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FORENSIC SCIENCE
Personal Identification Techniques

 On the face of a cliff in NOVA SCOTIA, there has been found prehistoric Indian picture writing of a hand
with crudely marked ridge patterns.
 In the Bible, Apostle Paul concludes in one of his epistles with the words, “The Salvation of Paul with my
own hand, which is the token in every epistle, so I write.”
 In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes of identification was
found on a Chinese clay seal made not later than the 3rd century B.C.
 (Japan = TEGATA)

Thomas Bewick

 In England, an English engraver, author, engraved the patterns of his own fingers on every woodwork to
establish its genuineness.

1684 - Nehemiah Grew

 Published a report which was read before the royal society of London, England. He described the ridges and
pores of the hands and feet

1685 – Govard-Govert Bidloo

 published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges

1686- Profess Marcelo Malpighi,

 an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY)

 Discover the layers of the skin
DERMIS – the inner layer of the skin
EPEDERMIS – The outer layer of the skin

1788- J.C.A. Mayer

 stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu Geharigen)

 the arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer
among others

1823- Johannes Evangelist Purkinje,

 (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau,

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 Published a thesis in Latin (Commentio de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et systematis Cutansi – A
Commentary of the Physiological Examination System: Dec. 22, 1823, Breslau, Germany)
 Describing the ridges, giving them names and established certain rules for classification (9 groups).
 He involves vague differentiation of fingerprints or uses them for identification.

1856- Herman Welcker

 Took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (41 years later) he printed the same palm to prove that the prints do
not

1858- Sir William J. Herschel

 (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), he used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent collection of army pay account
and for identification of other documents.
 The first person Herschel printed appears to have been one RAJYADHAR KONAI.

1880- Dr. Henry Faulds,

 An English (Scottish) doctor stationed in Tokyo, Japan, wrote a letter to the English publication, “NATURE” – “On
the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, (dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the practical use of fingerprints for the identification of
criminals.
 He recommended the use of a thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium and is generally used today.

1880- Sir Francis Galton

 A noted British anthropologist and a cousin of scientist Charles Darwin began observation which led to the
publication in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.”
 Galton’s studies established the individuality of classifying fingerprint patterns

1891- Juan Vucetich

 An Argentinean police official, installed fingerprints files as an official means of criminal identification; based his
system of the pattern typed by Sir Francis Galton;
 And he also claimed the first official criminal identification by means of fingerprints left at the scene of crime.

HANS GROSS

 Australian Magistrate to described, “Search for Truth” as the ultimate goal of all investigative work
 “FATHER OF MODERN CRIMINALISTICS”
 Father criminal investigation

Alphonse Bertillon
 Considered as the father of Personal identification
 Introduce the Bertillon system and the anthropometry

Principles of Fingerprint

 Principle of Individuality (Variation) - no two fingerprints that are exactly alike unless taken from the same
finger.
 Principle of Permanency - configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant and
unchanging.
 Principle of Infallibility - reliable means of personal identification.
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 Phalange – skeletal finger covered with friction skin

 Basal or Proximal – at the base of the finger nearest the palm
 Middle Phalange – the next and above the basal phalange
 Terminal Phalange – located in the tip of the finger

 Friction Skin – epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet covered with
ridges and furrows. Also called papillary skin.
 Ridge – elevated or hill like structure/ black line with tiny white dots
 Furrow – depressed or canal like structure. The white space between ridges.
 Sweat Pores – tiny opening for the sweat
 Sweat Duct – passage way of sweat
 Sweat Glands – producer of sweat

Dermal Pappillae – irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue protruding and forming the ridges of the skin
on the fingers, palm, toes and sole of the feet.
Ridge Destruction – temporary for damage in the epidermis, permanent on the dermis layer. (Note: Rule: a depth of 1
mm will constitute permanent scar)

Ridge Characteristic (Galton’s Detail)

 Ridge dot – ridge formation in the form of a dot or a period.

 Bifurcation – single ridge divides in to two. it resemble a fork shape.
 Diverging ridge – 2 ridges that spread apart
 Converging – 2 ridge that come together as one
 Enclosure/lake – single ridge divide in to two and form again
 Ending ridge – refers to abrupt ending of a ridge (1mm)
 Type line – diverging ridge that tend to surround the pattern area & serve as a basic boundary of fingerprint
pattern
 Pattern area – part of loop or whorl pattern surrounded by the type line and consisting of delta, core and ridges.
 Recurving ridge – single ridge that curves back to the direction it was started
 Appendage – shot ridge at the top of the recurve
 Rod or bar – short or long ridge found inside the recurve and directed towards the core or parallel to the
recurve.
 Obstruction ridge – short ridge found inside the recurve which block the inner line of flow towards the core

2 Fingerprint Terminus

DELTA – “OUTER TERMINUS” is a point along a ridge formation found at the center or near the center of the diverging
type lines.
CORE – “INNER TERMINUS” found in the center of innermost recurve

Rules governing the choice between two or more possible Delta

- A bifurcation may not be selected as a delta if it does not open towards the core
- When there is two or more possible delta, the one nearest the core be selected
- When there is two or more possible delta and one which is bifurcation, the bifurcation should be selected

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- Delta may not be located on the middle of the ridge running between the type line towards the core but at the
end of that ridge
- When a pattern shows a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the point of divergence of the type
line, the bifurcation nearest the core is chosen as the delta.
- In case of a ridge near the center of the type lines despite several bifurcating ridge opening towards the core,
delta is located at the point of the first bifurcation just in front of the divergence of the type lines.

Terms to Remember:

- AFIS – Automated Fingerprint Identification System

- Ridge Characteristic – “Galton’s Detail” are those little points of details in the formation of pattern in which are
used in comparing to fingerprint in order to determine its identity.
- Reference Classification Formula – An additional formula serve as reference in case of doubtful prints. Place at
the bottom of classification formula.
- Checking – verifying the rolled impression using the plain impression as guide reference.
- Blocking Out – process of placing under each pattern the letter symbol representing the their pattern
interpretation prior to the actual classification formula.

Types of Fingerprint Impression

Plain Impression - fingerprint impression is taken simultaneously pressing the finger to the card, used as REFERENCE
CLASSIFICATION
Rolled Impression – impression taken individually by rolling each finger from one side to the other side and from the tip
to the end of the first joint
Note: Thumb finger are rolled towards the body while all other finger are rolled away from the body.

Three Groups of Fingerprint (Arch, Loop, and Whorl) Arch (5%)

Plain Arch - ridges flow from one side to the other side with a slight raise at the center. (no delta and core)
Tented Arch – having an up thrust or an incomplete loop form

Three Types of Tented Arch

1. Tented with angle – ridges at the center from a definite angle of at least ninety degrees, thus resembling a tent
2. Tented resembling a loop – the type approaching the loop pattern and possessing two of the basic or essential
characteristics of the loop but lacking the third.
3. Tented with upthrust – the type in which one or more ridges at the center from an upthrust.

Loop (60%) Elements: core, delta, sufficient recurve

RADIAL LOOP - A type of pattern in which the slanting ridge flows towards the thumb finger
ULNAR LOOP - The slanting ridge flows towards the little finger

Whorl Pattern (35%)

 Plain Whorl
 Central Pocket Loop Whorl
 Double Loop Whorl
 Accidental Whorl

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 Plain Whorl

Plain Whorl –W
 A complete circuit
 Two deltas
 At least 1 circulating ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing through the two deltas.

Central Pocket Loop Whorl

 Two deltas
 At least one obstruction ridge or recurving ridge at right angle
 No recurving ridge within the pattern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line drawn between two deltas.

Double Loop Whorl

 Two separate loop formation

 Two separate or distinct sets of shoulder
 Two deltas

Accidental Loop Whorl

 Patters which a combination of two different types of pattern

 Two or more deltas and core
 It must be combination of two different pattern except plain arch

Classification Formula

Primary Division – always represented by a numerical value assigned to whorl pattern depending to what finger they
appear. (both arch and loop have no value)

- Finger 1 & 2 right thumb & right index

- Finger 3 & 4 right middle & right ring
- Finger 5 & 6 right little & left thumb
- Finger 7 & 8 left index & left middle
- Finger 9 & 10 left ring & left little

THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

 The sum of the numerical value assigned to even number of finger represents the numerator and the sum of the
assigned value to odd number represents the denominator plus the pre-established 1/1 to complete the primary
division.

THUMB INDEX MIDDLE RING LITTLE

Plain Whorl (16) Central Pocket Double Loop Plain Arch (8) Ulnar Loop (4)
Loop Whorl (16) Whorl (8)
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Accidental Whorl Tented Arch (2) Plain whorl (2) Central pocket Plain whorl (1)
(4) loop whorl (1)

(Even Number) Numerator: 2,4,6,8,10

(Odd Number) Denominator: 1,3,5,7,9

N = 4+16+2+1= 23 +1 = 24
D = 16+8+1 = 24 +1 = 25

Secondary Division – represented by capital and small letter combination based on the interpretation made
during the blocking.

CAPITAL LETTER
 derived only to those found in INDEX FINGER (A, T, U, R, W, C, D, or X)

Small letter
 Derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little fingers only. It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and
tented arch (t)
 Note – all whorl patterns must be indicated with the symbol W in the secondary classification

Sub Secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of loop and ridge tracing of whorl found in the index, middle
and ring only. BOTH ARCH ARE ALWAYS (-)

Ridge Counting - counting of ridges between delta and core of a loop. (Incipient Ridge = ridge that is so thin or
fine, not included as a ridge count)
Ridge Tracing - counting the ridges intervening between tracing ridge and the right delta of whorl.

Ridge Counting of Loop

Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I 10 or more = O
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I 11 or more = O
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = I 14 or more = O

Rules in Ridge Counting

- Island, Dot, Short Ridge, Long Ridge And Abrupt Ending Ridge = 1 Ridge Count
- Ridge Enclosure, Meeting Of Two Ridge, Bifurcating Ridge That Cross In The Opening Or At The Center Of
Bifurcation = 2 Ridge Count
Rules in Ridge Tracing
- Inner whorl – tracing goes above or inside the right delta and there are three or more intervening ridge.
- Outer whorl – tracing ridge goes below or outside the right delta and there are three or more
intervening ridge
- Meeting whorl – there are two or less intervening ridges either above or below.

Major Division
 Taken from thumb fingers only
 Both Arch (-)
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 WHORL – ridge tracing = inner, outer or meeting

 LOOP - ridge counting = small, medium, large

Table 1 Table 2
1-11 = S 1-17 = S
12-16 = M 18-22 = M
17 or more = L 23 or more = L

 The number of ridges of LEFT THUMB must be considered in selecting formula to be used for right
thumb. (Use Table 1 if the Left Thumb has 16 or less ridge count) Use Table 2 if the Left thumb have
more than 16 ridge count.
 Key Division – getting the ridge count of the first loop except little finger. In case of absence of the loop,
the first whorl will be ridge counted.

Final Division

 DERIVED FROM THE LITTLE FINGERS ONLY = Both Arch (-)

 RADIAL/ULNAR = the usual process
 PLAIN OR CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – will be treated as ulnar loop
 DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – get the ridge count of the top loop
 ACCIDENTAL WHORL – get the least ridge count

Classification of Amputations and Fingers Missing At Birth

 When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately from those
having no amputations in order to facilitate searching.
 It is to be noted that before it may be filed in the amputating group, the card must contain a definite
and unequivocal statement or marking by the contributor to the effect that a certain finger or fingers
have been amputated but which in reality were merely injured and bandaged when previous prints were
submitted.
 1. If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger,
including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced to every other possible classification.
 2. If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the fingers opposite,
with no additional references.
 3. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with
meeting tracings.
 When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing fingers
should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical classifications in that they are given
the identical classifications of the opposite fingers and are filed in the amputation group. As these
fingers are missing from a prenatal cause, they would bane always receive the identical classification of
the opposite finger on any previous occasion.
 If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be:
M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM

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Forensic Ballistics

Ballistics – science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects their motion.
Motion – mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and
until it reach its target or fall in the ground.
Projectile – metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm.

Three Types of Motion

 Direct Motion – forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive force of
gases from a burning gunpowder.
 Rotatory Motion – action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to the
left or to the right.
 Translational – action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

 Derived from two Greek words: the word “ballo” and “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”; the term also
said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was used to
furl missiles or large object at a distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

Branches of Ballistic

Interior (Internal) Ballistics – it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel)
which extends from the breech to the muzzle. It includes:
 Firing pin hitting the primer
 Ignition of the priming mixture
 Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
 Expansion of heated gas.
 Pressure developed
 Energy generated
 Recoilof the gun– it is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet
upon explosion.
 Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel - It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside
the barrel expressed in feet per second.
 Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
 Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

Exterior (external) Ballistics – treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
Muzzle Blast – noise created at the muzzle point.
Muzzle Energy – energy generated at the muzzle point.
Trajectory – actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight.

Range – imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.
 Accurate - shooter or gunner has control of his shots.
 Effective - bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
 Maximum - farthest distance the bullet could travel.
 Maximum Effective - farthest distance that the bullet can inflict fatal injury.
Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time .
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 Revolver 600 ft/sec

 Pistol 1,200 ft/ sec
 Rifle 2,500 ft/ sec
 Shotgun 3,300 ft/sec
Pull of Gravity - downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight.
Air Resistance - force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.

Terminal Ballistics – effects of the impact of the projectile on the target?

 Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target.
 Terminal Energy – energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as striking energy.
 Terminal Velocity – bullet’s speed upon striking the target.
 Terminal Penetration – depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

Forensic Ballistics
 The product of the application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes with the used of the word forensic.
 The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered
for public disputation or public discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural
science, it suggests a relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings.

Famous Personalities

 Samuel Colt – patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace Maker, a famous revolver in the
history.
 Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
 Major Uziel Gal – Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel).
 Col. Calvin H. Goddard – Father of Modern Ballistics.
 Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company from July 1959 onwards.
 John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA).
Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.

Parts of Firearm
 Extractor – causes the empty shell to be withdrawn /pull out from chamber
 Ejector – causes the empty shell to be thrown out of the firearm
 Barrel – initiate paths of bullet
 Center Pin – serve as the locking device for the cylinder-Cylinder – serve as chamber and magazine
 Flash hole – where the primer imparts ignition to the gun powder
 Frame – houses the internal parts Hammer – push the firing pin
 Ratchet – device used to help in the withdrawal of the cartridge of shells from the chamber of the cylinder
 Trigger – activates the part necessary to fire the weapon
 Trigger Guard – prevents the trigger from unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing
 Yoke – connecting pivot between frame and cylinder

Firearms
 refers to any handheld or portable weapon, weather a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is designed to
expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive forces of gases

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from burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument. The barrel, frame or receiver is
considered a firearm (Section 3, RA No. 10591).
 Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming
from burning gunpowder (FBI manual of Firearms Identification).

Classification of Firearms

According to Interior Barrel Construction

a. Smooth Bore Firearms – no rifling

b. Rifled Bore Firearms – have rifling

According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled

a. Artillery – projectile with more than one inch diameter.
b. Small Arms – projectile with less than one inch diameter .

Machine guns - firearm that is primarily designed for military use.

 Sub Machine Gun – a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder
stock that may or may not be folded and designed to be fired with both hands.
 Shoulder Arms – firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.
 Rifles – shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled bore barrel,
usually more than 22 inches.
 Carbine – short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a single projectile
though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the trigger
 Muskets – ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire a shots or a single
round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition
system.
 Shotgun – smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or a shots
in one charge (FBI Manual)

a. Pistol – generally called as pistols. There were three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi-
automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.
b. Revolver – firearm designed to position cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its
chamber. There are two types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action.
c. Single action – type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger and the other
is Double action, a type of revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked and
released the hammer causing a much faster firing.

Firearms according to Mechanical Construction

 Single shot firearms - fire only one shot every loading.

 Repeating Arms - fire several loads (shot) in one loading.
 Automatic F/A- continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and while the trigger is press.
 Slide Action Type - loading take place by back and forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.

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 Bolt Action Type - reloading takes place by manipulating the both back and forth.
 Lever Type (Break type) - loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

 Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. – devices principally designed for other purpose to which a gun
mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish gun.
 Flare Gun – designed for tracing or sending signals
 Freakish Gun – firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification
 Gas Gun – designed from firing tear gas.
 Harpoon Guns – barbed spear in hunting large fish.
 Liberator – U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed to fire an automatic
colt pistol cartridge caliber .45
 Multi-Barreled Gun – containing a number of barrels.
 Paradox Gun – contains lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point
 Tools – generally used for construction of furniture.
 Traps – used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
 Zip Gun – all type of homemade gun.

Ammunition

Legal Definition – refers to a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, gunpowder, cartridge case and primer or
loaded shell for use in any firearm (Section 3, RA No. 10591).

Origin – derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a “paper” and also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning
– a rolled paper. This only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about the turn
of the 16th century that the term “cartridge” comes to use

Classification of Cartridge
According to the Location of the Primer

 Pin-Fire – the ignition cap (primer) is concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
 Rim Fire – priming mixture is located at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the
firing pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim).
 Center Fire – cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and
the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.

According to Rim Diameter

 Cartridge with a rim (Rimmed type) – has a diameter more than the cylindrical portion.
 Semi-rimless cartridge (Semi-rimmed type) – diameter of the rim is slightly greater than diameter of body.
 Rimless cartridge – based or head of the cartridge has the same diameter as that of the cylindrical portion.
 Rebated type – smaller than the body of cartridge case
 Belted cartridge – cartridge are attached in a series in a canvass belt for successive fires.

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Shotgun Cartridge – complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and gunpowder.
Gauge of Shotgun – unit of measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the number of
solid lead balls of pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present
the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one.

Bullets – was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a small ball.

General Types of Bullets

According to the shape of the free end

 Conical – the free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed.

 Hemispherical – the free end is dome like and commonly observed in short firearm.
 Wad cutter (Square nose) – the free end is flattened commonly used in target practices.
 Lead Type – basically composed of lead metal.
 Jacketed Type – bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets

 Ball Type – for anti-personnel and general use.

 Armor piercing – designed to penetrate light steel armor.
 Explosive Bullet – containing a charge of explosive
 Incendiary Bullet – cause fire in a target.
 Tracer Bullet – capable of leaving visible marks

Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to
unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

 It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
 It is used to carry the means of ignition.
 It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant gas upon firing.
 Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge
 Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid firing of firearms.

Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive
chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan
or Boxer type. It is also known as the percussion cup.

 Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S
Army Ordinance Department. (2 flash hole)
 Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal
in the year 1866. (1 flash hole)

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Parts of the Primer

 Primer Cup - the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil.
 Priming Mixture - highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It
is also called as percussion powder.
 Anvil - portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction
that would initiates ignition.
 Disc - thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture attack.

History of Gunpowder
 Gunpowder is that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of
its expansive force of gas when burned.
 The formula for gunpowder appears in the writings of the 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon.
 Berthold Schwartz, a German monk of the early 14th century, may have been the first person to employ
gunpowder for propelling a projectile.

Black Powder – oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur.

Characteristic of Firearm

Class Characteristics – those properties or attributes of firearms which can be determined even before the manufacture
of the gun.
 Width of the Grooves
 Depth of the Grooves

Bore diameter – distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an
inch. In most express in either caliber in inch or in millimeters.
Number of lands and grooves (lands - elevated portion of the bore of the firearm while grooves is depressed portion of
the bore between the lands)
Width of the lands - dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width and number. The lands are the
remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.
Pitch of Rifling – twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in
order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.
Direction of Twist – either left or right

Individual Characteristics – those characteristics which are being determined only after the firearm was already been
manufactured.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

 Land Marks – caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm.
 Groove Marks – caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
 Skid Marks – due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
(REVOLVER)

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Groove
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 Stripping Marks – from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out. Worn-out in the
rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through
excessive use (erosion)
 Shaving Marks – fired from a revolver cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the
cylinder.
 Slippage Marks – fired bullets passing through either on oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

 Firing Pin Mark – found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically near center of the primer cup
in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge.
 Breech Face Mark – found at the base portion of the shell cause by backward movement to the breech face of
the block.
 Shearing Mark – “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
 Magazine Lip Mark – cause by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
 Chamber Mark – cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

Loose Contact or Near Fire

1. Entrance wound maybe a large circular or oval depending upon the angle of approach of the bullet.
2. Abrasion collar or ring is distinct
3. Smudging, burning and tattooing are prominent with singeing of the hair
4. Muzzle imprint maybe seen depending upon the degree of slapping of the skin of the gun muzzle.
5. There is blackening of the bullet track to a certain depth.
6. Carboxyhemoglobin is present in the wound and surrounding areas.

Short Range Fire (1 to 15cm. distance)

1. Edges of the entrance wound is inverted
2. If within the flame reach (about6 inches in rifle and high powered firearms and less than 3 inches from an ordinary
handgun), there is an area of burning.
3. Smudging is present due to smoke
4. Powder tattooing is present.
5. Abrasion ring or collar is present

Medium range (more than 15cm. but less than 60cm)

1. Gunshot wound with inverted edges and with abrasion collar is present.
2. Burning effect is absent
3. Smudging maybe present if less than 30 cm. distance.
4. Gunpowder tattooing is present but of lesser density and has a wider area of distribution.
5. Contact ring is present.

Fired more than 60 cm. distance

1. Gunshot wound is circular or oval depending on the angle of approach with abrasion collar.
2. Wound of entrance has no burning, smudging or tattooing.
3. Contact ring is present.

Factor which make the wound of entrance bigger than the caliber.
1. In the contact or near fire
2. Deformity of the bullet which entered

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3. Bullet might have entered the skin sidewise

4. Acute angular approach of the bullet

Entrance Wound vs. Exit Wound

Appear to be smaller than the missile owing to the elasticity of the Usually bigger than the missile
tissue (with exemption)
Edges are inverted Edges are everted
Usually oval or round depending upon the angle of approach of the It does not manifest any definite
bullet shape
Contusion collar or contact ring is present due to invagination of Contusion collar is absent
the skin and spinning of the missile.
Tattooing or smudging maybe present when firing is near. Always absent
Underlying tissues are not protruding. Underlying tissues maybe seen
protruding from the wound
Paraffin test maybe positive Paraffin test always absent

Salient Features Of Republic Act 10591

Standards and Requisites for Issuance of and Obtaining a License to Own and Possess Firearms
 In order to qualify and acquire a license to own and possess a firearm or firearms and ammunition, the applicant
must be a Filipino citizen, at least twenty-one (21) years old and has gainful work, occupation or business or has
filed an Income Tax Return (ITR) for the preceding year as proof of income, profession, business or occupation.
 In addition, the applicant shall submit the following certification issued by appropriate authorities attesting the
following:

a. The applicant has not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude;
b. The applicant has passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited psychologist or psychiatrist;
c. The applicant has passed the drug test conducted by an accredited and authorized drug testing laboratory or
clinic;
d. The applicant has passed a gun safety seminar which is administered by the PNP or a registered and
authorized gun club;
e. The applicant has filed in writing the application to possess a registered firearm which shall state the
personal circumstances of the applicant;
f. The applicant must present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office; and
g. The applicant has not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal case before any court
of law for a crime that is punishable with a penalty of more than two (2) years.

Ownership of Firearms and Ammunition by a Juridical Entity. A juridical person maintaining its own security force may
be issued a regular license to own and possess firearms and ammunition under the following conditions:

a. It must be Filipino-owned and duly registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC);
b. It is current, operational and a continuing concern;
c. It has completed and submitted all its reportorial requirements to the SEC; and
d. It has paid all its income taxes for the year, as duly certified by the Bureau of Internal Revenue.

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Authority to Issue License. The Chief of the PNP, through the FEO of the PNP, shall issue licenses to qualified individuals
and to cause the registration of firearms.
Licenses Issued to Individuals.Subject to the requirements set forth in this Act and payment of required fees to be
determined by the Chief of the PNP, a qualified individual may be issued the appropriate license under the following
categories

 Type 1 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of two (2) registered firearms;
 Type 2 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of five (5) registered firearms;
 Type 3 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of ten (10) registered firearms;
 Type 4 license – allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of fifteen (15) registered firearms; and
 Type 5 license – allows a citizen, who is a certified gun collector, to own and possess more than fifteen (15) registered
firearms.
(Note: For Types 1 to 5 licenses, a vault or a container secured by lock and key or other security measures for the
safekeeping of firearms shall be required. For Types 3 to 5 licenses, the citizen must comply with the inspection and
bond requirements)

License to Possess Ammunition Necessarily Included

 The licenses granted to qualified citizens or juridical entities as provided in Section 9 of this Act shall include the
license to possess ammunition with a maximum of fifty (50) rounds for each registered firearm: Provided; That
the FEO of the PNP may allow more ammunition to be possessed by licensed sports shooters.

Issuance of License to Manufacture or Deal In Firearms and Ammunition

 Any person desiring to manufacture or deal in firearms, parts of firearms or ammunition thereof, or instruments
and implements used or intended to be used in the manufacture of firearms, parts of firearms or ammunition,
shall make an application to:
 The Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) in the case of an application for a
license to manufacture; and
 The Chief of the PNP in the case of a license to deal in firearms and firearms parts, ammunition and gun repair.
Registration of Locally Manufactured and Imported Firearms. Local manufacturers and importers of firearms and major
parts thereof shall register the same as follows
 For locally manufactured firearms and major parts thereof, the initial registration shall be done at the
manufacturing facility: Provided, That firearms intended for export shall no longer be subjected to ballistic
identification procedures; and
 For imported firearms and major parts thereof, the registration shall be done upon arrival at the FEO of the PNP
storage facility.

License and Scope of License to Deal–shall be issued by the Chief of the PNP.

Use of an Imitation Firearm

 An imitation firearm used in the commission of a crime shall be considered a real firearm as defined in this Act
and the person who committed the crime shall be punished in accordance with this Act: Provided, That injuries
caused on the occasion of the conduct of competitions, sports, games, or any recreation activities involving
imitation firearms shall not be punishable under this Act.

Grounds for Revocation, Cancellation or Suspension of License or Permit.

 The Chief of the PNP or his/her authorized representative may revoke, cancel or suspend a license or permit on
the following grounds:

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a. Commission of a crime or offense involving the firearm, ammunition, of major parts thereof;
b. Conviction of a crime involving moral turpitude or any offense where the penalty carries an imprisonment of
more than six (6) years;
c. Loss of the firearm, ammunition, or any parts thereof through negligence;
d. Carrying of the firearm, ammunition, or major parts thereof outside of residence or workplace without, the
proper permit to carry the same;
e. Carrying of the firearm, ammunition, or major parts thereof in prohibited places;
f. Dismissal for cause from the service in case of government official and employee;
g. Commission of any of the acts penalized under Republic Act No. 9165, otherwise known as the
"Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002″;
h. Submission of falsified documents or misrepresentation in the application to obtain a license or permit;
i. Noncompliance of reportorial requirements; and
j. By virtue of a court order.

Important Terms

Accessories
 parts of a firearm which may enhance or increase the operational efficiency or accuracy of a firearm but will not
constitute any of the major or minor internal parts thereof such as, but not limited to, laser scope, telescopic
sight and sound suppressor or silencer.
Antique Firearm
 refers to any: (1) firearm which was manufactured at least seventy-five (75) years prior to the current date but
not including replicas; (2) firearm which is certified by the National Museum of the Philippines to be curio or
relic of museum interest; and (3) any other firearm which derives a substantial part of its monetary value from
the fact that it is novel, rare, bizarre or because of its association with some historical figure, period or event;
Arms Smuggling
 refers to the import, export, acquisition, sale, delivery, movement or transfer of firearms, their parts and
components and ammunition, from or across the territory of one country to that of another country which has
not been authorized in accordance with domestic law in either or both country/countries;
Confiscated Firearm
 refers to a firearm that is taken into custody by the PNP, National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), Philippine Drug
Enforcement Agency (PDEA) and all other law enforcement agencies by reason of their mandate and must be
necessarily reported or turned over to the FEO;
Demilitarized firearm
 refers to a firearm deliberately made incapable of performing its main purpose of firing a projectile
Firearms Information Management System (FIMS)
 refers to a computerized system that establishes a database of the licensee and the registered firearms
information and generates reports which include the printing of license and certificate of registration and
disposition;
Forfeited Firearm
 refers to a firearm that was forfeited by reason of court order as accessory penalty or for the disposition of
firearms considered as abandoned, surrendered, confiscated or revoked in compliance with existing rules and
regulations by the FEO;
Gun Club
 an organization with at least 15 licensed citizens as members, duly registered with and authorized by the FEO
which is established for the purpose of propagating gun safety and responsible gun ownership, proper
appreciation and use of firearms by its members, for the purpose of sports and shooting competition, self-
defence and collection purposes;
Gunsmith
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 any person, legal entity, corporation, partnership or business duly licensed by the FEO to engage in the business
of repairing firearms
Imitation Firearm
 refers to a replica of a firearm, or other device that is so substantially similar in coloration and overall
appearance to an existing firearm as to lead a reasonable person to believe that such imitation firearm is a real
firearm
Integrated Firearms Identification System (IFIS)
 computerized firearms identification system used to capture and store into the database unique identifying
characteristics of bullets and cartridge cases for forensic comparison and identification of a particular firearm;
Light Weapons
 are: Class-A Light weapons which refer to self-loading pistols, rifles, carbines, submachine guns, assault rifles and
light machine guns not exceeding caliber 7.62MM which have fully automatic mode; and Class-B Light weapons
which refer to weapons designed for use by two (2) or more persons serving as a crew, or rifles and machine
guns exceeding caliber 7.62MM such as heavy machine guns, handheld under barrel and mounted grenade
launchers, portable anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank missile and rocket systems, portable launchers of anti-
aircraft missile systems, and mortars of a caliber of less than 100MM;
Loose Firearm
 unregistered firearm, an obliterated or altered firearm, firearm which has been lost or stolen, illegally
manufactured firearms, registered firearms in the possession of an individual other than the licensee and those
with revoked licenses in accordance with the rules and regulations;
Small Arms
 intended to be primarily designed for individual use or that which is generally considered to mean a weapon
intended to be fired from the hand or shoulder, which are not capable of fully automatic bursts of discharge,
such as:
Handgun
 is a firearm intended to be fired from the hand, which includes:
Pistol – is a hand-operated firearm having a chamber integral with or permanently aligned with the bore which may be
self-loading; and
Revolver – is a hand-operated firearm with a revolving cylinder containing chambers for individual cartridges.

Tampered, Obliterated or Altered Firearm

 any firearm whose serial number or other identification or ballistic characteristics have been intentionally
tampered with, obliterated or altered without authority or in order to conceal its source, identity or ownership;
Thermal Weapon Sight
 battery operated, uncooled thermal imaging device which amplifies available thermal signatures so that the
viewed scene becomes clear to the operator which is used to locate and engage targets during daylight and from
low light to total darkness and operates in adverse conditions such as light rain, light snow, and dry smoke or in
conjunction with other optical and red dot sights.

Questioned Document Examination

Legal Basis of Documents

 People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by which a right is established or an obligation is
extinguished
 People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed by person by which some disposition
or agreement is proved, evidenced or setforth

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 In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical embodiment of information or
ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law
Dictionary).

Writings Which Do Not Constitute Documents (based on some Supreme Court Rulings)

 A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil.
484).
 Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G.
4558)
 Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not documents but are mere
merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

Questioned Document
 One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are contested either in whole or part with respect
to its authenticity, identity, or origin.
Disputed Document
 Suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document, and strictly speaking this is true
meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage, however, “disputed document” and “questioned
document” are used interchangeably to signify a document that is under special scrutiny.
Standard Document
 condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper, should
contain a cross section of the material from a known source.

Kinds of Document

Public – notarized by a notary public or competent public official with solemnities required by law.
Official – issued by the government or its agents or its officers having the authority to do so and the offices, which in
accordance with their creation.
Private – executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public.
Commercial – executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law

Handwriting Identification and Examination

Writing – visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a combination of certain forms which are
very visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued painstaking effort
Handwriting – visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious expression of certain ideas associated
with script form.

Kinds of Writings

Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.

Script – separated or printed writing.
Block – all CAPITAL LETTERS.

Movement in Handwriting

Finger Movement – usually employed by children and illiterates.

Hand Movement – produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as the center of attraction.

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Forearm Movement – movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table.
Whole Forearm Movement – action of the entire arm without resting.

Handwriting Stroke

 Arc – curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters “h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
 Baseline – imaginary alignment of writing
 Beard – rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
 Blunt – beginning and ending stroke of a letter
 Buckle/Buckleknot – loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in small letter "k & b", or in
capital letters "A", "K","P"; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to complete a letter.
 Diacritic – “t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j". an element added to complete a certain letter, either a
cross bar or a dot.
 Eye/Eyelet/Eyeloop – small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur inside the oval of the
letters "a, d, o”.
 Hesitation – irregular thickening of ink when writing slows down or stop while the pen take a stock of the
position
 Hiatus/Pen Jump – gap occurring between a continuous stroke without lifting the pen.
 Retracing – going back over the stroke
 Patching – retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke.

Types of Handwriting Standards

 Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature and endorsements on
canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and private document and other handwriting
such as letters, memoranda.
 Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an individual upon
request.
 Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have come into dispute
and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.

Detailed Examination of Signatures

 Signature – name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
 Formal - complete correct signature for an important document such as will.
 Informal (cursory) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
 Careless scribble - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.

Kinds of Forgery

Simple – no attempt has been made to make a copy of facsimile of the genuine writing.
Simulated – forged signature written in free hand. (Most skilful)
Traced – made by some tracing process or outline form.

Forgery, Counterfeiting and Falsification

 Counterfeiting – crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins.

 Falsification – act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended content.
 Forgery – act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing which if genuine, might
be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability. (Bank notes/Documents payable to bearer)
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CLE VIPs:
 Altered document – any form of changes either addition or deletion to an original content of document
 Obliteration is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it illegible.
 Invisible writing – writing that has no visible ink strokes made by sympathetic ink such as acids, juice and others.
 Pica typeface – spaced 10 characters to the horizontal inch
 Elite typeface – spaced 12 characters to the horizontal inch.
 Vertical mal alignment – character printing above or below of its proper position.
 Actual breakage – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type face metal
 Off-its’s-feet – character outline is not equally printed, that is the printing is heavier in one side than the
remainder of the outline of the character.
 Rebound – character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly off set to right or left.
 Twisted letter – a typeface defect in which characters are designed to be printed at a certain angle to the
baseline. Once leans to the left, or right of its proper position
 Clogged typeface – characterized by dirty print due to constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to
use of new carbon.

Lie Detection Techniques

Polygraphy
 Is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph instrument
 This is the new name of LIE DETECTION. Polygraph is a scientific diagnostic instrument used to record
physiological changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance of an examinee under
controlled condition.

Lie
 Is any untruthful statement; Falsehood; Anything that deceives or creates false impression; to make untrue
statements knowingly, especially with intent to deceive.
Detection
 is an act of detecting, discovery, perceiving, finding, or uncovering something obscure

Kinds of Lie

 White Lie or Benign Lie – used to protect or maintain the harmony of friendship or any relationship.
 Pathological Lie – made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong.
 Red Lie – involves political interests and motives because this is a part of communist propaganda strategy.
 Black Lie – a lie accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit ones good
image.
 Malicious or Judicial Lie – unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended purely to mislead or obstruct justice.

Types of Liars

 Panic Liars – avoid the consequences of a confession.

 Occupational Liars – when it has a higher “pay off” than telling the truth
 Tournament Liars – excited by the challenge of not being detected.
 Psychopathic Liars – most difficult type.
 Ethnological Liars – taught not to be a squealer.
 Pathological Liars – cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick.)

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 Black Liars – person who always pretends.

Important Person in the Development of Polygraphy

 Angelo Mosso – studied fear and its influence on the hearth and his observations subsequently formed the basis
for the technique.
 Cesar Lombroso – employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception “Hydrosphygmograph”,
measured changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were questioned about their involvement in or
knowledge of a specific response.
 William Marston – dealt with the sphygmomanometer which was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood
pressure readings during the course of an examination;
 John Larson – developed the polygraph, an instrument capable of continuously records blood pressure, pulse,
and respiration.
 Leonard Keeler – continued research and development of the polygraph. In 1949, he invented the Keeler
Polygraph with components that simultaneously recorded changes in blood pressure, pulse and respiration, as
well as the newly developed
 Vittorio Benussi – successfully detected deception with a pneumograph, an instrument that graphically
measures an examinee’s inhalation and exhalation
 Harold Burtt – determined that respiratory changes were indicative of deception.
 Georg Sticker – 1st to suggest the use of the galvanograph for detecting deception based on the work of several
predecessors.
 Otto Veraguth – 1st to use the term “PSYCHOGALVANIC REFLEX”.
 Cleve Backster – develop the control question technique which introduces a lie in the polygraph chart to
establish a yard sticks so that one would know what the reaction really means.

Major Components of the Polygraph

Pneumograph
 Occupy the two/upper pens which records the thoraric and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration.
Galvanometer
 electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the GSR or electro-dermal responses, are fastened to the hand or
finger by means of the passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical current through the hand or finger
bearing the attached electrodes.
Cardiosphymograph
 Records changes in mean blood pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat.

Kymograph (additional)
 The chart recording unit of the instrument. It has a synchronized motor that drives the charts at the rate of six
inches per minute and its speed constant is vital because the vertical lines, which are spaced either at one-half
or one inch interval, represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart. (Take Note: All Subjects must be in
good physical and mental condition before he/she may be submitted for polygraph examination)

4 Phases of Polygraph Examination

1. Preliminary Preparations – initial Interview with the investigator handling the case or person requesting it. The
group involve in this stage are the Victim / Complaint, Suspects, Witnesses.
2. Pre-Test Interview with the subject – the primary purpose of the pre-test interview of to prepare or condition the
subject for the test. (20-30min)

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3. Examination/Instrumental Test – the conduct of Instrumentation and Actual Test.

After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place the attachment on the subject.
4. Post–test Interview/ Interrogation – if the Polygraph test result indicates deception, the examiner will then proceed
to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain confession. However, if the Polygraph indicates
that the subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks him/ her for his/her
cooperation.

Test Construction and Procedures

General Question Test (GQT)

 Consists of a series of Relevant & Irrelevant Questions asked in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as
to make possible a comparison of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s norm made during the
answering of irrelevant questions. There are other types of questions asked in the GQT:
Weak Relevant Question
 Concern some secondary element of the crime or problem and deals with mostly in guilty knowledge and
partial involvement.
Strong Relevant Question
 Defined as verbal stimulus of primary important projected in the form of a question which overcome a
psychological excitement level and causes pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph, and galvanograph tracings
changes from the subject’s physiological norms.
Evidence Connecting Question
 Designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that
would tend to establish his guilt.
Knowledge Question
 Designed or begun to probe whether the subject possess information regarding the identity of the offender, the
location of evidences or items of secondary element of the case.

Peak-Of-Tension Test (PTT) – subject may be given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the offense for
which he is being interrogated by the investigation, or by other persons or from other sources like the print media.
Guilt Complex Test (GCT) – applied when the response to relevant and control questions are similar in degree and in
consistency and in a way that the examiner cannot determine whether the subject is telling the truth or not. Silent
Answer Test (SAT) – conducted in the same manner as when relevant and control questions are asked but the subject is
instructed to answer the questions silently, to himself, without making any verbal response causes distortion in the
tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.

Important Chart Marking

- X / 60 / 1.5 A - first markings of the examiner on the chart
- XX / 60 / 1.5 A- examiner’s mark after the test
- X - start of the test
- XX - end of the test
- 60 - millimeter of mercury shown in sphygmamometer dial
- 1.5 - ohms of skin electrical resistance

Use of Drugs that “Inhibit The Inhibitor”

 Administration of Truth Serum – hyoscine hydrobromide is given hypodermically in repeated doses until a state
of delirium is induced.
Narcoanalysis or Narcosynthesis

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 Same as that of administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used. Psychiatric sodium amytal
o sodium pentothal is administered to the subject. When the effects appear, questioning starts. It is claimed
that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks freely.
Intoxication with alcohol
 “In vino veritas” (“In wine there is truth”).
Hypnosis
 Alternation of consciousness in which the subject manifests a heightened of suggestibility while awareness is
maintained.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Forensic Photography

(Forensic imaging )(Crime scene photography) it is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an
accident scene using photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation

Photography
 is derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and graphein ("to draw") The word was first used by the
scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a method of recording images by the action of light, or related
radiation, on a sensitive material.
Photograph
 Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography Picture and photograph are not the same for a picture is a
generic term refers to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of
photography.
Police Photography
 Is the study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical things,
and other circumstances that can be used as criminal evidences or for law enforcement purposes

Special Uses of Photography

 Infrared Photography - Recording of images formed by infrared radiation. It can penetrate haze that scatters
the waves of visible light.
 Ultraviolet Photography – art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of ultraviolet
light.
 Photomicrograph – taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a
compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the physical evidence.
 Photomacrogaphy – taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube
lens (macro lens) to the camera.
 Mug Shot Photography – use for personal identification which is the first use of photography in police work.
 X-ray Photography – widely use in medicine, industry and science. It is quite different from ordinary
photography. X rays are invisible electromagnetic waves.

History of Photography
 The word photography came from two Greek words that mean "writing with light." The first time the word
"photography" was used in 1839, the year the invention of the photographic process was made public, by Sir
John Herschel.

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 In 1727 a German professor, Johann Heinrich Schulze, observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to
light. But the idea of making pictures using this information did not occur to him. That invention required the
talents of a later generation of scientists.
 In 1826 when a French scientist, Joseph Nicephore Niepce, put a plate coated with bitumen (an asphalt used in
ancient times as a cement or mortar) in a camera obscura. He put the camera obscura facing his house for eight
hours and made a photograph. It is the earliest camera photograph that we still have today.
 In 1834 Henry Fox talbot create permanent (negative) images using paper soaked in silver chloride and fix with
a salt solution. talbot created positive images by contact printing onto another sheet of paper (Photogenic
Drawing) and later (Calotype Process)
 Daguerre's process, which he named the daguerreotype, was announced to the world on January 7, 1839. Half a
year later the French government gave Daguerre and Niepce's son, Isidore, a lifetime pensions in exchange for
all rights to their invention. The daguerreotype was to become France's gift to the world.
 1848 Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, nephew of Joseph Niepce, coated a glass plate with albumen which held the
chemical fast. (NIEPCEOTYPE)
 Dr. R.A. Reis (1902), A German scientist who contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science
and established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and the Swiss
police.
 Victor Balthazard (1910), He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge cases
which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.
 Edwin H. Land (1947) He introduced Polaroid – one-step photography.
 In 1991 Kodak DCS-100, first digital SLR, a modified nikon f3
 In 2000 Camera phone introduced in Japan by sharp/J-Phone

Nature of Light

 Wave theory (Christiaan Huygens) based on the transmission of motion along the surface of water
 Corpuscular theory (Isaac Newton) light exert its effect through the motion of a very small particles called
corpuscles
 Electromagnetic theory (Clerk Maxwell) concluded that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Colors of Light Found in Visible Spectrum

Visible Spectrum
 A small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that affect the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength
ranging from 400 – 700 nm.
 Approximate Wavelength (Blue 450 nm, Green 550 nm, Red 700 nm)
 Complementary Colors (Magenta 400 nm, Cyan 500 nm, Yellow 590 nm)

Bending of Light

 Reflection – deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.

 Refraction – bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
 Diffraction – bending of light when hits a sharp edge of an opaque object

Mediums of Light

Transparent objects – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in other respects,
transmit 90% or more of the incident light.
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Translucent objects – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of the source of light is
not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.
Opaque objects – medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass though, they absorb most of the
light while reflecting some of it.

RAT Law - when incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the light maybe: Reflected, Absorbed ,
Transmitted.

Sources of Light:

There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and artificial. Natural lights are lights which come to existence
without the intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man-made. In photography natural light is used
for outdoor photography and artificial lights are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting
condition.

Classification of daylight intensity

Bright Sunlight – a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.
Hazy Sunlight – objects in open space cast a transparent shadow
Dull sunlight – objects in open space cast no shadow.
Cloudy bright
Cloudy dull

Artificial Light
 Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of objects, as long as the light is capable of
exposing the sensitized materials (film). Some of the artificial lights are electronic flash, photoflood lamp,
fluorescent lamp, and Infrared and Ultra-Violet lamp.
Mechanical Device
Camera
 principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or paper made by the light rays
through the camera are dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the retina through
the lens of the eye. The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens, a shutter, and a holder of
sensitized material. All other accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and convenient
for the operator and is called accessories.
Light tight box
 Suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized
material inside the camera.
Lens
 Use to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the same way as the lens of the eye.
 Shutter has for its function through its action called shutter speed, the control of the duration of the exposure of
the sensitized material to light. (Note: The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the shorter will be
the duration of the opening and closing of the shutter. As an effect only a small amount of light will pass through
the lens)
Holder of sensitized material
 Located at the opposite side of the lens has for its function to hold firmly the sensitized material in its place
during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.

Type of Camera

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Pinhole Camera
 Consists of a box with a small hole in one of its sides. To produce a sharp image, the hole must be very small and
this restricts the amount of light entering the camera.
Fixed Focus Camera
 Most basic of all camera, have a non-adjustable lens. Most model have a single diaphragm setting and only one
or two shutter speeds. Most fixed focus cameras, including many inexpensive, pocket-sized models, use 110 or
126 size film. The negative of such film require considerable enlargement, which may produce a fuzzy image.
Point and Shoot Camera
 Have many automatic features that make them easy to use. Electronic devices inside the cameras automatically
adjust the focus, set the light exposure and the shutter speed and advance and rewind the film. A built in
electronic flash automatically supplies light when too little light reflects from the subject.
Single Lens Reflex (SLR)
 Camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking. The image is reflected onto a viewing screen by a
moveable mirror in the camera. The mirror flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light to
strike the film.
Twin Lens Reflex
 Having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for viewing and focusing; the other for exposing the
film. The lenses are mechanically-coupled so that both are focused at the same time.
View Camera
 A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an individual image size of 5" X 4" or larger.
It is most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even called a "studio camera," although the view camera can
be transported and set up in the field.

Parts of Camera

 Shutter is a device that prevents light from reaching the film until the photographer is ready to take a picture.
 Diaphragm – regulates the amount of light reaching the film. The diaphragm also affects depth of field – the
smaller the aperture the greater the depth of field.
 Depth of field – range in front of and behind a sharply focused subject in which details also look sharp in the
final photographic image. It depends on lens aperture, the focused distance, and the focal length of the lens.
 Lens Aperture – adjustable cameras are equipped with an iris diaphragm, a device located in or near the lens
and consisting of thin overlapping leaves that fold together to create a hole of continuously variable size.
 Viewfinder – shows the photographer the scene being photographed. It may be a viewing screen, a miniature
lens system, or a sample wire frame.
 Film Advancer – necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred to the take up spool while the unexposed
film remain on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

Photographic Lens

Convergent, positive or convex lens

 This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides, light passing through it are bended toward
each other at the other side of the lens meeting at a point.
Divergent, Negative, or concave lens
 This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are bended away from
each other as if coming from a point.

Classification of lenses according to its focal length

Focal Length
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 Distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity. Focal
lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are
still to be found.
Normal Lens
 With a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed through a normal
lens appears to have the same perspective as if it was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way your
eye sees it. Most 35 mm cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of approximately 50 mm.
Wide-Angle Lens
 Lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle lens
has a focal length which is less than the diagonal of the film format.
Macro Lens
 Lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in
frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is usually a lens
attachment for close-ups and does not generally have the ability to focus on infinity.
Telephoto Lens
 Lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to magnify images, and
exhibiting relatively shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto lenses include 85 mm, 400
mm and 600 mm lenses etc.
Fisheye
 Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° -
and that renders a scene as highly distorted.
Zoom Lens
 One in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens
to change its focal length - in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths.

Aberration is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a mirror. Proper
focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at a single point.

Types of Aberrations

Spherical aberration
 When light passing through the near central part of a converging lens are bended more sharply than those rays
falling in the edge.
Coma
 Concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The result of differences in lateral magnification for
rays coming from an object point not on the optic axis.
Chromatic Aberration
 Inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wave lengths to the same focus.
Astigmatism
 With this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the negative will be imaged not as a
point but as a two perpendicular short lines.
Curvature of field
 Image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in a curve surface than a flat surface.
Distortion
 Rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an object.

Types of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction

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 An achromatic lens or achromat is a lens that is designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical
aberration
 An apochromat, or apochromatic lens (apo), is a photographic or other lens that has better correction of
chromatic and spherical aberration than the much more common achromat lenses.
 Rapid Rectilinear also named Aplanat is a famous photographic lens design. The Rapid Rectilinear is a lens that
is symmetrical about its aperture stop with four elements in two groups. It was introduced by John Henry
Dallmeyer in 1866. The symmetry of the design greatly reduces radial distortion.
 An anastigmat or anastigmatic lens is a photographic lens completely corrected for spherical aberration, coma,
and astigmatism

Sensitized Material
 Refers to films and papers that are composed of emulsion containing SILVER HALIDE crystals suspended in
gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.
Photographic Film
 Consist basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a layer of animal gelatin
which is coated onto acetate support or base.
Emulsion Speed
 Sensitivity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensitive to light. The light sensitivity of the film is
also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of the film is determined through the numerical film speed labels given by
the film manufacturer.

Classical Speed Ratings that Became Popular

ASA (American Standard Association)

 Rating expressed in arithmetical value system. The speed in numbers is directly proportional to the sensitivity of
the material. A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed of 100.
DIN ( Deutche Industrie Norman )
 Rating – expressed in logarithmic value system. In this system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of
the film.
ISO (International standards organization)
 Expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.

Spectral Sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.

Classification of Films As According to its Spectral Sensitivity

 Monochromatic Film – sensitive to a single color of light (for white and black)
 Blue Sensitive Film – a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light.
 Ultra-Violet Sensitive Film – sensitive to UV rays only
 Panchromatic Film – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum, especially to blue
and violet light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and white photography because it
produces the most natural recording of colors.
 Orthochromatic Film – sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red. Red portions are recorded as
dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones when printed. This type of film is popular in the
market as the KODALITH FILM.
 Infrared Film – sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation (radiation beyond the human eye’s sensitive).
Although the infrared film is sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the blue color. The red filter
transmits only long red and infrared radiation.
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Granularity or Grainess
 Size of the metallic grains that are formed after development of an exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic
silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is used in
processing.
Sensitized Paper
 Materials necessary to produce a photograph (POSITIVE PRINT) are a sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is
coated with opaque material like paper.

Characteristics of Photographic paper

Emulsion speed

 Chloride paper – slow speed suited for contact printing

 Bromide paper – fast speed and is recommended for projection
 Chloro-bromide paper – multi speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging

Photographic processing

Development
 Process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white
Emulsion
 The image is composed of grains black metallic silver. While in a color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced
with cyan, yellow and magenta dye.
Stop-Bath
 Halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of the developer and fixer
from each other
Fixation
 Makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In this process the un
exposed silver halide crystals are dissolved and removed from the emulsion of the photographic materials.

FORENSIC CHEMISTYR AND TOXICOLOGY

Forensic Chemistry

 is the application of chemistry to law enforcement

 It is a field of chemistry dedicated to the chemical analysis of various matter or substances that might have been
used in the commission of a crime

Blood and Blood Stains

Importance of the Study of Blood

 As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime.

 For disputed parentage.
 Determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack.
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 Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.

 Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
 Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

Blood

 is a serological fluid that consists of several kinds of cells

 Approximately 8% of an adult's body weight is made up of blood.
 Females have around 4-5 litres, while males have around 5-6 litres. This difference is mainly due to the
differences in body size between men and women.Its mean temperature is 38 degrees Celcius.
It has a pH of 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (less than 7 is considered acidic).
 Whole blood is about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, indicating that it is more resistant to flow than water.
This viscosity is vital to the function of blood because if blood flows too easily or with too much resistance, it can
strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular problems.
 Human blood is always red. The tone is bright red when it is oxygenated (or oxygen rich) and a darker red when
it's lacking oxygen (or oxygen poor). De-oxygenated blood only appears to be blue, largely because it is being
viewed through many layers of translucent (partially transmitting) skin cells.

Functions of Blood
 Transport
 Protection
 Regulation

Transport

 Blood transports the following substances:

 Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the body
 Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body
 Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys
 Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cells
 Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature

Protection
 Blood has several roles in inflammation:
 Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cells
 Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances
 Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimize blood loss

Regulation
 Blood helps regulate:
 pH by interacting with acids and bases
 Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues

Composition of the Blood

Plasma
 A straw-yellow colored liquid that suspends the blood cell
 liquid portion of the blood

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 55 % of the blood
 90 % of plasma is wate
 6 – 8 % of plasma are proteins – antibodies

Red Blood Cells/ Erythrocytes

 No nucleus
 contains hemoglobin
 red coloring of the bloo
 heme – iro
 globin – protein

Function :
 To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere
 To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the lungs

Normal number : 4-6 million/mm3

Life span 120 days
Disease : anemia

White Blood Cells

With nucleus

Function : For defense of the body

Normal number : 5,000 – 10,000/mm3
Life span : 4 hrs. to 10 days
Disease :
leukocytosis – increase
leukopenia – decrease

Platelets / Thrombocytes

Function : For blood clotting

Normal number : 130,000 – 360,000/mm3
Life span : 5 to 9 days

Test for Blood

Preliminary Test for Blood

Benzidine Test
 benzidine reagent
 hydrogen peroxide
stain benzidine reagent
H2O2 + peroxidase
blue color - positive result

positive result :
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blood, sputum, pus,

nasal secretion, plant juices,
formalin, bentonite
carcinogenic

Guaiacum Test
- guaiacum plant
- blue color – positive result
positive result :
- blood, saliva, pus, bile, milk,
- rust, iron salts, cheese, potato,
- perspiration, gluten, and
- other oxidizing agents

Phenolphthalein Test
- phenolphthalein reagent
- phenolphthalein and zinc powder
- pink color – positive result

positive result : blood, copper salts

Leucomalachite Green Test

- Leucomalachite green with sodium perborate (NaBO3)
- bluish green – positive result
- not as specific as phenolphthalein
-
Test

Confirmatory Test for Blood

Microscopic Test
- presence of Red Blood Cells

Teichmann or Haemin Crystal Test

- dull white background
- dark brown rhombic crystal

Takayama Test
- Takayama reagent
- introduced in Japan in 1912 by Masao Takayama.
- haemochromogen crystal

Aceto-haemin or Wagenhaar Test

- large rhombic crystals of salmon pink color

The Luminol test

- The most widely used method for finding invisible blood is through the use of a chemical developer such as
Luminol, or 5-Amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-phthalazinedione (C8H7N3O2).

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Semen and Seminal Stain

- Examination of Semen and Seminal Stains is important in sexual offenses like:
 rape
 adultery
 Sodomy
 Bestiality – human & lower form of animals

Serology - the study of the identification and characterization of body fluids as semen, blood, and saliva. Spermatozoa –
sperm cells
Semen – seminal fluid with spermatozoa
Aspermia –absence of sperm cells in the ejaculate.
Oligospermia – semen with very few count of sperm cells

Spermatozoa or Sperm Cell

 total number of spermatozoa contained in a single ejaculate from a healthy young man is about 400 to 500
million
 Normal quantity of seminal fluid in a single ejaculation is 1.5 to 3.5 cc
 5 mL – water, sugar, protein, Vit C, Zinc & prostaglandin

Physical Examination

Dry Semen
 Gives a stiff starchy feeling to the cloth and produce slight deepening of color with the disappearance of odor.

Chemical Test

Florence Test
 choline periodide crystal
Barberio’s Test
 formation of spermine picrate crystal
 under the microscope, slender yellow-tinted rhomboid needles
 Acid Phosphate Test
 formation of orange red pigment after 30 seconds on fresh stains

Hair

Cross Section of hair Shaft

Cuticle –consist of scales pointing toward the end of the hair

Cortex – intermediate and thickest layer of the shaft; contain pigment granules
Medulla – central canal of the hair; maybe empty or may contain cells; more or less pigmented

Medulla
 central canal of the hair; maybe empty or may contain cells; more or less pigmented;.
Without medulla – hair of very few animals
With medulla –
Continuous medulla
Interrupted medulla – in humans, monkeys, and horses
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TEXTILE FIBERS

 Natural Fibers
 Plant Fiber
 Animal Fibers
 Man-made Fibers

Natural Fibers

Plant Fibers
 burn rapidly
 smells like burning leaves
 steady flame

Plant Fibers
 Cotton – most common; diversity depends on type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist.
 Flax - a fine light-colored plant fiber used to make linen
 Ramie - a lustrous soft durable fiber obtained from the bark of a bush.
 Sisal - a strong white fiber obtained from the leaves of an agave plant
 Jute – coarse fiber from the stems of Corchorus (saluyut)
 Hemp – a tough fiber from the stems of an Asian plant
 Kapok – a silky fiber obtained from the seed covering of a tropical tree.
 Coir - coarse fiber that comes from the husk of the coconut.

Animal Fibers
- smells like burning
- feather / hair
- burn very slowly
- easily extinguished

Animal Fibers
1. Silk
2. Wool - The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile Wool commonly originate from
sheep. Finer woolen fibers are used in the production of clothing; coarser fibers are found in carpet.

Other sources of woolen fibers:

 alpaca – related to llama with long shaggy hair; gives glossy wool
 cashmere – Himalayan goat; gives soft wool
 mohair – Angora goat (Angora is the old name of Ankara, capital of Turkey); gives soft silky wool

Man-made Fibers
 Natural materials such as cotton or wool (regenerated)
 Synthetic materials

Most commonly encountered man-made fibers:

 Polyester - a strong hard-wearing synthetic fabric with low moisture absorbency
 Nylon fibers – tough synthetic material (ex., stockings)

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 Acrylics - a synthetic textile fiber produced from acrylonitrile (a colorless toxic liquid)
 Rayons - a synthetic textile fiber made from cellulose
 Acetates – a textile fiber make from a chemical compound produced by the reaction of acetic
 Sulfuric acid on cellulose. Other uses: photographic film, plastics, varnishes.

Gun Powder

Two kinds of gun powder:

 Blackpowder – composed of charcoal (15%), sulfur (10%), and potassium or sodium nitrate (75%)
 Smokeless powder – consists of cellulose nitrate or glycerol nitrate combined with cellulose nitrate and some
stabilizers.
 Note: NITRATES are present in both smokeless and blackpowder. Nitrates act as oxidizing agents.

The Dermal Nitrate Test

 The Dermal Nitrate Test (or Dermal Paraffin Test or Diphenylamine Test for Gunpowder)
 A test for nitrates and nitrites
 positive result: blue specks
ANALYSIS OF INK

Types of Ink

 Gallotanic ink
 Logwood ink
 Nigrosine or aniline inks (indulin ink or black aniline ink
 Carbon, Chinese or India
 Colored writing inks
 Ball-point pen inks

Methods of Ink Analysis

Reagent Gallotanic Ink Logwood Nigrosine Carbon

With Without
provisional provisional
color color
5% HCl Blue Disappears Red Maybe No effect
with slight smudged or smudges
yellow color with blotter
10% oxalic Blue Disappears Violet-red Maybe No effect
smudged or smudges
with blotter
Tartaric Blue Disappears Light Maybe No effect
brown smudged or smudges
with blotter
2% NaOH Reddish- Reddish- Brown Runs, dark No effect
brown brown violet at or smudges
edges with blotter

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PROHIBITED DRUGS

Preliminary Tests

Drugs Test Used Reactions Noted

Opium and Marquis Purple or violet

derivatives color

Heroin Nitric acid Yellow or green

color

Morphine Nitric acid Red orange to

yellow

Cocaine Cobalt Blue precipitate

thiocyanate
Barbiturates Dile-Kopanyi Violet color

Amphetamines - Marquis Red-orange to

dark brown

- Mandelin Green to reddish

brown

Marijuana Duquenois- Violet color

Levine
Fast blue salt Purple or violet
(FBS) color

TOXICOLOGY
 Toxicology can be defined as that branch of science that deals with poisons, and a poison can be defined as any
substance that causes a harmful effect when administered, either by accident or by design, to a living organism.
 By convention, toxicology also includes the study of harmful effects caused by physical phenomena, such as
radiation of various kinds, noise, and so on

Historical Aspects of Toxicology

 In the past it was mainly a practical art utilized by murderers & assassins
 In Ancient time (1500 BC) earliest collection of medical records contains many references and guidelines about
poison
 Dioscorides (50 AD) a Greek physician, classify poisons as animal, plant or mineral & recognizing the value of
emetics
 Maimonides (1135-1204 AD), wrote poisons and their antidote which detailed some of the treatments
consideration to be effective

Toxicological terms and definitions

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 Toxin- a poison of natural (biological) origin

 Poison- a chemical that may harm or kill an organism
 Toxic-having the characteristic of producing an undesirable or adverse health effect
 Toxicity-any toxic (adverse) effect that a chemical or physical agent might produce within a living organism
 Hazard - is the likelihood that injury will occur in a given situation or setting: the conditions of use and exposure
are primary considerations
 Risk - is defined as the expected frequency of the occurrence of an undesirable effect arising from exposure to a
chemical or physical agent RISK= HAZARD + EXPOSURE

Acute poisoning
 Is caused by an excessive single dose, or several dose of a poison taken over a short interval of time. Strychnine,
potassium cyanide

Chronic Poisoning
 is caused by smaller doses over a period of time, resulting in gradual worsening arsenic, phosphorus, antimony
and opium

Sub-acute poisoning
 shows features of both acute and chronic poisoning
Fulminant poisoning
 is produced by a massive dose
 in this death occur rapidly, sometimes without preceding symptoms

Sources of Poison
 Domestic or household sources
 Agricultural and horticultural sources
 Industrial source
 Commercial sources
 From uses as drugs and medicines
 Food and drink
 Miscellaneous sources - snakes bite poisoning, city smoke, sewer gas poisoning etc.
 Domestic or household sources - detergents, disinfectants, cleaning agents, antiseptics, insecticides,
rodenticides etc
 Agricultural and horticultural sources- different insecticides, pesticides, fungicides and weedicide

Industrial sources- In factories, where poisons are manufactured or poisons are produced as by products
Commercial sources- From store-houses, distribution centres and selling shops
From uses as drugs and medicines – Due to wrong medication, overmedication and abuse of drugs
Food and drink – contamination in way of use of preservatives of food grains or other food material, additives like
colouring and odouring agents or other ways of accidental contamination of food and drink
Miscellaneous sources- snakes bite poisoning, city smoke, sewer gas poisoning etc.

Common poisons and drugs

 Corrosive poison
 Irritant poison
 Analgesic, Hypnotic, Tranquilizer, and Narcotic poisons

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 Stimulants, Excitants, and Convulsants poisons

 Paralytic, Anticholinesterase and Antihistamine poisons
 Gaseous and Volatile poisons
 Industrial gaseous and Volatile poisons
 Poisons by Plants, flora, and fungi

Branches of Toxicology

Mechanistic
 cellular, biochemical and molecular mechanisms by which chemicals cause toxic responses
Forensic
 cause of death, legal aspects
Clinical
 treatments for poisonings and injuries caused by xenobiotics
Environmental
 environmental pollutants, effects on flora and fauna
Food
 adverse effects of processed or natural food components
Regulatory
 Assigns risk to substances of commercial importance.

Examples of Toxicological Cases

 399 B.C. Socrates, a Greek Philosopher died of Hemlock poisoning (according to Plato)
 Coniine is the active toxic ingredient
 Antagonist for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, leading to cessation of neurotransmission, muscular and
respiratory collapse and death
 October 20th, 1740 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia died from eating
death cap mushroom
 Active ingredient is alpha-amanitin that inhibits RNA polymerase inhibiting protein synthesis leading to
hepatocellular lysis, liver failure, kidney failure, coma, respiratory failure, and death
 1932-1968: Minamata disaster—caused by methylmercury toxicity from industrial wastewater from Chisso
Corporation in Minamata City in Japan2265 victims Caused neurological syndrome associated with methyl
mercury poisoning including ataxia, numbness, insanity, muscle weakness, hearing and speech loss, birth
defects, paralysis, coma, death Alters neurochemistry and neurotransmission through multiple mechanisms
 1988, Saddam Hussein used sarin on Kurds, 1995, Japanese subway sarin attack by terrorist group; 2006 day 5 of
“24”—Jack Bauer saves LA from VX attack in TV show; 2013 Assad uses sarin against rebels
 Sarin and VX are an organophosphorus chemical warfare agents that inhibits acetylcholinesterase, leading to
excess acetylcholine and hyperstimulation of neurons, resulting in seizures, tremoring, convulsions, excess
salivation, excess tearing, urination, defecation, bronchoconstriction, respiratory failure, death
 April 30th, 1945, Eva Braun, long-time companion of Hitler committed suicide with a cyanide capsule
 Inhibitor of cytochrome c oxidase, part of complex IV of the electron transport chain and inhibits ATP production
leading to brain death and heart cessation, hypoxia, and death
 Jan 16th, 1975 Bando Mitsugoro VIII, a famous Japanese Kabuki actor died from eating 4 livers of pufferfish

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 Active toxic ingredient is tetrodotoxin

 Tetrodotoxin blocks voltage-gated sodium channels leading to suppression of neurotransmission, numbness,
bronchospasms, coma, respiratory failure, death

Prepared By:
Armand Viola Jr. RCRIM, MSCJ, CIC, PIC, CSP, CCD, CCS, CSMS, JD (ON- GOING)
CBRC CLE Review Director/Program Lead

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