Fundamentals of Biology

Chapter 3: Structure and Function of Cell

Learning objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Define the cell theory.
2. Distinguish between types of cells (i.e. prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells; plant and animal cells).
3. 3)Explain the cell structure and function.
4. Discuss how the cells communicate i.e. transmit and receive
signals.
Covered topics

3.1. Cell Theory.

3.2. Types of Cells.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function.
3.4. Cell Communication.
3.1. Cell Theory: Timeline
● Robert Hooke (1665): Discovered cell.
● Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674): Observed living cell.
● Felix Dujardin (1835): Discovered fluid content of cell.
● Carl Heinrich Braun (1838): Proposed cell is the basic unit of life.
● J. E. Purkinje (1839): Named fluid content of cell as protoplasm
● Robert Brown (1883): Discovered nucleus.
● Theodor Schwann (1839): Proposed all animals are made up of cells.
● Carl Heinrich Braun (1845): Proposed cell is the basic unit of life.
● Rudolf Virchow (1855): Proposed all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
3.1. Cell Theory: Overview

● Cell theory is a collection of ideas and conclusions

stated by many scientists over time that describes
cells and how it functions.
1. All living organisms are made up of one cells.
2. All living Cells come only from preexisting cells
because cells are self reproducing.
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
in all living organisms.
3.1. Cell Theory: Overview
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all
living organisms.
○ The smallest living things are one-celled or
unicellular
○ Large organisms contain millions of cells. They are
many-celled or multicellular.
○ All of the organism’s life functions are carried out by
cells or parts of cells.
3.1. Cell Theory: Study Cell

● Cells can not be seen by the naked eye, therefore,

scientists use microscopes to visualize cells.
● Several types of microscope can be used:
○ Light microscope (LM).
○ Electron microscopes (EMs).
3.1. Cell Theory: Study Cell

● Light microscope (LM):

○ In which visible light passes through a
specimen and then through glass lenses, which
magnify the image.
○ The quality of an image depends on:
■ Magnification,
■ Resolution, and;
■ Contrast.
3.1. Cell Theory: Study Cell
● LMs can effectively magnify the specimen up
to 1,000 times its real size.

● Several techniques can enhance contrast and

enable cell components to be stained or
labeled.

● Most subcellular structures such as organelles

are can not be seen by an LM.
3.1. Cell Theory: Study Cell
● Electron Microscopes (EMs): There are two
basic types of EMs are used to study
subcellular structures.
1. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs):
○ Focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen.
○ Provides images that look three-dimensional
(3-D images).
2. Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs):
○ Focus a beam of electrons through a specimen.
○ TEMs are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells.
3.2. Types of Cells
● Two basic types of living cells exist:
1. Prokaryotic cells:
2. Eukaryotic cells.

● Prokaryotic cells:
○ Are so named because they lack a
membrane bounded nucleus.
○ They are divided into two types, based on
DNA and RNA base sequence differences.
■ Bacteria, and;
■ Archaea.
3.2. Types of Cells
● Eukaryotic cells:
○ Cells that has a nucleus.
○ Animals, plants Protists, fungi, all consist
of eukaryotic cells.

● The basic features of all cells:

○ Plasma membrane.
○ Semifluid substance called cytosol.
○ Chromosomes that carry genes.
○ Ribosomes that synthesize proteins.
3.2. Types of Cells: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

No nucleus Have nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
the nucleoid membranous nuclear envelope.
No membrane-bound organelles Membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm bound by the plasma Cytoplasm in the region between the
membrane plasma membrane and nucleus.
Are smaller than eukaryotic cells. Are much larger than prokaryotic cells.
Assignment No 3

Compare between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Eukaryotic cells contains 3 basic cell structures:

○ Cell or Plasma membrane.
○ Nucleus.
○ Cytoplasm with membrane-bound organelles.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

Plant Cell Animal Cell

3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Cell membranes (Plasma membrane):

○ Are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins.
○ The plasma membrane have selective
permeability property (i.e. allows some
substances to cross it more easily than
others e.g. oxygen, nutrients, and
waste).
○ It is a double layer of phospholipids.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Proteins of cell membranes:

○ Two types of cell membrane
proteins:
1. Peripheral proteins are
bound to the surface of the
membrane.
2. Integral proteins penetrate the
hydrophobic core and called
transmembrane proteins.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● The Nucleus:
○ Dense spherical body located near the centre of the cell.
○ Most of the cells are uninucleate (having only one nucleus)
○ Few types of cells have more than one nucleus (skeletal muscle cells)
○ It is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called
nuclear envelope.
○ The nuclear membrane has pores that regulate the entry and exit of
molecules from the nucleus.
○ Colourless dense sap present inside the nucleus known as
nucleoplasm.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● The Nucleus:
○ It comprises an structure called nucleolus; which is the site of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis.
○ It contains the genetic materials in the eukaryotic cells (i.e. most
of the cell’s DNA and genes).
○ The DNA and proteins form genetic material called chromatin.
○ Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes.
○ It controls all the activities in the cell (e.g. metabolism, protein
synthesis, etc…).
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Ribosomes:
○ Are protein factories.
○ Are particles made of ribosomal RNA
and protein.
○ Ribosomes carry out protein
synthesis in two locations:
■ In the cytosol (free ribosomes).
■ On the outside of the endoplasmic
reticulum or the nuclear envelope
(bound ribosomes).
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Cytoplasm:
○ Gel-like mixture fill the cell.
○ Fills the space between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
membrane.
○ Contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various
particles (e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids and
inorganic ions).
○ Contains and hold many organelles with distinct structure and
function.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Endomembrane system:
○ The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and
performs metabolic functions in the cell.
○ It consist of several Components:
■ Nuclear envelope.
■ Endoplasmic reticulum.
■ Golgi apparatus.
■ Lysosomes.
■ Vacuoles.
■ Plasma membrane.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● The endoplasmic reticulum (ER):

○ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consisting of a
membranous channels and saccules (flattened
vesicles), which is continuous with the nuclear
envelope.
○ Has two distinct regions of ER:
■ Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
■ Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface.
○ Both rough and smooth ER form vesicles that
transport molecules to other parts of the cell.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Function of the smooth ER:
○ Synthesizes lipids.
○ Metabolizes carbohydrates.
○ Detoxifies poison.
○ Stores calcium.
v

● Function of the Rough ER:

○ Has a capacity to produce protein, because of the studded ribosomes.
○ Inside its lumen, rough ER contains enzymes that can add carbohydrate
chains to proteins, to produce glycoproteins.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● The Golgi apparatus:

○ Consists of flattened membranous
sacs called cisternae.
○ Modifies products of the ER.
○ Manufactures certain
macromolecules.
○ Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles.
○ In some animals, some of these
vesicles are lysosomes.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● A Lysosome:
○ Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that can digest
macromolecules.
○ Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze
polysaccharides, fats, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
○ It use enzymes to recycle the cell’s
old cellular components and
macromolecules, a process called
autophagy.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Vacuoles:
○ Are diverse maintenance compartments.
○ A plant cell may have one or several
vacuoles.
● Food vacuoles:
○ Are formed by phagocytosis.
● Contractile vacuoles:
○ Found in many freshwater protists, pump
excess water out of cells.
● Central vacuoles:
○ Found in many mature plant cells, hold
organic compounds and water.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Energy-Related Organelles:
○ Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic
process that generates ATP.
○ Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis
○ Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Mitochondria and chloroplasts:
○ Are not part of the endomembrane system.
○ Have a double membrane.
○ Have proteins made by free ribosomes.
○ Contain their own DNA.
○ Both organelles house energy in the form of ATP.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Mitochondria:
○ Are in nearly all eukaryotic cells.
○ Bounded by double membranes; a smooth
outer and an inner.
○ The inner membrane inward projections
folded inward projections called cristae.
○ Inner cavity is filled with a semifluid structure
matrix that contains some enzymes,
mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
○ In the matrix, some metabolic steps of cellular
respiration are catalyzed.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Mitochondria:
○ Cristae present a large surface area for
enzymes that synthesize ATP.

● Chloroplasts:
○ Capture of light energy.
○ Are a member of a family of organelles called
plastids.
○ Contain the green pigment chlorophyll, enzymes
and other molecules that function in
photosynthesis.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Chloroplasts:
○ Chloroplasts are found in leaves
and other green organs of plants
and in algae
○ the structure of the chloroplast
includes:
■ Thylakoids, membranous sacs,
stacked to form a granum.
■ Stroma, the internal fluid
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Peroxisomes:
○ Are similar to lysosomes.
○ Are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single
membrane.
○ Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert
it to water.
○ Oxygen is used to break down different
types of molecules.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function

● Cytoskeleton:
○ Is a network of protein fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm.
○ Supports and maintains cell shape.
○ Organizes the cell’s structures, activities and
anchoring many organelles.
○ Play important role in intercellular movement
movement and cell division.
○ Is composed of three types of molecular
structures:
1. Microtubules.
2. Microfilaments.
3. Intermediate filaments.
3.3. Eukaryotic Cells; Structure & Function
● Plant cell wall:
○ The cell wall is an extracellular structure found in
cells of plants, bacteria, fungi, and some protists.
○ It protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of water.
○ Are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other
polysaccharides and protein.
○ It may have multiple layers:
1. Primary cell wall.
2. Middle lamella.
3. Secondary cell wall.
Activity No 3:
• Identify the different cell organelles using drag and drop activity.
1. Mitochondrium
2. Rough ER
3. Smooth ER
4. Nucleolus
5. Nucleus
6. Golgi apparatus
7. Lysosome
8. Chromatin
3.4. Cell Communication
● Cells need to be able to communicate to other cells and respond
to environment changes.

● Cell-to-cell communication:
○ Is essential for multicellular organisms.
○ External signals are converted into responses within the cell.

● Communication between cells requires:

1. Ligand - the signalling molecule.
2. Receptor protein - the molecule to which the receptor binds may be on
the plasma membrane or within the cell.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Evolution of Cell Signaling:

○ A signal-transduction pathway: Is a
series of steps by which a signal on a
cell’s surface is converted into a
specific cellular response.
○ Pathway similarities suggest that
ancestral signaling molecules evolved
in prokaryotes and have since been
adopted by eukaryotes.
○ Example: Yeast cells identify their
mates by cell signaling.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Local and Long Distance Signaling:

○ Cells in a multicellular organisms communicate by using
chemical messengers.
○ Plant and animal cells have cell junctions that directly
connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.
○ In local signaling, animal cells may communicate by direct
contact.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling
Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Local and Long Distance Signaling:

○ In other cases, animal cells communicate using local
regulators, messenger molecules that travel over short
distances.
○ In long-distance signaling, plants and animals use specific
chemicals called hormones.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Stages of Cell Signaling:

● Earl W. Sutherland discovered how the hormone
epinephrine acts on cells.
● He suggested that cells receiving signals went
through three processes:
1. Reception.
2. Transduction.
3. Response.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Reception:
○ Is the binding between a signal molecule
(ligand) and the receptor (protein).
○ This binding is highly specific.
○ A change in a receptor is often the initial
transduction of the signal.
○ Most signal receptors are plasma membrane
proteins.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell Signaling

● Receptors can be identified by the location:

○ Intracellular receptor is located within the
cell.
○ Cell surface receptor or membrane
receptor: is located on the plasma
membrane to bind a ligand outside the cell.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell signaling

● Intracellular receptors:
○ Steroid hormones:
■ Signal molecules that are small nonpolar,
lipid-soluble structure (i.e. hydrophobic)
and can readily cross the plasma
membrane to use steroid receptors.
○ Steroid hormones bind to intracellular
receptors.
○ Often affect regulation of gene expression.
3.4. Cell Communication: Cell signaling
● Cell surface receptor or membrane receptor:
○ There are three main types of membrane
receptors:
1. G-protein-linked.
2. Tyrosine kinases.
3. Ion channel.