HND in Biomedical Science

Module

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BMS-4004 Human Anatomy & Physiology

Assessment

Title: Human Anatomy & Physiology Course Work. Weighting Duration / Length of
Course work

Student Name: K.D.R.G.M.WEERASINGHA 70% 3000 words

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First assessor R.P.N.Roshan

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Learning outcomes covered by the course work
In this assessment, the student will demonstrate the ability to:
LO1.Identify the functions of the cellular organelles together with the associated biochemical
processes, and explain the functions of major varieties of body tissues.

LO2.Demonstrate an understanding of reproduction and fetal development and discuss about effect of
aging in physiological system

LO 4. Analyze the role of physiological control with special reference to the nervous and endocrine
systems.

LO 5. Assess the importance of the cardiovascular system in the distribution of materials to and from
the cells and also understand the importance of skeletal system.

LO 6. Understand the functions of the excretory and respiratory systems in the context of regulation of
the composition of body fluids.

LO 7. Evaluate the role of the digestive system in processing food materials for the body

Feedback Form
 INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY
Module Name: Human Anatomy & Physiology

Student : K.D.R.G.M.Weerasingha

Assessor 1 : R.P.N.Roshan

Assessor 2 :

Course work :

Areas for improvement:

Strong features of your work:

Marks awarded:
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
 Attempt all TASKs.
 Please note that replicating/ directly copying the content in the slides and lecture notes
will not allowed. To complete this course work, it is expected of you to read books, online
articles, research papers and other literature.

TASK 01 (25marks)

1) Explain the nervous regulation of the phases of gastric secretion. (09 marks)

2) Describe the events of the cardiac cycle. (16 marks)

TASK 02 (25 marks)

1) Explain the structure of a male testes. (10 marks)

2) Discuss the journey of a sperm starting from the end of spermatogenesis to the point of
fertilization. (15 marks)

TASK 03 (25 marks)

1) Briefly discuss the roles of respiratory and urinary systems in removing the body’s waste
products. (10 marks)

2) Discuss how renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system maintains the blood pressure and body
fluid balance. (15 Marks)
TASK 04 (25 marks)

1) Explain the structure of a platelet (10 marks)

2) Discuss the events in hemostasis (15 Marks)

…………. End of CW……………

TASK 01

1) Explain the nervous regulation of the phases of gastric secretion

Regulation of gastric secretion is divided into three phases that cephalic, gastric, and
intestinal. In the cephalic phase, the smell or taste of food, tactile sensation of food in the
mouth, or thought of food sends nervous impulses to the medulla oblongata. These
impulses cause parasympathetic neurons via the vagus nerve to stimulate the secretion of
pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the stomach. The parasympathetic stimulation also results
in the secretion of gastrin from the lower part of the stomach. This hormone travels
through the bloodstream and further stimulates pepsin and hydrochloric acid secretion in
the upper and middle parts of the stomach. In the gastric phase of gastric secretion, food
has entered and distended the stomach. This distention activates a parasympathetic reflex
via the Medulla oblongata and also has a direct stimulatory effect on the gastric glands.
The result is the continued secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid. In the intestinal
phase of gastric secretion, chyme has entered the duodenum, so gastric secretion is no
longer needed when the chyme contains lipids from the digestion of fats or contains
enough hydrochloric acid to bring its pH below 2 gastric secretions is inhibited. The lipids
and hydrogen ions inhibit gastric secretion by three simultaneous actions. First, they cause
impulses to go to the medulla oblongata to decrease parasympathetic stimulation of the
gastric glands. Secondly, they set up local reflexes via neurons in the wall of the gut that
decrease gastric secretion. Thirdly, they caused the release of three local hormones which
travel via the circulation to the gastric glands and inhibit their secretion.

2) Describe the events of the cardiac cycle.

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur in every heartbeat. It can be divided
into 2 major phases. Those are systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). To describe
systole and diastole with more detail, the cardiac cycle is can be divided into subparts.
Those are that atrial diastole, ventricular systole ventricular diastole, and atrial systole.
Atrial diastole occurs some milliseconds before the electrical signal from the SA node
arrives at the atria. During atrial diastole, Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium
through the superior and inferior vena cava and the left atrium via the pulmonary veins
and oxygenated blood enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. In the early part
of this phase, the atrioventricular valves are closed and blood pools in the atria. When the
pressure in the atrium is greater than the pressure in the ventricle of the same side the
atrioventricular valves are opened and allowing blood to flow into the ventricle.
The atrial systole is begun from the action potential that initiates autonomous sinoatrial
node. After the action potential is propagated throughout the atrial myocardium the atria
are contracted. Therefore forcing the blood in the upper chambers into the lower chambers
of the heart. The atrial contraction further increases arterial pressure.
The action potential passes to the AV node, down the bundle of His, and subsequently to
the left and right bundle branches (conductive fibers that travel through the
interventricular septum and branches to supply the ventricles). These fibers carry the
electrical impulses through their respective ventricular territories, leading to ventricular
contraction. Ventricular systole refers to the period of contraction of the ventricles. As the
ventricle begins to contract, the pressure exceeds that of the corresponding atrium and, as
a result, closes the atrioventricular valve. The closing of atrioventricular valves produces
the “lub” sound. After that the semilunar valves open and allows blood to drain out. The
amount of blood left in the ventricle at the end of the systole is called the end-systolic
volume.
In ventricular diastole, the semilunar valves are closed by the pressure increment build-up
by the blood in the pulmonary artery and aorta. The closing of the semilunar valves
produces “dub” sound. During ventricular diastole, blood come to the ventricle from
arteries.
This process continues to repeat for as long as the individual is alive. One complete
heartbeat consists of one systole and one diastole. It takes 0.8s.

Figure 1 – cardiac cycle

TASK 02

1) Explain the structure of a male testes.

The testes are found in the scrotum which allows the maintenance of the testis
temperature 2ºC below the normal body temperature. Sperm are produced properly only
when the testes are cooler than the rest of the body. The testes grow in the abdominal
cavity and descend into the scrotum before birth. The testes are cooled by the location
outside the abdominal cavity and the thin covering of the scrotum. Each testicle
contains many lobules. Each lobe has highly coiled (convoluted) loops called
seminiferous tubules. Sperm are produced in these tubes. Different cells that undergo
spermatogenesis are surrounded and connected to specialized supporting cells (Sertoli
cells) located in the seminiferous tube. Sertoli cells extend from the wall of the
seminiferous tubules to the lumen. These cells secrete hormone inhibin, and nourish
and provide attachment for cells that are in different stages of spermatogenesis. Cell
groups called Ledig cells or intermediate cells are present in the connective tissue
between the seminiferous tubules. After puberty, Ledig cells secrete testosterone or
another androgen hormone which promotes spermatogenesis in the tubules. The
seminiferous tubules join together to form a single tube (duct) at the top of the testes.

2) Discuss the journey of a sperm starting from the end of spermatogenesis to the point of
fertilization.

The testes sperm are manufactured in the testes located in the scrotum. At the end of
spermatogenesis, the sperm are pushed by the cilia into the inner walls of the rete testis
toward the epididymis, the tail of this sperm cannot move at this point. The epididymis
is a tortuously coiled structure above the test is that receives immature sperm from the
testis and stores it for several days. In the epididymis, certain enzyme reactions occur
that allow the sperm to fully mature and become active, but the egg is not yet capable of
fertilization. If no ejaculation occurs during the three day storage period of the
epididymis, phagocytes crash millions of older sperm. When ejaculation occurs, the
process of ejaculation begins with the penis fills with blood and becomes erect. With
adequate stimulation, the mature sperm travels from the epididymis to the vas deferens.
The vas deferens is a muscular tube that propels sperm forward through smooth muscle
 contractions. The sperm first arrives at the ampulla, where secretions from the seminal
vesicle are added. From the ampulla, seminal fluid is propelled forward through the
ejaculatory ducts toward the urethra, passing first by the prostate gland, where a milky
fluid is added to form semen. Finally, semen is released through the end of the
urethra.be expelled through the urethra into the vagina of the female .each ejaculation
release about 2-6 ml of semen which contains about 300-400 million sperm. it takes the
sperm about 2-12 hours to reach the fertilization site in the uterine tube, but many
sperm can survive somewhere in the female reproductive tract for up to 2-3 days. after
sperms were entered, about 25% of sperm is destroyed by the acidic secretion of the
vagina. Several minutes in the vagina, the tail becomes functional, propelling the sperm
through the cervix and into the uterus. Some of the sperm will swim into the left uterine
tube, while the others swim towards the right uterine tube. Only one of the uterine tubes
carries the egg cell. Sperm continue swimming toward the deeper end of the uterine
tube, against the expulsion force of the cilia lining the inner wall of the uterine tube. by
the time sperm has arrived at the ampoule region of the uterine tube. Only about 50
sperm are viable enough to try to fertilize the egg. but usually, only one sperm will
penetrate through the coatings surrounding the egg. That sperm will eventually
penetrate through zone pellucid and allow its cell membrane to fuse with the cell
membrane of the ovum. After that, the fertilization is begun.

TASK 03

1) Briefly discuss the roles of respiratory and urinary systems in removing the body’s
waste products.

The chemical reactions that occurring organisms. as a result of the waste products are
formed. They can be toxic therefore however they must be disposed. For example, in
the metabolic process, proteins and nucleic acids are broken down in the body cell, and
the amino group is converted into highly toxic ammonia. Ammonia also acts as a weak
base. During the metabolic process, glucose is oxidized to release CO 2, it is a weak
acid. Accumulation of such weak acids and bases alters the acid-base balance in the
internal environment. Changes in the acid-base balance can lead to adverse effects, such
as protein degradation. Therefore it is essential to remove the products that are excreted
from the body in order to maintain the internal environment within the limits favorable
 for the body to function effectively and survive. The removal of nitrogen metabolism
and other metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion. The excretory system
consists of several organs that assist in the removal of metabolic wastes and other
harmful substances. Also, they help homeostasis. The kidneys are the main organ in the
urinary system. The kidneys filter blood using a semipermeable membrane. The filtrate
consists of greater than 95% water, urea, chloride, sodium, potassium, creatinine and
other dissolved ions, and inorganic and organic compounds. The filtrate passes through
the urinary system and is excreted by the body in a process known as urination. High
urea levels in the blood might be toxic for all-important organ. if blood creatinine level
is high, it can cause lot of disorders such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, changes in
urination, high blood pressure, chest pains, muscle cramps, etc. excretion of the urinary
system is very important because of things like this.
Also, the respiratory system helps to remove the body's waste. The lungs are the basic
organs of human respiration. They facilitate gaseous exchange where oxygen is taken in
whereas carbon dioxide is given out. Therefore, the lungs help the body to expel or
eliminate carbon dioxide which is a waste substance for the body. also, the lungs
expose water in the form of water vapor with carbon dioxide. The lungs eliminate
around 18L of carbon dioxide per hour and 400 ml of water per day. The amount of
water that evaporates through the lungs depends on the temperature of the environment
and the condition of the body. When the body water level is low, the amount of water
vapor removed is also reduced.

2) Discuss how renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system maintains the blood pressure and

body fluid balance.

The renin angiotensin aldosterone system is an endocrine system that helps to regulate
long term blood pressure and extracellular volume in the body. Angiotensinogen release
into blood circulation by the liver. This may be in response to low blood pressure and
adverse changes in sodium concentrations. Enzyme renin is secreted via the kidney,
which helps to form angiotensin I. One further transformation of angiotensin is carried
out by the angiotensin-converting enzyme. This is predominantly found in the
pulmonary circulation. However, ACE is also produced in the vascular endothelium of
many tissues, including the kidney, adrenal gland, brain, and heart. The angiotensin-
converting-enzyme converts the angiotensin I into the Angiotensin II. In addition, the
 angiotensin I can convert into the Angiotensin II from some other pathways.
Angiotensin II can bind with a lot of receptors expressed on the surface of vascular
endothelium. Combined with the stimulation of at one receptor on smooth muscle cells,
causes vasoconstriction. In addition to a vasoconstriction effect, stimulation of one
receptor causes the adrenal glands to release the hormone aldosterone, resulting in
sodium retention. Combined with vasoconstriction, this increases blood pressure.
Angiotensin II stimulates the sensation of thirst in the hypothalamus, which in turn
increases fluid intake. This helps to increase circulation volume and on the other hand
increase blood pressure. It also increases ADH secretion from the posterior pituitary
gland - as its antidote, it produces more concentrated urine to reduce fluid loss. This
allows the circulating volume to be better maintained until more fluid is consumed.
After blood pressure became normal, and the sodium concentrations were correct the
kidney reduces the production of renin.

TASK 04

1) Explain the structure of a platelet

Platelets are also called thrombocytes. Platelets are small cell fragments that help your
body form clots to stop bleeding. Platelets are usually round, oval, or rod-shaped.
Platelets stain light blue to purple and are very granular. Have no nucleus, and are
usually only 2–3 micrometers in diameter and 6 nanometers thick. Platelets are not real
cells but instead are classified as cell fractions produced by megakaryocytes. They do
not contain nuclear DNA because they do not have a nucleus. However, they do contain
mitochondrial and mitochondrial DNA as well as particles from the endoplasmic
reticulum and megakaryocyte stem cells. Platelets contain adhesive proteins that allow
the fibrin to adhere to the mesh and vascular endothelium, as well as a microtubule and
microfilament skeleton that extends to the filaments during platelet activation. Also,
platelets contain carbohydrates (glycocalyx), lipids (cholesterol, phospholipids,
glycolipids), and glycoproteins. Platelets live for 7 to 10 days. The normal platelet
count range is 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. If the platelet count
drops from 10,000 to 20,000, the risk of bleeding increases. If the platelet count is less
than 50,000, the bleeding will be more serious if you're cut or bruised. Some people
make more plates. They can have from 500,000 to more than a million platelets. it is
 not an abnormal condition. Usually, 1 x 10 11
new platelets are released into the blood
circulation every day from the bone marrow. A single megakaryocyte gives rise to
about 4000 platelets. Platelets are formed by fragmentation from megakaryocytes along
with red and white blood cells. Production is regulated by Thrombopoietin. Normally
two-thirds of platelets circulating in the blood and one-third of platelets are stored in the
spleen. Old platelets are destroyed by phagocytosis (Kuffer cells) in the spleen and
liver. Less than 1% of total blood is made up of platelets.

2) Discuss the events in hemostasis

Hemostasis is the process that controls bleeding by repair of the vessel wall at the site
of injury. Blood loss is stopped by the formation of blood clots that seal the breaks in
blood vessels. The goal of hemostasis is to arrest bleeding from the damaged blood
vessel. Hemostatic mechanisms depend on small cell fragments known as platelets and
a dozen of soluble clotting factors. These elements are always present in the blood in
their inactive form, ready to activate, typically within seconds of an injury. When blood
vessels are damaged, blood is exposed to components of the surrounding tissue. Some
of these components bind to and activate platelets. Activated platelets are involved in
all stages of hemostasis. The hemostasis process has several major steps.
As the First step platelets secrete chemicals such as thromboxane A 2 (TXA2) that induce
blood vessels to constrict, thereby reducing blood loss. This is known as
vasoconstrictors, the most immediate response to tissue injury. Vasoconstrictors are
also triggered by local pain receptors, and by substances released such as angiotensin II
and serotonin by endothelial cells.
The second step is the formation of platelet plugs. This is also known as primary
hemostasis. This is the first physiological response to vascular injury, which is
physiologically mediated by platelets. is initiated when blood vessel tissue is damaged.
During adhesion, platelets form pseudopods that stick to other platelets and to the
collagen fibers on the wall of the vessel and allow the platelets to clump together in a
structure known as a platelet plug. During the release reaction phase, the platelets
release chemicals such as serotonin, a vasoconstrictor; ADP, which sends out signals to
attract more platelets; and thromboxane A2, which stimulates platelet aggregation. ADP
and thromboxane A2 work together during the aggregation phase to keep the platelets
bunched together and blocking the site of damage to reduce blood flow and stop blood
loss.
This is the primary hemostasis. After the primary hemostasis secondary hemostasis is
begun.
The next step of hemostasis is coagulation. The surface of activated platelets serves as
the site for coagulation. A clot is essentially a platelet plug reinforced with strands of a
protein called fibrin. That is the final product of the coagulation cascade. Coagulation is
a complex chain reaction where one clotting factor activates the next in the multi-step
pathway. Coagulation can begin with either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway, but the
result of both pathways the formation of prothrombinase. The extrinsic pathway is
initiated by damage outside of the blood vessel, and extravascular cells leak
thromboplastin into the blood, which initiates the formation of prothrombinase. The
intrinsic pathway is initiated by clotting factors that are already in the blood and does
not require outside tissue damage. This pathway, after a series of chemical reactions,
also forms prothrombinase. Both pathways need calcium ions in order to function
properly. Once prothrombinase is present in the blood, it converts the protein
prothrombin into thrombin with the help of Ca 2+. Thrombin and Ca2+ then convert
fibrinogen (a soluble protein) into fibrin (an insoluble protein). Fibrin monomers bind
together to create fibrin polymers, which form the threads of the blood clot. The threads
are a sticky mesh, like a spider web, and trap platelets and other blood cells. This seals
off the damaged area of the blood vessel and stops blood loss.
After the vessels are repaired, the clot must be dissolved to restore blood flow. This
process, called fibrinolysis, is a small cascade that produces the enzyme plasmin.
Plasmin cleaves fibrin and dissolves the clot.
Most clotting factors are produced in the liver. Most of the time vitamin-K requires for
their production. Liver diseases such as cirrhosis and vitamin-K deficiency may cause
excessive bleeding. However, the main bleeding disorders are inherited. These
conditions are caused by gene mutations and they are lead to the deficiency of a certain
clotting factor. Usually treated for these disorders with replacement therapy, using
purified factors produced by recombinant technology, or frozen platelets. While the
formation of blood clots is critical to control bleeding, inappropriate coagulation can be
dangerous. In fact, far more people die from unwanted blood clotting than from clotting
failure. Unwanted blood clot formation, known as thrombosis, is the most common
 cause of blocked arteries in heart attacks, strokes, and pulmonary embolism. Therefore
blood has Factors that prevent.

Reference

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2. Encyclopedia Britannic, Inc., (2020). cardiac cycle. [Online image] Available at: <
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[accessed November 28, 2020].

3. Lumencendela, (2020). Platelets. [Online] Available at: < https://

courses.lumenlearning.com / boundless-ap / chapter / platelets / > [accessed November
28, 2020].

4. Hennawy, m., (2018). Thrombocytopenia during pregnancy. [Online] SlideShare.

Available at: < https://www.slideshare.net/muhammadelhennawy5/thrombocytopenia-
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