabulary and structures is the best way to learn a language.
Audio-lingual/ Audio-visual
The audio-lingual method grew into prominence in the 1950s in the USA. The two world wars
led to innovative approaches to teaching English as a second language, particularly in the USA.
They were seen as little modifications made in the Direct Method. During the Second World
War, US officials felt the need for translators and interpreters who were fluent in major
foreign languages. In 1942, a special training program was organized to train fluent foreign
speakers in a short time which is why this method is also referred to as the Army Method. This
method started with a focus on grammar and pronunciation through oral drills and practice. It
has a strong connection with structural linguistics.
 Notional/ Functional
The functional-behavioural approach recognizes language as purposeful communication.
 Communicative
The communicative approach in teaching English comes from the view that a language is
successfully learned when learners have to communicate real meaning. When the learners are
involved in real communication, they can use their natural strategies for language acquisition
and this encourages them to learn to use the language naturally.
 Humanistic
Lessons follow a sequence based on grammatical complexity, and new lexical and structural
material is meticulously broken down into its elements, with one element presented at a time.
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching, and the teacher focuses on prepositional meaning,
rather than communicative value. Students are presented with the structural patterns of the
target language and learn the grammar rules of the language through largely inductive
processes
   The Grammar-Translation method.As the name suggests, both
translation and grammar play an important role in this method. It
originated in Germany and became popular in the 1840s and
1940s. Being one of the oldest methods of teaching in English, it is
also referred to as the classical method. It focused on the
translation of a language pattern and grammatical explanation.
The medium of instruction in this method is the mother tongue
which is used to cite the explanatory situation. Learners must
memorize the grammatical rules and translate the passage from
their mother tongue to English.
Advantages:
  The meaning of English words, phrases, sentences, and more can
be learned easily by the students.
  It enriches the vocabulary of learners in English as learners may
consult the Dictionary to learn the meaning of new words.
  Students can learn English with the help of their mother tongue.
  It promotes the skill of reading and comprehension because the
textbook is the main component of this method.
  This method does not require many teaching and learning
materials due to which it is cost-effective.
Disadvantages:
  It is an unnatural method as it does not follow the natural order of
learning which includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
  It neglects the oral approach to language learning so they may not
be able to develop proper expression in the foreign language.
  It does not offer pattern practice due to which students may read
or write poorly despite knowing the grammar rules.
  This method is also considered to be mechanical and dull as it
promotes rote memorization.  teachers will neglect reading and writing activities, and a good teaching method must fullfill
5.   This method also includes learning through translation which can
delay the natural speech development of the learners while
learning a foreign language
7 The Humanistic approach.
Humanistic approaches see the process of learning a second
language as a cognitive task, with learners as intelligent
autonomous individuals, who can infer language use from well-
structured input. Humanistic communicative approach that
focuses on conversational interactions where learners and the
teacher work together on the development of knowledge and
skills.
The methodology employs a graded structural syllabus, with the
elements of language presented in a deliberately artificial way,
using teaching aids such as charts and Cuisenaire rods. It generally
eschews the use of textbooks and published materials in favor of
real communication and the development of discourse-level skills.
Language may be scaffolded by the teacher, with attention paid to
emergent forms. Topics are chosen based on their relevance to
the learners.
The theory puts heavy focus on learners and their development.
The approach is holistic as it focuses on the overall development
of an individual.
The theory promotes a curriculum that takes the learners’
knowledge and experience into account.
The theory ensures that the knowledge being imparted can be
applied in real life.
The theory ensures that the learner can develop a self-interest in
learning.
Many researchers state that the theory lacks empirical evidence.
The theory is learner-centered due to which individuals with
complex problems may not receive proper guidance.
The theory fails to take conscious awareness into account and
acknowledge its importance.
Due to the lack of objective methods used in the approach, it is
considered unscientific.
The theory is regarded to focus too much on positivity due to
which it may not be highly realistic.
6 The Direct method.
The direct method of teaching is often  used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using
the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany
and France around 1900.
The basic idea of the Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like
first language learning (lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no
translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules)
Characteristics:
Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language.
Grammar was taught inductively.
Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.
Both speaking and listening comprehension were taught.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
+\-
Strengths:
- This method is focused on question-answer patterns.
-Grammar is taught inductively.
-The most important aspect is spoken language, so that pronunciation and grammar are taken
into account.
-STT should be more than TTT on the time during the lesson.
-Instructions are given in the target language.
Weaknesses:
- There is no attention to some areas like reading and writing.
-It is not convenient for large classes.
-For people that are accustomed to teach or to be taught with the Grammar Translation
Method, Direct Method may not hold well.
Threats:
-  some risks of this method are that for being focused in Grammar and pronunciation,
the four skills activities: Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening.
8 The Bloom’s taxonomy in FLT.
Bloom’s taxonomy is a system that classifies cognitive skills and educational learning
objectives. Created by psychologist Benjamin Bloom in 1956, this model arranges six levels of
thinking into a hierarchy, from the lowest to the highest level.
Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS)
Level 1: Remembering refers to the ability to recall information. For instance, students can
memorize and define vocabulary words they learned in class.
Level 2: Understanding manifests when students are able to explain ideas or concepts. An
example of this is when they can answer questions based on a text they’ve read.
Level 3: Applying happens when students can use facts or concepts in a different context, such
as when they can talk about a variety of situations using a grammar tense they’ve been taught.
Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS)
Level 4: Analyzing means being able to break down information into separate parts, then
examine and create connections between these different parts. For instance, learners can
compare and contrast the characteristics of two objects.
Level 5: Evaluating refers to the ability to form and express one’s opinion. One way students
do this is by supporting and defending their views during a class discussion.
Level 6: Creating is the highest level of thinking, wherein students can show proof of their
learning by producing something new or original. Students at this stage, for instance, can
make a presentation out of the vocabulary, ideas, and concepts they’ve learned.
1)It defines and organizes learning objectives and classifies human cognition - Aside from
helping you understand the specific skills your students should develop, the Bloom’s taxonomy
model can also provide the framework for setting concrete goals for every lesson.
2)It helps teachers design lessons in line with learning objectives - By aligning the goals of
your lesson to the learning stages in Bloom’s taxonomy, you can stage your lessons
accordingly. With your objectives in mind, you can easily decide which materials or activities
work best for your learners, the order in which you want to use them in class, and the
assessment tools you’ll use afterward.
3)It provides evidence of student progress in concrete/measurable ways - Based on the
thinking skills you want your students to develop, you can then form your lesson activity,
whether it’s a simple task like memorizing words or a complex one like having students write
their own news stories.These objectives can also help you come up with the evaluation tools to
check your students’ progress more effectively.
9 The Communicative approach.
CLT emphasizes that the main purpose of language
is communication, and that meaning is paramount.
The goal of the Communicative Approach is to
develop learners’ communicative competence
across all four skills. It has been the dominant
approach in mainstream language education for
many decades.
Most methodologies use an amalgamation of a
structural and a functional syllabus, with a
relatively common consensus having emerged
concerning the order in which language elements
should be taught. Language is generally
contextualized, and communication is encouraged
from the start. Native speaker input is seen as
highly desirable, though not essential. Much
teaching is learner-centered.
Communicative approach is much more pupil-
orientated, because it is based on pupils’ needs
and interests.
Communicative approach seeks to personalize and
localize language and adapt it to interests of
pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily
retained by learners.
Seeks to use authentic resources. And that is more
interesting and motivating for children.
Children acquire grammar rules as a necessity to
speak so is more proficient and efficient.
It pays insufficient attention to the context in
which teaching and learning take place
The Communicative Approach often seems to be
interpreted as: “if the teacher understands the
student, we have good communication” but native
speakers of the target language can have great
difficulty understanding students.
Another disadvantage is that the CLT approach
focuses on fluency but not accuracy. The approach
does not focus on error reduction but instead
creates a situation where learners are left using
their own devices to solve their communication
problems. Thus, they may produce incoherent,
grammatically incorrect sentences.
10.Teaching the What: main principles.
In 1987, Arthur W. Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson answered the question "How can undergraduate education be
improved?" when they wrote "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education." They defined what good
education means at the undergraduate level. The seven principles are based upon research on good teaching and learning in
the college setting.
Research for over 50 years on practical experience of students and teachers supports these principles. 
The goal of the seven principles is to prepare the student to deal with the real world.
 
Principle 1: Encourage contact between students and faculty.
Building rapport with students is very important. The contact between students and teachers are vital to the students'
success. 
 For the regular classroom:
Invite students to visit outside of class.
Know your students by name.
Help students with problems in their extracurricular activities.
Personalize feedback on student assignments.
Attend student events.
Advise students regarding academic courses and career opportunities.
Seek out students you feel are having a problem with the course or are frequently absent.
Encourage students to present their views and participate in class discussions.
 For distance and online courses:
Try computer conferencing.
Clearly communicate your email response policy.
Encourage e-mail correspondence and discussion forum use
Maintain eye contact with camera and local students.
 Principle 2: Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.
When students are encouraged to work as a team, more learning takes place. Working together improves thinking and
understanding.
 For the regular classroom:
Use cooperative learning groups
Have students participate in activities that encourage them to get to know one another.
Encourage students to join at least one organization on campus.
Assign group projects and presentations
 For distance and online courses:
Use chat sites and discussion forums for student-to-student communication.
 Principle 3: Encourage active learning.
Learning is an active process. Students must be able to talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past
experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. 
 For the regular classroom:
Ask students to relate what they are learning to something in real life.
Give students concrete, real-life situations to analyze.
Encourage students to suggest new reading, projects, or course activities.
 For distance and online courses:
Allow flexibility in choosing material so that it is more meaningful to the learner (e.g. students choose their own topic, project
format, etc.).
Debate on-line.
 Principle 4: Give prompt feedback.
In order for students to benefit from courses, they need appropriate feedback on their performance. When starting out,
students need help in evaluating their current knowledge and capabilities. 
 For the regular classroom:
Follow-up presentations with a five minute period for students to write down what they have learned in class.
Provide informative comments that show the students' errors and give suggestions on how they can improve.
Discuss the results of class assignments and exams with the class and individual students.
Vary assessment techniques (tests, papers, journaling, quizzes).
 For distance and online courses:
E-mail gives instant feedback instead of waiting for the next lesson.
Use on-line testing, software simulations, and web-based programs that provide instantaneous feedback.
Principle 5: Emphasize time on task.
Learning needs time and energy. Efficient time-management skills are critical for students. By allowing realistic amounts of
time, effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty are able to occur. 
 For the regular classroom:
Expect students to complete their assignments promptly.
Clearly communicate to your students the minimum amount of time they should spend preparing for class and working on
assignments.
Have realistic expectations (don't expect 10 papers in 10 weeks).
Principle 6: Communicate high expectations.
Expect more and you will get it. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when teachers and
institutions hold high standards and make extra efforts.
 For the regular classroom:
Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Encourage students to excel at the work they do.
 For distance and online courses:
Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Principle 7: Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.
 Students bring different talents and learning styles to the classroom.  Students need the opportunity to show their talents
and learn in ways that work for them. Then, they can be guided into new ways of learning that are not as easy for them.
For the regular classroom:
Encourage students to speak up when they do not understand.
Use diverse teaching activities and techniques to address a broad range of students.
For distance and online courses:
Encourage students to express diverse points of view in discussions.
 Create learning activities filled with real-life examples and diverse perspectives.
Explain theory from a practical approach first then add the structural approach.
11. Teaching Vocabulary: goals and objectives; presenting,
practicing and testing vocabulary.
There is no single research-based method for teaching vocabulary.
It’s recommended using a variety of direct and indirect methods
of vocabulary instruction.
А model to learn new words consists of five steps: "Encountering
new words", "Getting the word form", "Getting a clear image",
"Learning the meaning of the word", and "Using the word".
Goals and objectives:
 Provide students with skills/opportunities to learn
words independently
 Teach students the meanings of specific words
 Nurture a love and appreciation of words and their use
Ways to present vocabulary
Illustration (has its limits though, not all items can be drawn)
Mime (good for action verbs and it can be fun and memorable)
Synonyms/Antonyms/Gradable items (using the words a student
already knows can be effective for getting meaning across)
Definition (dictionary, adapt for a student’s level)
Translation (fast and efficient BUT not every word has a direct
translation)
Context (e.g. sentences to clarify meaning)
Practising and testing vocabulary
 Learning wordlists
 Review the vocabulary through a game or activity
 Writing/speaking assignment with new vocab
 Group activity (e.g. “snowball” technique) 
13. Developing receptive skills: main principles and objectives.
In language teaching, receptive skills are those skills where
meaning is extracted from spoken or written discourse. These
skills are listening and reading, respectively.
The aim of teaching receptive skills is to help the learners develop
the necessary skills to understand and interpret spoken or written
materials. Consequently, the teacher has to avoid focusing only
on testing the learners’ performance in getting the meaning of the
texts and aim, instead, at training them to use the reading and
listening strategies that enable them to deal with any type of text.
Common reading and listening sub-skills:
 activating schemata (predicting)
 reading/listening for gist (skimming). Students read a
text quickly, skim it or listen to audio to get a general
idea of it.
 reading/listening for specific information (scanning).
Students scan a text or listen to audio to find out
certain information: dates, numbers, names, etc.
 reading/listening for detail (intensive). Students read
or listen attentively to comprehend a text or audio
fully.
12. Teaching Grammar: goals and objectives; presenting, practicing and testing
By teaching grammar we not only give our students the means to express themselves, but we
also fulfil their expectations of what learning a foreign language involves. Fortunately,
nowadays with the emphasis on a communicative approach and a wealth of stimulating
resources, teaching grammar does not necessarily mean endless conjugation of verbs or
grammar translation.
Goals and objectives:
The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication
purposes.
Students will be able to:
 recognize and understand the meaning of targeted grammatical structures in
written and spoken form
 use targeted grammatical structures meaningfully and appropriately in oral and
written production.
 self-correct when using targeted grammatical structures.
Presenting:
In this stage the teacher presents the grammar topic in a meaningful context. (E.g. building up
stories on the board, using flashcards, giving sentences for students to figure out the pattern
themselves). !Limit the time you devote to grammar explanations, especially for lower level
students whose ability to sustain attention can be limited.
Practising and testing
There are numerous activities which can be used for this stage including gap fill exercises,
substitution drills, sentence transformations, split sentences, class questionnaires,
reordering sentences and matching sentences to pictures.
There’s no need to ask students to recite the grammar rules, though in exercises like “fill in the
gaps” the teacher may ask for the explanation as to why this or that grammar form was used.
14. Teaching reading: reading styles, stages of work, activities.
Reading styles: 
reading for gist (skimming). Students read a text quickly to get a general idea of it.
reading for specific information (scanning). Students scan a text to find out certain
information: dates, numbers, names, etc.
reading for detail (intensive). Students read attentively to comprehend a text fully.
 
In order to have a productive reading session the teacher must conduct the lesson following 
these stages:
pre-reading — to prepare the learners for the reading activity, to set a context, familiarise
them with the unknown vocabulary, arouse interest.
while-reading — this is the main task the reading session is aimed at comprehension
questions (True/False statements, skimming and scanning, etc.).
post-reading — its aim is to understand the texts further through critical analysis of what they
have read or to provide personalization.
Pre-reading activities: guessing the topic from the pictures, KWL charts (know-want to know-
learned), corner statements
While-reading activities: 
Topic Sentences (Students are asked to find the topic sentence and explain how it describes
the whole reading passage and the given paragraph)
Guessings (Read the text (skimming the text for general information) to see if the guessings
and predictions are met.)
Scanning: (Students look for specific information from the text. Learners may be also asked to
write comprehension questions for their peers)
Post-reading activities
Discussions (Learners are divided into groups and are given a set of text-related questions to
discuss. Questions may be about some characters, their behaviour, how the text has
interested the students, what they have learned from it, etc.)
Story Continuation (Students may be given some time to think and come up with the
continuation of the story. They may change some traits of the main characters and imagine
how the text would proceed to take into account those changes)
Statements (Students are given statements about the reading topic, they work in pairs and
discuss them)
15 Teaching listening: listening styles, stages of work, activities. 16 Teaching listening: common mistakes people make.
Stage #1. Pre-Listening:  1. You didn’t check the equipment before the listening activity
Prepare students for the listening activity by: Teachers should arrive in their classroom before the students to prepare any
1- Introduce the topic of listening:  materials and equipment. As class begins on time and when students
Say the title of the topic. perceive that there is no time to waste, they will feel a sense of purpose. 
2- Activate students’ existing knowledge:  2. You didn’t use a pre-listening activity
Lead a discussion around the topic to elicit what students already know about the The purpose of the pre-listening activity is to prepare students for listening,
topic and what they need to know or what information they anticipate listening to. to ensure student success, and to get students excited about listening.
3- Build prior knowledge:  There are 3 ways to pre-listen
Provide appropriate background information about the speakers, the topic, Option 1: Think-About: Here is where we want to activate our students’ prior
concepts, and vocabulary embedded in the text, and motivate students’ interest to knowledge.
listen. Option 2: Vocabulary: Give students the new words to be listening for
4- Define a purpose for the listening activity:  Option 3: Predicting: It involves thinking ahead and anticipating information
Ask students a pre-question to think of its answer while listening or identify a task or events
for students to complete during listening. 3. You didn’t make sure students understand the instructions
Stage #2. While Listening: If directions or instructions are not effectively and clearly formulated, there
Students listen to the text at least twice: will be a number of students who will simply not have assimilated what is to
1- The first time: be done during the listening activity.
It allows students to answer the pre-question, get a general idea about the topic, There are two general rules for telling what students need to do:
and verify the accuracy of their predictions. 1.Keep the instructions as simple as possible within the limits of the language
2- The second time and subsequent times: which the students can understand.
They help students to derive the information they need to complete the tasks 2.Explain everything chronologically, and only start building on the next step
identified in the pre-listening stage. when the previous one is understood. Instructions should always be followed
 Examples of some tasks to be done while listening: by a demonstration. 
1- Answering some questions on specific information in the listening text. 4. You only played the listening track once
2- A map chart/graph students complete as they listen. It’s vital to understand that listening to an audio several times helps students
Stage #3. Post-Listening: to get the most out of it and be able to get the answers. 
Students act upon what they have heard to give evidence that they understood the 5. You don’t use a variety of listening material regularly
text. Try to use all kinds of listening materials such as monologues, conversations,
Examples of some post-listening tasks: interviews, radio ads, speeches, etc. Also, you can use a different range of
1- Summarize the main ideas of the listening text either orally or in writing. voices such as male, female, old, young, native speaker, etc. 
2- Write a composition based on the material acquired during listening. 6. You didn’t use a post-listening activity
3- Outline the material they listened to in writing using charts, diagrams, etc Remember that a post-listening activity represents a follow up to the
Listening styles: listening activity and aims to use the knowledge gained from listening for the
1.Connective Listening development of other skills such as speaking and writing.
People with a Connective Listening style focus on what an interaction means for These activities focus on:
others. “Others” can mean the speaker, team members, employees, customers, or 1. Content
any stakeholders who might be affected by the interaction. Sample activities:
2.Reflective Listening  • Check answers.
People with a Reflective Listening style process information internally, filtering  • Discuss what they liked/didn’t like.
through past experiences and knowledge. They strongly rely on inner resources and  • Solve moral dilemmas in a round table.
tend to trust their own judgment more then they trust others.  • Write a short essay based on the information given.
3.Analytical Listening  2. Form
People with an Analytical Listening style focus on facts, data, and measurable Sample activities:
information. Individuals with this listening style aren’t comfortable with gray areas.  • Identify verb forms in the audio.
4.Conceptual Listening  • Read the transcript and make notes of common collocations.
People with a Conceptual Listening style focus on brainstorming and idea  • Find new words in the audio and find out what they mean
generation in a group.

17 Teaching speaking: goals and 18 Teaching writing: process and product.

problems.
Goals
The goal of teaching speaking skills
is communicative efficiency.
Learners should be able to make
themselves understood.
They should try to avoid confusion
in the message due to faulty
pronunciation,
grammar, or vocabulary, and to
observe the social and cultural
rules that apply in
each communication situation.
Problems
The factors causing the speaking
problems are lack of general
knowledge, lack of speaking
practice, fear of mistake, lack of
words usage and grammar practice,
low motivation, low participation,
There are several ways to approach writing in the classroom. It should be said at the beginning that there is not necessarily any 'right' or 'best'
way to teach writing skills.
There are two main approaches to teaching speaking skills:
Product approach
Process approach 
A product approach
This is a traditional approach, in which students are encouraged to mimic a model text, which is usually presented and analysed at an early
stage. A model for such an approach is outlined below:
Stage 1
Model texts are read, and then features of the genre are highlighted.
Stage 2
This consists of controlled practice of the highlighted features, usually in isolation. 
Stage 3 
Organisation of ideas.
Stage 4
The end result of the learning process. Students choose from a choice of comparable writing tasks. Individually, they use the skills, structures
and vocabulary they have been taught to produce the product.
A process approach
Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on the varied classroom activities which promote the development of language use:
brainstorming, group discussion, re-writing. Such an approach can have any number of stages, though a typical sequence of activities could
proceed as follows
Stage 1
Generating ideas by brainstorming and discussion. 
reading laziness, shyness, less
dictionary usage, nervousness, fear
of criticism, and unfamiliar words
pronunciation.
The teacher remains in the background during this phase, only providing language support if required, so as not to inhibit students in the
production of ideas. 
Stage 2
Students extend ideas into note form, and judge quality and usefulness of ideas.
Stage 3
Students organise ideas into a mind map, spidergram, or linear form. This stage helps to make the (hierarchical) relationship of ideas more
immediately obvious, which helps students with the structure of their texts.
Stage 4
Students write the first draft.
This is done in class and frequently in pairs or groups.
Stage 5
Drafts are exchanged, so that students become the readers of each other's work. By responding as readers, students develop an awareness of
the fact that a writer is producing something to be read by someone else, and thus can improve their own drafts.
Stage 6
Drafts are returned and improvements are made based upon peer feedback. 
Stage 7
A final draft is written.
Stage 8
Students once again exchange and read each other's work and perhaps even write a response or reply.