MODELLING OF LIGHTNING NARROW

BIPOLAR PULSES PARAMETERS IN THE

CENTRAL REGION OF PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA

NOR ZULAIKA ZAFIRAH BINTI AZMIN

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
MALAYSIA
 MODELLING OF LIGHTNING NARROW
BIPOLAR PULSES PARAMETERS IN THE
CENTRAL REGION OF PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA

NOR ZULAIKA ZAFIRAH BINTI AZMIN

Final Year Project Report is submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Electrical Engineering

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
MALAYSIA
I declare that the work in this final year project report was carried out in accordance
with the regulations of Universiti Teknologi MARA. It is original and is the results of
my own work, unless otherwise indicated or acknowledged as referenced work. This
final year project report has not been submitted to any other academic institution or non-
academic institution for any degree or qualification.

I, hereby, acknowledge that I have been supplied with the Academic Rules and
Regulations for Undergraduate, Universiti Teknologi MARA, regulating the conduct of
my study and research.

Name of Student : Nor Zulaika Zafirah Binti Azmin

Student I.D. No. : 2019314963

Programme : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Electrical

Engineering

Faculty : School of Electrical Engineering

Title of The Final : Modelling of Lightning Narrow Bipolar Pulses

Year Project Report Parameters in the Central Region of Peninsular
Malaysia

Signature of Student :

Date : 22 February 2022

This Report is
Approved by (Project
Supervisor): :

(Dr. Faranadia Abdul Haris)

Date : 22 February 2022

ii
 ABSTRACT

Abstract Lightning is a rapid electrical discharge between a cloud and the ground,
between two clouds, or within a cloud. It can be seen as a bright flash and is followed
by the sound of thunder. There are many kinds of events during lightning, such as return
stroke, dart leaders, and narrow bipolar pulses. Narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) are the
events that are the main focus of this study. This project aims to develop criteria for each
positive narrow bipolar pulses parameter using a mathematical equation and to
characterize positive narrow bipolar pulses in the central region of peninsular Malaysia.
The parameters involve are Pulse Duration, Slow Time Duration, Rise Time (10-90%),
Full Width of Half Maximum, Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio, Zero Crossing Time
and Rise Time (0-100%). There is a total of 20 real field waveforms that have been
characterized by using the proposed mathematical equation. Based on the statistical
result, there was a significant difference in parameters of pulse duration due to different
geographical locations. Some parameters show a good agreement with this study, which
are slow front duration, rise time (10-90%), full- width of half maximum, overshoot to
peak amplitude, and zero-crossing time. In addition, the developed mathematical model
would be practical for a future automated system specifically for Narrow Bipolar Pulses
characterization.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to Allah for allowing me to finish my project
on time. Also, special thanks also to Allah Almighty for blessing me in my research
work to complete it successfully.

I am are over helmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my depth to

all those who have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity and
into something concrete. I would like to extend my gratitude and special thanks to my
supervisor, Dr Faranadia Binti Abdul Haris who assisted me in finishing this challenge.
She also provides invaluable commands and recommendations that guided me through
all levels of my project. She helped me a lot in doing this final year project. She has
taught me the methodology to carry out the research and to present the research works
as clearly as possible.

I might also like to increase my gratitude to my family and friends for their unwavering
aid and knowledge as I do my research and write my report. Your prayers have kept me
safe until now. They helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time
be satisfactorily completed without the support
and guidance of my parents and friends. They also guided me from time to time in
making this project, despite their busy schedules. I am extremely grateful to my parents
for their love, prayers, caring and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my
future. I am very much thankful to them for their love and understanding.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ii
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS xi

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Motivation 2
1.3 Problem Statement 2
1.4 Objectives 3
1.5 Significance of Study 3

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Lightning 4
2.2 Narrow Bipolar Pulses 7
2.3 Parameters of Narrow Bipolar Pulses 11
2.3.1 Malaysia 11
2.3.2 Sri Lanka 12
2.3.3 East China 14
2.3.4 Mississippi 15

v
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 18
3.1 Introduction 18
3.2 Flowchart 18
3.3 Lightning Generated Electric Field Measurement 19
3.4 Criteria Development using Mathematical Equation 20
3.4.1 Pulse Duration 21
3.4.2 Slow Front Duration 22
3.4.3 Rise Time (10-90%) 23
3.4.4 Full Width of Hlaf Maximum 24
3.4.5 Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio 25
3.4.6 Zero-Crossing Time 26
3.4.7 Rise Time (0-100%) 27
3.5 Gantt Chart 28

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 29

4.1 Introduction 29
4.2 Statistical Analysis 29
4.3 Data Comparison with Different Study 33

REFERENCES 35

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Tables Title Page

Table 2.1 The Comparison characteristic of Narrow Bipolar Pulses between

countries 16
Table 3.1 Gantt Chart 27
Table 4.1 Range, Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation between UNITEN,
Kajang, Malaysia and Colombo, Sri Lanka. 32

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Title Page

Figure 2.1 Normal mains power signal 4

Figure 2.2 Transient overvoltage 4
Figure 2.3 Lightning Formation 5
Figure 2.4 The statistical distribution of NBPs features in Johor, Malaysia 11
Figure 2.5 The summarized value for the parameters in Sri Lanka 12
Figure 2.6 Typical Narrow Bipolar Pulses observed in Sri Lanka 12
Figure 2.7 The characteristic obtain from the NBP in East China 14
Figure 2.8 The characteristic obtain from the NBP in Mississippi 15
Figure 3.1 Flowchart of Project 17
Figure 3.2 Block Diagram of Proses to Obtain Waveform 18
Figure 3.3 Positive Bipolar Pulses 19
Figure 3.5 Pulse Duration 20
Figure 3.6 Slow Front Duration 21
Figure 3.7 Rise Time (10-90%) 22
Figure 3.8 Full Width of Half Maximum 23
Figure 3.9 Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio 24
Figure 3.10 Zero-Crossing Time 25
Figure 3.11 Rise Time (0-100%) 26
Figure 4.1 The occurrence of Pulse Duration of PBP waveforms 28
Figure 4.2 The occurrence of Slow Front Duration of PBP waveforms 29
Figure 4.3 The occurrence of Rise Time (10-90%) of PBP waveforms 29
Figure 4.4 The occurrence of Full Width at Half Peak of PBP waveforms 30
Figure 4.5 The occurrence of Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio of PBP
waveforms 30
Figure 4.6 The occurrence of Zero Crossing Time of PBP waveforms 31
Figure 4.7 The occurrence of Rise Time (0-100%) of PBP waveforms 31

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation
Narrow Bipolar Pulses
NBP

Narrow Positive Bipolar Pulses

NPBP

Full Width Half Maximum

FWHM

Positive Narrow Bipolar Events

+NBE

Narrow Bipolar Events

NBE

Upward Ground Flash

GC

Downward Ground Flash

CG

Intra-cloud Discharges
CID

Radio Frequency
RF

Fast Antenna
FA

University Tenaga Malaysia

UNITEN

University Technology Malaysia

UTM
Negative Narrow Bipolar Pulses
NNBP

Mega Hertz
MHz

Kilo Hertz
KHz

Hertz
Hz

Very High Frequency

VHF

Kilo Volt
kV

High Frequency
HF

ix
 Kilo Meter
km

Kilo Amphere
kA

Coulomb
C

Millisecond
ms

Standard Deviation
SD

Arithmetic Mean
AM

Integrated Network Baseline Evaluation

INBE

Logarithmic-Radio Frequency
Log-RF

Very Low Frequency/Low frequency

VLF/LF

The change of interaction energy

dE/dt
between the heavy particles in unit time

Meter
m

x
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbols
% Percentage
° Degree
± Choice of exactly two possible values,
one of which is obtained through
addition and the other through
subtraction
µ Micro

xi
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Intra-cloud is the most common type of lightning. It happens completely inside

the cloud, jumping between different charges regions in the cloud. Intra-cloud lightning
is sometimes called sheet lightning because i
[1] Narrow bipolar pulses are high-energy and high altitude, intra-cloud electrical
discharges associated with thunderstorms. [2] Narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) are
considered as isolated intracloud events with higher peak amplitude and strong high-
frequency emission compared to the first return strokes and other intracloud discharges.
[3]

It is similar to other form of lightning events such as return strokes and dart
leaders but produces an optical emission of at least an order of magnitude smaller. They
typically occur in the 10-20 km altitude range and can emit power on the order of few
hundred gigawatts. They produce far-field asymmetric bipolar electric field change
signatures (called narrow bipolar events). [2]

Lightning events is really important to be study. It is because the phenomenon

of lightning in terms of its impact on life can be observed. Narrow positive bipolar
pulses (NPBPs), is one of Narrow Bipolar Pulses whose origin is mainly unclear. These
discharges have the opposite polarity as negative return stroke. They are emitted by
thunderstorms, which also create other activities, and are narrower, bipolar, and separate
in character. This study will specifically describe about positive narrow bipolar pulses,
where this study will introduce mathematical equation and to characterise for each
Positive Bipolar Pulses parameters in the central region of peninsular Malaysia.

1
1.2 Motivation

All the waveform described in this thesis was measured at the Universiti Tenaga
Nasional (UNITEN) during summer monsoon period. The waveform has been analysed
using a picoscope to get the data of each parameter of each waveform. Other than that,
it is also used to characterize the Positive Bipolar Pulses parameters and to generate the
mathematical equation. Excel had been used as a platform to gather all the data
parameters and also to make some calculations. Therefore, this thesis urge everyone to
expose knowledge of the characteristic and mathematical equation of Positive Bipolar
Pulses in central peninsular Malaysia.

1.3 Problem Statement

It summarizes the research that had been done previously, and from all the
research, the research gap had been found. Where there is no detailed description
regarding the characteristic. This make it difficult for some people to differentiate the
characteristics. Moreover, when no characteristic is successfully described in a through
manner then it will be difficult to begin research about Positive Narrow Bipolar Pulses.
Although the articles had described every characteristic it is not enough to describe the
characteristic well. Measurement is a normal thing that had been done by other
researchers. They only do more on labels, but there is no proper guideline to define
criteria. Maybe some papers come out with formulas, but they do not publish them.
Some of the researches get the value of arithmetic mean and standard deviation of each
parameters, but they direct compare without introducing the mathematical equation
used. So to make it easier to found the lightning characteristic, this thesis will officially
publish the formula for the benefit and advantages of others. A mathematical equation
is important to define criteria. So in this project, the characteristic will be describes and
the mathematical equation will be developed.

2
1.4 Objectives

The aim of this project is to set up criteria for each characteristic using
mathematical equation by conduct statistical analysis:

a) To develop criteria for each Positive Narrow Bipolar Pulses parameters using
mathematical equation.

b) To characterise Positive Narrow Bipolar Pulses in the central region of

Peninsular Malaysia.

1.5 Significance of Study

This study is worth doing because it can make any further investigation easier.
Other than that, it will create a proper guideline for forwards automation because doing
programming needs to use equation. In general, this study can benefit those who want
to learn about narrow bipolar pulses, as well as those who are experts. This study can
provide a clear description of the characteristic of positive narrow bipolar pulses in
Malaysia and also improve criteria definition which does not rely on labelling.
Furthermore, this study can avoid non-uniformity and general examination of
waveform, for example having eye pain during examining waveform. In addition, the
mathematical equation resulting from this study will facilitate the work of researches
because now, there is no specific method to establish or define the criteria of this
parameter in other paper.

3
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

This section will explain what is lightning and also the parameters of Positive
Narrow Bipolar Pulses. There also some other additional information about narrow
bipolar included. Literature review gained from several existing articles related to this
study which can show a go
literature review will make a comparisons from various countries related to the
characteristic of Narrow Bipolar Pulses.

2.1 Lightning

Overvoltage are a serious risk to power systems. System insulation and overvoltage
protection must be carefully studied in order to decrease the amount of disruptions and
maintain service and electric supply continuity.

Transient overvoltage are described as a temporary rise in voltage (from a few seconds
to a few milliseconds) involving two or many conductors. They are also known as
surges, spikes and glitches. Transient overvoltage are harmful because they can result
in outages and downtime due to interruption, component and equipment damage, and
damage. There are two basic reasons of this, which are lightning and switching.

Figure 2.1: Normal mains power signal Figure 2.2: Transient overvoltage

The magnitude of lightning overvoltage is unaffected by the system's design, whereas

switching overvoltage rise as the system's operational voltage rises. There are 3 stages
that need to be considered which are up to 300kV, 300kV to 765kV and 765kV and
4
above. When it is up to 300 kV, a insulation system must be built to withstand
predominantly lightning surges. Above that voltage range (300 kV to 765 kV),
lightning and switching surges must be taken into account. When 765 kV and higher,
switching overvoltage become the most important consideration in the insulation design
for ultra-high-voltage systems.

Lightning caused by external overvoltage and natural phenomenon. It is a transient,

high-current discharge with a route length estimated in kilometres. Can also be defined
as an electrical discharge between a clouds - to - ground that originates in the
atmosphere and consists of one or more high-amplitude impulses. Thundercloud is the
most regular producer. Snowstorms, sandstorms, clouds above erupting volcanoes, and
clear air are all examples of this phenomenon.

Lightning is caused by the separation of electrical charges in thunderclouds. The

formation, on the other hand, is still a highly contested issue among scientists,
particularly in terms of how the clouds receive their charges. One probable reason is:

Figure 2.3: Lightning Formation

Firstly, the Earth is heated up, a large amount of warm, humid air is produced. Then,
the air that is warm rises. That moisture cools and condenses as it rises, forming clouds.
These clouds are constantly growing and merging into bigger ones. Several of the
5
droplets of water become too heavy for the updraft of air and fall as rain. Some were
carried high into the cold upper regions by powerful air currents, where they froze into
small ice crystals. As the cloud reaches the stratosphere's base, it spreads out sideways,
forming the anvil-shaped which called thunderclouds. The small hailstones/graupel
particles occur as ice crystals grow in size. Scientists estimate that millions of
microscopic collisions occur as hailstones turn back through the rising ice crystals.
Next, because of the friction caused by the collision, charge is transferred between the
neutral particles. As a result of these collisions, electric charges are created and stored
in the cloud. When the charges separate, the potential difference between the cloud and
the ground becomes so great that the air resistance breaks down, resulting in a lightning
discharge. The surrounding air gets incredibly heated and expands fast, results in a
thunderous explosion.

Lightning can be divided into two types which are ground flashes and cloud flashes.
Between the ground and cloud flashes, cloud flashes account for the majority of all
lightning.

Cloud flashes is the one that avoid making contact with the ground. It form between a
thundercloud and clear air, within a thundercloud and between the thunderclouds.
Ground flashes which make contact with the ground. A ground flash may be classified
into two types, upward ground flash (GC) -initiated from a tall structure- and downward
ground flash (CG) -initiated from the cloud-. Each of these can be further segmented
into positive and negative. The whole lightning discharge is referred to as a flash, and
it involves a number of physical processes, including stepped leaders, connecting
leaders, return strokes and preliminary breakdown, subsequent return strokes.

The most typical downward ground flash is a negative ground flash, which lowers
negative charges from the thundercloud to the ground. It is initiated by an electrical
breakdown event in the thundercloud called the preliminary breakdown. This
breakdown event, which includes a large number of discharges, results in the formation
of a leader which propagates in a stepped pattern towards the ground. The stepped leader
produces branches as it propagates.

6
 The stepped leader creates opposing polarity charges on objects projecting above the
earth's surface as it reaches the ground. Because opposing charges attract, these charges
create an upward-moving connecting leader to link the downward-moving stepping
leader. When one of the connecting leaders successfully meet the stepped leader, the
charges stored in the thundercloud are released As charges travel towards the ground, a
significant current flows through the channel, causing the channel to glow. A full
conducting route is constructed, and the return stroke (a wave of ground potential) flows
towards the cloud. A single-stroke flash occurs when the lightning flash ends when the
initial return current finishes flowing.

2.2 Narrow Bipolar Pulses

A lighting flash generates a large alteration in the global electrical circuit of the
atmosphere. The recorded electric field traces of these changes are analysed. As the
vertical electric field (Ev) and horizontal electric field (Eh) fluctuate, these records are
further separated depending on their directional components. [21] Between 1998 and
2001, the Los Alamos Sferic Array (LASA) captured VLF/LF electric-field-change
signals from over ten million lightning discharges.[5] Thundercloud electric fields
accelerate electrons to relativistic energies, as evidenced by the finding of gamma ray
bursts. [20]

Narrow bipolar events (NBEs) are an intracloud electrical-discharge mechanism that

has just lately received attention [15] Narrow Bipolar Events (NBEs) are impulsive in-
cloud lightning discharges that are regularly observed by radio-frequency sensors on the
ground and in space. [14] Intra-cloud is the most common type of lightning. It happens
completely inside the cloud, jumping between different charges regions in the cloud.
Intra-cloud lightning is sometimes called sheet lightning because it lights up the sky
with a 'sheet' of light. [1] Narrow bipolar pulses are high-energy and high-altitude, intra-
cloud electrical discharges associated with thunderstorms. [2] It is short, powerful
lightning discharge. NBEs are also known as compact intracloud discharge (CIDs) or
narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs). [6]

Narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) are considered as isolated intracloud events with higher
peak amplitude and strong high-frequency emission compared to the first return strokes

7
and other intracloud discharges. [3] NBP is similar to other forms of lightning events
such as return strokes and dart leaders but produces an optical emission of at least an
order of magnitude smaller. They typically occur in the 10 20 km altitude range and
can emit a power on the order of a few hundred gigawatts. They produce far-field
asymmetric bipolar electric field change signatures (called narrow bipolar events). [2]
NBPs can occur shortly before or after normal intracloud (IC) flashes, and they can even
start them, [23] where an IC flash initiated by PNBPs about 16.1% from 638 PNBPs.
[24]

The amplitude of the NBPs (of both polarities) was equivalent to that of initial return
strokes in cloud-to-ground flashes seen in the same experiment, according to Willett et
al. (1989). The tiny pulses have an overall pulse width of 20 30 ms. They also claim
that at frequencies ranging from 10 to 50 MHz, NBPs radiate significantly more
strongly than initial return strokes. These pulses had an energy spectral density (ESD)
at 18 MHz that was 16 dB greater than the initial return strokes at the same distance.
[17] Using satellite and ground-based sensors, Liu et al. (2018) found that some high
altitude NNBEs near cloud tops caused blue discharges such as blue jets or blue starts.
[28]

Narrow Bipolar Pulses could be singled out from other lightning processes due
to their association with strong radiofrequency radiation. They were reported with
positive and b=negative polarity namely, positive narrow bipolar pulses (NPBPs) and
negative narrow bipolar pulses (NNBPs). [3] The initial electric field peak in a negative
electric field is negative, and vice versa in a positive electric field. [11] Wu et al. [2012]
recorded thousands of NBPs in China and reported that most of the negative NBPs
occurred in the altitude range of 16 19 km while most positive NBPs occurred in the
range of 8 16 km. [22] Narrow Bipolar Events (NBEs) are lightning discharge events
that last 20-30 micro seconds and are the source of the greatest radio frequency radiation
by lightning' in the 3-300 MHz HF-VHF radio bands. [16]

"The origins of the greatest RF radiation appear to be cloud processes, not return
strokes, and cloud processes of a highly distinctive form," Le Vine [1980] noted in a
study of radio frequency (RF) radiation from lightning flashes. Narrow Bipolar Pulses
(NBPs) are the name given to cloud processes that are also known as compact intracloud
8
discharges or narrow bipolar events (NBEs) in other research. The electric field change
(E-change) of an NBP is characterised by Le Vine (1980) as "a small duration (10 20
s) bipolar pulse with an initial (positive) half cycle commonly followed by a (negative)
overshoot." Negative NBPs are more common than positive NBPs at higher altitudes
[Smith et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2012]. [8]

Le Vine (1980) discovered that narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) are the most powerful
sources of HF radiation, and that their polarities are opposite those of regular negative
return strokes. The pulse amplitudes were roughly one-third that of the return stroke
peaks observed around the same time. Nearly all of the NBPs in cloud-to-ground flashes
were observed to occur after the first return stroke. They came to the conclusion that
NPBPs aren't frequently linked to cloud-to-ground flashes, k variations in intracloud
flashes, or other known lightning activities. They also claim that at frequencies ranging
from 10 to 50 MHz, NBPs radiate significantly more strongly than initial return strokes.
Based on their multiple station electric field change metres and three broad band (3 30
MHz) data gathering system, Smith et al. (1999) found the NBP sources in the most
active portions of thunderstorms, near high reflectivity cores, at altitudes between 8 and
11 km above mean sea level. [7]

Willett et al. [1989] used E-change and dEdt sensors to study NBPs; the full width at
half maximum (FWHM) of the leading peak of the NBPs averaged 2.2 s, with NBPs
lasting 20 30 s overall. Willett et al. [1989] also corroborated Le Vine's (1980) claim
that NBPs are "rather isolated and uncommon." NBPs can have either positive or
negative polarity, according to Willett et al. [1989], which they characterised based on
the polarity of the leading peak of the NBP waveform (using the physics convention of
electric field polarity). [11] Positive NBPs can be created by negative charges moving
upwards (leaving positive charges along the way) and/or positive charges going
downward in this manner and for sensors beyond the reversal range (leaving negative
charges along the path). [21] NBPs usually occur at higher altitudes than most of the
other lightning events. [22] Wu et al. (2011) found that their NNBEs (all 174 of which
were located at altitudes between 15 and 20 km) had bigger range-normalized E-change
amplitudes on average than 555 positive NBEs, with a geometric mean value ratio of
1.4. Typical NNBEs or NNBEs are the terms used to describe these high-altitude
NNBEs (T). [29]
9
 Although the actual process of NBPs is unknown, assuming that current turn-on
created the leading peak and current turn-off caused the overshoot peak, where a
relativistic runaway electron avalanche as a plausible explanation. [25] As direct
measurement of the discharge channel and current inside the thundercloud is
impossible, some writers used remote field measurements to get some insight into the
electrical/channel features of NBE. [10] Rison et al. (2016) found that positive NBEs
begin most or all IC flashes and NNBEs initiate most or all negative cloud-to-ground (-
CG) flashes using an HF/VHF (20 80 MHz) digital interferometer, a VHF Lightning
Mapping Array (LMA), and a fast antenna. [30] Although the E-change data of a typical
positive NBP displayed a "pretty smooth" bipolar waveform, the matching dE/dt
waveform revealed more "large-amplitude, high- frequency 'noise'" than predicted from
the smooth E-change waveform, according to Willett et al. [1989]. [8]

Many NBPs exhibit one or more secondary peaks instead of a single overshoot
peak. Single secondary peaks were discovered by Hamlin et al. [2007], who suggested
that they were created by current reflection at the end of a conducting channel. Nag and
Rakov [2010a, 2010b] measured E-change and dEdt of NBPs in greater detail and
discovered many secondary peaks, which they ascribed to multiple reflections at both
ends of a small conducting channel. Nag and Rakov [2010a, 2010b] used a "bouncing
wave" transmission line model to estimate NBP electrical parameters. [27] If NPBP
radiation fields can be scaled up as 1/D to short distances from their source, these pulses
might represent a major hazard to aeronautical vehicles, which have basic structural
resonances at HF frequencies. [13]

Medelius et al. [1991] examined 166 NBPs from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida,
and found that 156 of them were positive. 65 from 156 positive NBPs were simple bipolar
pulses with a leading positive pulse followed by a negative overshoot pulse. After the initial
positive peak, the bipolar waveform of the following 91 PNBPs had an extra "hump" placed
on it. Based on the placement of the hump relative to the overshoot peak, Medelius et al.
[1991] established three distinct types of NBPs: shortly before the overshoot (16 NBPs),
during the overshoot (40 NBPs), and after the overshoot (60 NBPs) (35 NBPs). [26]

The quantity of NBP emissions increased significantly from 0.13 percent at a latitude
of 59.8°N in Uppsala, Sweden to 12 percent at a latitude of 1.5°N in South Malaysia
10
throughout diverse geographical locations spanning from northern regions to the tropics.
Positive NBPs were found to be more prevalent than negative NBPs at all latitudes
studied. Negative NBP emissions grew more common as latitude declined, and a
considerable rise from 20% in Sweden to 45 percent in South Malaysia was recorded.
The observed phenomena were explained by factors involving mixed-phase region
heights and vertical extents of thundercloud tops. These variables are mostly influenced
by latitude. [9]

2.3 Parameters of Narrow Bipolar Pulses

2.3.1 Malaysia [3]

In Malaysia, a study was conducted in Universiti Technology Malaysia (UTM),

Johor, which is located at the southern tip of peninsular Malaysia (1°N, 103°E). To
obtain good result, the study was conducted at the appropriate time. The experiment
was performed from April to June 2009 during the southwest monsoon period. The
measurement station in Malaysia was built on top of a hill that is 132 meters above sea
level and roughly 30 kilometers from the Tebrau Starit. The vertical electric field, as
well as the 3 and 30 MHz signals, were sensed using three parallel flat plate antennas.

The duration of NBPs is 24-30ms and with a rising time of 1.6-2.7 ms than other
known cloud activities, with peak amplitudes 14-20 times bigger than cloud pulses and
a factor of 2-3 larger than positive and negative return stroke, respectively, according
to this study. Despite the fact that bipolar pulses had a regular structure, NBPs had
multiple peaks, subsidiary peaks (at the rising and decaying edges), and hump at and
after the overshoot. Furthermore, strong fine pulses were seen embedded either at the
rising or decaying edges of NBPs, with the bulk of them being at the decaying edge.

Fine pulses were thought to be largely responsible for the amplification of

powerful HF radiation associated with NBPs, and their existence was presumably linked
to rapid current fluctuations and microscale branches during the neutralization process.
Comparison of the statistical distribution of NBPs features of the present study and

11
 those of previous studies in the literature is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: The statistical distribution of NBPs features in Johor, Malaysia

2.3.2 Sri Lanka [7]

The statistics reported for Sri Lanka were collected in 2013 in Matra (latitude
5.95 N, longitude 80.53 E), a place in the coastal zone in the southern part of the country
about 50 meters from the seashore. During the southwest monsoon, a study was
conducted. The measurements were taken between mid-April and mid-May, which

period was from the 1st to the 5th of May, therefore the results presented were gathered
specifically during that time.

While in Sri Lanka, the data were obtained from a combination of two different
antenna systems that was employed with the intention of capturing both the horizontal
and vertical electrical field signatures of lightning activities. Both a typical flat plate
parallel antenna system and a non-traditional spherical antenna system with identical
dimensions were set to capture data at the same time. The data from the vertical plate
of the spherical antenna, as well as data from the flat plate antenna, were employed in
this study because it concentrates on the intricacies of NBPs vertical field
characteristics. The data gathering unit was configured to trigger in window mode,
allowing for both positive and negative signals to be detected.

Both polarities of NBPs were investigated in this work, with a focus on temporal
factors. The findings revealed that each thunderstorm was distinct in nature, regardless
of geographical were location or time. On the days of the 1st, 4th, and 5th of May, around
80% of the results were negative NBPs, with similar percentages for the positive kind

12
on the 2nd and 3rd of May. Thus, it is possible that the prevailing polarity of these NBPs
tion, even if they occur
at short intervals such as a few hours or a day. Another important feature of the study

caused by thunderstorms over a vast area of sea, according to satellite photos of the
times. The data acquired in this investigation can be deemed less tainted or altered than
the original signal because it was conducted close to the sea beach (about 50m), giving
us a more accurate picture of the time values in which NBPs operate. Below is the
summarized value for the major parameters measured:

Figure 2.5: The summarized value for the parameters in Sri Lanka

Figure 2.6: Typical Narrow Bipolar Pulses observed in Sri Lanka

Depicts points marked as had shown in figure 3, which are useful when understanding
the measured temporal parameters in this study. Point A denotes the starting point where
the wavebegins to deviate from the zero lines. It reaches a maximum at E and begins to

13
decline until it crosses the zero line once at point F to reach the opposite maximum at
point G. Finally the wave propagates towards the zero lines until it reaches point H
where the signal sees its end. The slow front duration is measured as the time interval
between points A and B. Here point Brefers to the location where the signal begins to
rise rapidly (derivative increases significantly).

This is visually inspected and identified by magnifying each and every signal
manually. The rise time is measured by getting the time interval between C and D which
corresponds to the signal positions of 10% and 90% of the maximum value. Zero
crossing time is calculated by getting the time difference between the first points of
deviation from the zero line to its first crossing point of the zero lines. The
corresponding points were A and F. The full width at halfmaximum is measured by
taking the distance between the points on the time axis where the signal reached half
the magnitude of its dominant peak amplitude. An overshoot to peak amplitude ratio is
calculated by taking the ratio among F to G and F to E values of the signal amplitude.
Pulse duration is the total interval between points A and H. This same method was
applied to the PNBPs as well.

2.3.3 East China [10]

Shanghai (31.0011N, 121.8851E) was the site of the East China observations. Each
NBE in East China had its electric field, horizontal magnetic field, and VHF emission
recorded simultaneously. The event polarity was determined using electric field data
collected by a plate-antenna setup with a bandwidth of 5 kHz to 2 MHz. The envelope
of VHF emissions was sensed using a linear VHF receiver at frequencies spanning from
112.5 to 117.5 MHz. The North-South and West-East magnetic fields were measured
using two across orthogonal loop antennas with a frequency response of 800 Hz 400
kHz. The waveform features of the NBP and electrical properties of the NBE were
calculated using magnetic field components in this study.

NBEs were linked to the most powerful VHF emission and produced narrow bipolar
pulses inthe VLF/LF band that lasted 10 20 ms and had amplitudes comparable to some
return stroke pulses. +NBEs were found at altitudes of 7 12 km MSL, while NBEs were
found at elevationsof 14 16 km MSL. NBEs are more energetic in intensity than
14
+NBEs, despite their varying occurrence heights inside the thunder cloud. The
transmission-line model was used to infer theelectrical/channel characteristics of NBEs
from a single-station remote field measurement. An NBE event's peak current moment
and charge moment change are 15 kA km and 0.12 C km, respectively, on average. The
average time for a current front to transit the lightning channel is 2.2 milliseconds. The
maximum limit on channel length is 510 1060 m, the lower limit on discharge current
amplitude is 12.5 43.2 kA, and the discharge involves a minimum charge transfer of
0.1 0.3 C, all of which are limited by the speed of light. Below show the characteristic
of Narrow Bipolar Pulses:

Figure 2.7: The characteristic obtain from the NBP in East China

2.3.4 Mississippi [4]

In this study, researchers placed a lightning sensor array in and around Oxford,
Mississippi, from June to September 2016. Used both fast antenna (FA) electric field
change data and VHF(Log-RF) data to evaluate 201 positive NBEs found in Mississippi
thunderstorms, and derivedthe NBE properties for both the FA and Log-RF waveforms.
According to proximity in time and location to other lightning events, the pulses
grouped 146 of the 188 NBEs into three spatiotemporal groups: INBE, Not-isolated,
and Isolated.

Using FA instrumentation, discovered that a lesser number of these positive NBEs

were TypeB and a considerably higher percentage were Type C. The range normalized
peak amplitude (E100km), rise time, FWHM (full width at half maximum amplitude),
zero-cross time, and duration were determined for the FA data. Figure 4 shows the
results and compares them to previous studies. Identified three NBE waveform
15
attributes for the VHF (Log-RF) data: peak power, rise time, and duration.

Figure 2.8: The characteristic obtain from the NBP in Mississippi

16
No Location Tropical/ Narrow Bipolar AM/GM AM/GM
Non- Pulses Parameters (time) (time)
Tropical
Positive Pulses Negative Pulses
1 Johor, Tropical Rise Time 2.7 ±1.6 µ 1.6 ± 1.0 µ
Malaysia
Zero Cross 6.5 ± 3.2 µ 9.0 ± 45 µ
FWHM 2.4 ±1.4 µ 2.2 ± 0.7 µ
Ratio Pa / Os 3.7 3.6
Pulse Duration 30.2 ± 12.3 µ 24.6 ± 17.1 µ
2 Sri Lanka Tropical Rise Time 1.38 ± 0.47 µ 0.58 ± 0.17 µ
Slow front duration 0.48 ± 0.25 µ 0.20 ± 0.07 µ
Zero cross 4.66 ± 1.29 µ 3.01 ± 0.54 µ
FWHM 1.93 ± 0.33 µ 1.38 ± 0.25 µ
Ratio Os / Pa 0.37 ± 0.33 µ 0.19 ± 0.06 µ
Pulse Duration 16.42 ± 8.43 µ 19.21 ± 3.06 µ
3 East China Tropical Rise Time 2.6 (0.5) µ 2.2 (0.2) µ
Ratio 2.9(0.7) 2.7(0.4)
Pulse Duration 16 (1.4) µ 12.1 (1.3) µ
4 Mississipp Non- Rise Time 2.4 ± 1.5µ
Tropical
i,USA FWHM 3.3 ± 2.0µ
Zero Cross 9.7 ± 5.5µ
Pulse Duration 33.4 ± 11.9µ
Table 2.1: The Comparison characteristic of Narrow Bipolar Pulses between countries.

17
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this section, will show the flow chart, block diagram and the criteria
development using mathematical equations.

3.2 Flowchart

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of Project

18
 The flow chart shows the process of this project. It all starts with retrieving
measured data of lightning-generated electric waveform from the picoscope. Then the
characteristic of the narrow bipolar pulses developed by using a mathematical equation.
The result from the observation concluded that there are 7 characteristics of narrow
bipolar pulses. There are pulse duration, slow front duration, zero-crossing time, rise
time (10-90%), full width at half maximum, the ratio (Overshoot/ Peak amplitude), and
rise time (0-100%). After that, characterisation of positive bipolar pulses had been done.
Next, performs 3 types of statistical analysis which are histogram, arithmetic mean, and
standard deviation. Lastly, before this study ended with results and discussion, do some
comparison with other studies.

3.3 Lightning Generated Electric Field Measurement

Figure 3.2: Block Diagram of Proses to Obtain Waveform

Figure 3.2 shows the block diagram of the process to measure the electric field
waveforms. The measurement was conducted at the University Tenaga Nasional
(UNITEN) during the summer monsoon period from March to June 2020. The process
of measurement of lightning is located at the coordinate of latitude 2°58'23.8"N and
longitude 101°43'42.7"E on the rooftop of UNITEN.

19
 A parallel plate antenna is used to observe the fast electric field signals and to measure
the Vertical Electric Field. The material that was used is stainless steel so that it can
withstand the weather especially on hot sunny days and thunderstorm days. Besides
that, a high-speed buffer amplifier was also used in this study. Buffer amplifier circuit
placed inside the antenna box which to avoid being damaged. It is fabricated with a
buffer amplifier IC OPA633 and can be paired to a parallel plate antenna. The use of a
high-speed buffer amplifier separates the high impedance of the antenna and managed
to supply power to operate the signal from a parallel plate antenna to a transient recorder.
The buffer amplifier circuit provides a small output impedance to Picoscope 4000 series
and protects it against extreme voltages. During thunderstorm days, the electric field is
captured and analyzed by Picoscope 4000. RG58 coaxial cables deliver the signals from
the parallel plate antenna into a Picoscope 4000 series. Then, lastly, the waveform can
be obtained.

3.4 Criteria Development using Mathematical Equation

Figure 3.3: Positive Bipolar Pulses

Narrow bipolar pulses (NBPs) could be singled out from other lightning processes due
to their association with strong radiofrequency radiation. They were reported with
positive and negative polarity, namely, positive narrow bipolar pulses (NPBPs) and
negative narrow bipolar pulses (NNBPs). [3] It is a short, powerful lightning discharge.
20
NBEs are also known as compact intracloud discharged (CIDs) or narrow bipolar pulses
(NBPs). [4] LeVine [12] and Willet et al. were the first to find and study them. They were
noticed as extremely powerful lightning episodes in the high and very high-frequency
ranges, with no other known signals accompanying them.[7]

3.4.1 Pulse Duration

Figure 3.5: Pulse Duration

Pulse duration is a total interval between point SP and EP. In this study, the pulse
duration was constructed based on equation 3.1, where the time at the starting point, TSP
is subtracted by the time at the endpoint, TEP as can be seen from Figure 3.5.

TPD = TEP - TSP (3.1)

where,
TPD: Pulse Duration, µs
TEP: Endpoint time, µs
TSP: Starting point time, µs

21
 3.4.2 Slow Front Duration

Figure 3.6: Slow Front Duration

Slow front duration is the duration between the starting point with slow movement and
the location where the signal begins to rise rapidly (derivative increases significantly).
In this study, the slow front duration was modelled based on equation 3.2, where the
time at the starting point, TSP is subtracted by the time at the specific turning point, TTP
as can be seen from Figure 3.6.

TSF = TTP TSP (3.2)

where,
TSF: Slow Front Duration, µs
TTP: Specific turning point time, µs
TSP: Starting point time, µs

22
 3.4.3 Rise Time (10-90%)

Figure 3.7: Rise Time (10-90%)

Rise time (10%-90%) is 10% and 90% of the maximum peak value. Based on this
study, the rise time was defined based on equation 3.3, where the time at 10% of Peak
Amplitude, T0.1P is subtracted by the time at 90% of Peak Amplitude, T0.9P can be seen
from Figure 3.7. Meanwhile, the 90% and 10% of peak amplitude can be determined
based on equations 3.4 and 3.5.

TR= T0.9P T0.1P (3.3)

where,
TR: Rise Time, µs
P: Peak Amplitude
T0.9P: Time at 90% of Peak Amplitude
T0.1P: Time at 10% of Peak Amplitude

90% of Peak Amplitude = 0.9 x P (3.4)

10% of Peak Amplitude = 0.1 x P (3.5)

23
 3.4.4 Full Width of Half Maximum

Figure 3.8: Full Width of Half Maximum

Full Width of Half Maximum is the distance between the points on the time axis where
the signal reached half magnitude of its dominant peak amplitude. From this research,
the full width of half maximum time was formed based on equation 3.6, where the time
of half peak 1, THP1 is subtracted by the time of half peak 2, THP2 can be seen from Figure
3.8.

TFWHM = THP2 THP1 (3.6)

where,
TFWHM: Full width of half maximum time, µs
THP2: Time of Half peak 2, µs
THP1: Time of Half peak 1, µs

24
 3.4.5 Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio

Figure 3.9: Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio

An overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio is the ratio among F to P and F to O values of

the signal amplitude. Through this investigation, the overshoot to peak amplitude ratio
was established based on equation 3.7, where the subtraction of amplitude of first
crossing point with overshoot amplitude, OS divided by the subtraction of peak
amplitude with amplitude of first crossing point can be seen from Figure 3.9.

OS/P = (F Os) / (P F) (3.7)

where,
P: Peak Amplitude
Os: Overshoot Amplitude
F: Amplitude of first crossing point

25
 3.4.6 Zero-Crossing Time

Figure 3.10: Zero-Crossing Time

Zero-Crossing Time is the difference between the first points of deviation from zero
line (SP) to the first crossing point of the zero lines (F). From this research, the zero-
crossing time was determined based on equation 3.8, where the time at the starting point,
TSP is subtracted by the time at the first crossing point, TF as can be seen from Figure
3.10.

TZC = TF TSP (3.8)

where,
TZC: Zero crossing time, µs
TSP: Starting point time, µs
TF: First crossing point time, µs

26
3.4.7 Rise Time (0-100%)

Figure 3.11: Rise Time (0-100%)

Rise Time (0-100%) is the time taken by a signal to change from a specified low value
to a specified high value. Within this analysis, the Rise Time (0-100%) was created
based on equation 3.9, where the time at starting point T substracted by the time at the
peak point, TP as can be seen in Figure 3.11,

TRS = TP TSP (3.9)

where,
TRS : Rise Time, µs
TP : Peak Time, µs
TSP : Starting Point Time, µs

27
 3.5 Gantt Chart

No Activities Weeks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1
Project
Development
2 Testing the
Project
3
Research and
Data
Collection
4 Discuss with
Supervisor

5 Analysis
6 Documentati
on
7 Submission
of Technical
Paper

8 Submission
of Thesis
Report
Table 3.1: Gantt Chart

28
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

There is a total of 20 narrow bipolar pulses that have been characterized using the
proposed mathematical model. The waveform was analysed with a picoscope, and the
result was placed in this section. These findings relate to how to identify the Narrow
Bipolar Pulses waveform as well as the mathematical equations that were successfully
created as a result of this study. With this study, the waveform is defined more clearly.
This part also includes a graphic that summarises all the data in this study, gives an
accurate picture of the findings, explains the analysis, helps in the interpretation of
findings, and provides a better knowledge of the whole study.

4.2 Statistical Analysis

In this study, all data obtained for each parameter for every waveform is saved in
excel. Then, the histogram was constructed to observe the occurrence for each
parameter.

Figure 4.1: The occurrence of Pulse Duration of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Pulse Duration from 20 different waveforms of
Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, the lowest occurrence which is 2 was
observed within (26, 28) while within (28, 31), the occurrence is the highest with 12.
The time within (31, 34) has 6 occurrences.

29
 Figure 4.2: The occurrence of Slow Front Duration of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Slow Front Duration from 2 different waveforms
of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, one of the waveforms has the slow front
duration within (0, 1) while the other waveform is within (1, 2).

Figure 4.3: The occurrence of Rise Time (10-90%) of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Rise Time (10-90%) from 2 different waveforms
of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, one of the waveforms has the Rise Time
(10-90%) within (-2, 0) while the other waveform is within (0, 2).

30
 Figure 4.4: The occurrence of Full Width at Half Peak of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Full Width at Half Peak from 20 different
waveforms of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, the lowest occurrence which
is 3 was observed within (3, 3.5) while within (2, 2.5), the occurrence is the highest with
9. The time within (2.5, 3) has 8 occurrences.

Figure 4.5: The occurrence of Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio from 2
different waveforms of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, one of the
waveforms has the Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio within (0, 1) while the other
waveform is within (1, 2).

31
 Figure 4.6: The occurrence of Zero Crossing Time of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Full Width at Half Peak from 20 different
waveforms of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, the lowest occurrence which
is 1 was observed within (8, 8.5) and (8.5, 9) while within (7, 7.5), the occurrence is the
highest with 9. The time within (6, 6.5) has 4 occurrences, (7.5, 8) has 3 occurrences
and (6.5, 7) has 2 occurrences.

Figure 4.7: The occurrence of Rise Time (0-100%) of PBP waveforms.

The figure shows the occurrence of Rise Time (0-100%) from 20 different waveforms
of Positive Bipolar Pulses. From the bar chart, the lowest occurrence which is 2 was
observed within (3.5,4) while within (2,2.5), the occurrence is the highest with 8. The
time within (6,6.5) has 6 occurrences, (2.5,3) and (3,3.5) has 4 occurrences.

32
 4.3 Data Comparison with Different Study

Parameters This Study Colombo, Sri Lanka [6]

Range, µs AM SD Range, µs AM SD

Pulse 26-34 30.18 1.68 8-52 53 ±37.2

Duration
Slow Front 0-2 0.86 0.76 0.2-1.3 1.84 ±0.9
Duration
Rise Time -2 2 0.44 2.05 0.5-3 - -
(10-90%)
Full Width 2-3.5 2.59 0.35 1.5-3 2.4 ±1.57
of Half Maximum
Overshoot to Peak 0-2 0.13 0.06 0.15-0.9 0.39 ±0.15
Amplitude
Ratio
Zero- Crossing 6-9 7.19 0.65 3-9 5.8 ±2.09
Time
Rise Time 2-4 2.72 0.55 - - -
(0-100%)

Table 4.1: Range, arithmetic mean and standard deviation between UNITEN, Kajang,
Malaysia and Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Table 1 shows the comparison of range, arithmetic mean and standard deviation of
each parameter between UNITEN, Kajang, Malaysia and Colombo, Sri Lanka.

The pulse duration for this study was observed varied from 26 to 34 µs, with the mean
value of 30.18 and standard deviation of 1.68. The range of this study was considered
smaller with the data measured in Colombo, which was observed from 8 to 52 µs .The
mean and standard deviation also observed is shorter than the value reported in Colombo
which is 53 and 37.2 respectively. Figure 3.9 shows the associated histogram plot,
where the highest occurrence was identified between 28 to 31.

The slow front duration of this study was found from 0 to 2 µs. It is in relation with the
study measured in Colombo which was 0.2 to 1.3. Figure 3.10 shows the corresponding
histogram plot, where the occurrence is similar between (0 to 1) and (1 to 2).
Comparison with the data in Colombo (AM=1.84, SD= 0.9) revealed that the AM (0.86)
and SD (0.76) for the particular parameter of this study were consistent respectively.
33
 The range of the 10%-to-90% rise time for this study was observed from (-2) to 2 µs,
considered in line with the data measured in Colombo, which was observed from 0.5 to
3 µs. Figure 3.11 shows the associated histogram plot, where the occurrence is similar
between ((-2) to 0) and (0 to 2). No comparison can be made for AM and SD since there
is no data stated in Colombo. Revealed the AM and SD for the particular parameter of
this study (AM= 0.44, SD= 2.05).

The Full Width at Half Peak for this study was varied from 2 to 3.5 µs, with a mean
value of 2.59 and a standard deviation of 0.35. The range and mean of this study
considered coherent with the data measured in Colombo, which was observed from 1.5
to 3 µs and 2.4 respectively. The standard deviation observed is shorter than the value
reported in Colombo which is 1.57. Figure 3.12 shows the related histogram plot where
the highest occurrence was identified between 2 to 2.5.

The range of the Overshoot to Peak Amplitude Ratio for this study was observed from
0 to 2 µs, considered significant with the data measured in Colombo, which was
observed from 0.15 to 0.9 µs. Figure 3.13 shows the resultant histogram plot, where the
occurrence is similar between (0 to 1) and (1 to 2). Comparison with the data in
Colombo (AM=0.39, SD= 0.15) revealed that the AM (0.13) and SD (0.06) for the
particular parameter of this study were consistent respectively.

The zero-crossing for this study was observed varied from 6 to 9 µs, with the mean
value of 7.19 and standard deviation of 0.65. The range of this study was considered
smaller with the data measured in Colombo, which was observed from 3 to 9 µs. The
mean observed is smaller than the value reported in Colombo which is 5.8 while the
standard deviation in Colombo is higher than this study which is 2.09 respectively.
Figure 3.14 shows the associated histogram plot, where the highest occurrence was
identified between 7 to 7.5.

The rise time (0-100%) of this study was found from 2 to 4 µs. Figure 3.15 shows the
related histogram plot, where the highest occurrence was identified between 2 to 2.5.
The AM (2.72) and SD (0.55) for the particular parameter of this study were consistent
respectively. There is no data stated in Colombo about the range, mean and standard
deviation.
34
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