CHUTE

1. In practice Consultant Engineers state different grades of

concrete to be used for the structural members in a building.
It is also the responsibility of the consultant engineers,
contractors and site engineers to ensure that desired grades
of concrete are attained. As an Engineer working for a
Consultancy or Construction firm, describe how you can
ensure that the specified grades are attained.

Various testing technology can be applied to samples of different

grades of concrete to ensure that the grades specified are attained.

At the site l can find the strength and other properties by non-
destructive testing techniques like penetration tests,

rebound hammer tests, pull-out techniques, dynamic tests, ultrasonic

pulse velocity tests, maturity concept which ever is required.

Perhaps the most important test for hardened concrete used in

construction projects, however, is compressive strength testing,
which allows engineers to assess the strength of a concrete sample
and its performance under actual loading, as opposed to the design
loading. By taking samples and forming cubes of those to test after
a designated time (usually 28 days), for example a

concrete of grade M15 is taken into consideration. Then the M in

M15 denotes that it is a mix, the number 15 is the

compressive strength of the mix taken at 28 days after casting.

M15 is a standard mix with proportion of 1:2:4 which means for 1

part of cement, there is 2 parts of fine aggregates

and 4 parts of coarse aggregates. Taking these constiuents in their

proportions, mixed with water, concrete is

formed which is then placed in a mould.

For determination of compressive strength of concrete, according to

IS 456 : 2000, standard moulds of 150mm x 150mm are used.
Concrete is placed in this mould and cubes are casted. Generally 9
cubes are casted, out of which 3 cubes are used for testing after 3
days from casting; 3 after 7 days and remaining 3 after 28 days.

These cubes are subjected to comressive loads in a Compression

Testing Machine(CTM) or a Universal Testing
Machine(UTM). The loads are applied gradually until the point where
the cubes break. The load at which it breaks is noted.

This load divided by the c/s area of the cube gives the strength of
the cube in N/mm2. So for a grade of M15 say, the concrete can
take a minimum load of 15N for every 1 mm2 area.

This procedure is then repeated to the other grades of concrete.

The latest compression testing equipment, incorporating digital and

microprocessor technology, makes the process

extremely simple and accurate. This degree of closed-loop

microprocessor control forms an invaluable element of

today’s compression testing equipment, significantly increasing

productivity and offering outstanding levels of

accuracy and consistency in testing cycles.

Another way is to embed temperature sensors and measuring the

time and temperature. These values can be

compared to a graph made previously calibrated with cubes that

were tested earlier.

I can use maturity method to predict the strength of concrete.The

maturity method is published in ASTM standard

C1074 and used to estimate the combined effect of time and

temperature on the strength development of concrete.

2. Maka Irrigational Projects is one of the competent

civil engineering companies in Zimbabwe. In an attempt
to minimise the cost of irrigation construction materials
they are proposing to construct their own Galvanising
treatment plant. However, one of the main challenges
faced in galvanising plants is concrete corrosion. As a
civil engineering student, you have been hired by the
Maka Irrigational Projects to assist in research for the
prevention of concrete corrosion. Write a brief report
advising the company on how to prevent concrete
corrosion.

To: Maka Irrigational Projects

From: Engineer Tafara Mwareya W.

Date: 21/01/2022

Title: Measures that can be taken to prevent concrete

corrosion.

They are two types of corrosion that can be found concrete

Carbonation, which is a drop in pH of the cementitious paste caused

by the interaction of the concrete with carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere, causing general corrosion in the steel

reinforcement.

Chloride induced corrosion which is caused by the migration of

chloride ions through the cementitious paste until

they reach the reinforcement surface. Once a high enough

concentration of chlorides is reached, localised corrosion initiates,
forming pota on the rebar surface.

Both types of corrosion can have devastating consequences. The

problem is how we can prevent corrosion of concrete.

1. Application of a surface barrier.

There are special mortars that can be applied on the concrete's

surface, minimizing

the interaction between the concrete and the environment,

increasing the service life of the structure.

2. Use of corrosion inhibitors in the concrete mix.

These substances can form a barrier on the surface of the rebar,

increasing its resistance to general corrosion (carbonation) and the

concentration of chlorides required to initiate corrosion.

3. Cathodic protection.
 The metal to be protected, the rebar, is made a cathode, stopping
corrosion.

4. Anodic protection.

Similar to cathodic protection but in this case the metal acting as

anode is the one we want to protect. In this case, the steel rebar is
to be set at a potential where it remains passive, hence minimizing
thencorrosion rate even if the corrosion process has already
started.

It is worth noticing this is the principle of some electrochemical

techniques used for restoring chloride-contaminated concrete,
making the chloride ions migrate to the outer regions of the
concrete.

5. Coating application.

Rebars are painted with coatings designed to withstand high alkalinity

and used as a barrier once the chemistry of the cementitious paste
changes, i.e. becomes more acidic, or chlorides are present.

Adequate mix design. As mentioned above, this shouldn't have to be

said but in the particular case of chlorideinduced corrosion, water
quality, aggregates and additives are paramount to avoid or minimize
corrosion. As an example, a setting agent used in the past was
calcium chloride which introduced chlorides to the mixture, causing
all kind of problems in the structures.

6. Special rebar types

Rebars completely coated with epoxy don't rust. Stainless steel

rebars are very corrosion resistant, but very expensive. Some
sources say galvanized rebar won't protect against corrosion long
enough to justify their use. Others disagree. Because they don't
corrode, glass-fiber-reinforced-plastic (GFRP) rebars have been used
to control cracks in concrete structures exposed to highly corrosive
environments.

7. Watertight concrete and proper cover

The first defense against rebar corrosion should be a thick covering

of dense, highly impermeable concrete.

8. Polymer concrete overlays

Polymer concretes do not contain water or portland cement. A

polymer holds the aggregate together instead. Epoxies, polyesters,
acrylics, and polyurethanes are some of the polymer binders that
have been used.

9. Non chloride accelerators

Calcium chlorides accelerators have been used for many years to

accelerate set and strength gain. Some Researchers argue that most
of the chlorides ions added by calcium chlorides combine with
cement hydration products and become insoluble within short time.
Others, including The American Concrete Institute Building Code
requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI318), claim that calcium
chloride can contribute to corrosion. Because of this, ACI318 now
recommends limits on chloride ion content: no more than 0.06
percent by weight of cement in prestressed concrete, no more than
0.15percent in reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides and no more
than 1.00 percent for reinforced concrete that is always dry. All
other reinforced concrete can’t contain more than 0.30 percent
chloride ion by weight of cement

3. You have been hired by the NUST Civil/Structural

Engineering Consultancy to design a special foundation
for one of their buildings to be constructed on a swampy
area. In your design, you specified the use of natural
aggregate for all concrete works. However, upon your
first site inspection for the concrete works, you found
that the contractor is using artificial aggregates and has
already convinced the Client on the use of artificial
aggregates. As the Consultant Engineer in charge of the
building, give a brief explanation to the Client and
Contractor about the dangers of using artificial
aggregates in place of natural aggregates specified by the
design for reinforced concrete works. In your
explanation, clearly define the terms natural and
artificial aggregates
Natural Aggregates: Natural aggregates, which consist of
crushed stone, sand and gravel.

Artificial aggregates: Aggregates made from clean broken bricks and

aircooled fresh blast furnace slag.

 Natural aggregates perform better than crushed aggregates

because of their rounded shape which considered as a negative
characteristic is compensated by improving the workability and
reducing the need of mixing water, thus; the water/cement
ratio, these essential parameters leads to gaining strengths in
concrete.

 From the laboratory test of strength determination it was

explored that natural aggregate provide more compressive,
flexural tensile and splitting tensile strengths (26%, 46% and
38% at 28 days) than Artificial aggregates

 The natural gravel aggregate water absorption value is very

much lesser compared with all the types of artificial
aggregates.

 uncrushed aggregate is cheaper than crushed aggregate.

Consequently, concrete with uncrushed aggregates will be
cheaper

 Segrigation can easily occur to artificial aggregates due to

their rough surfaces

 Generally the crashed (Artificial) aggregate require excessive

amount of cement paste to fill the voids. The aggregates are
not are not effectively full, and the resulting concrete will be
more porous, unless a lot of paste is employed.

 Natural aggregate is tougher than crushed aggregate as the

value of specific gravity of crashed aggregate is 2.56 and
artificial aggregates are 3.14 respectively. Though high specific
gravity is considered as an indication of high strength.
4. According to recent studies the selection of
unsustainable construction materials remain a cause for
concern. Briefly motivate the use of timber in place of
steel and concrete in order to enhance environmental
sustainability.

Wood is one of the oldest building materials. In the past the great
availability of material, the ease of processing and handling, and
renewability, combined withspecific qualities, have made wood the
building material par excellence, forfurniture, structural use,
provisional, etc.

Wood is a natural building material that, when used in construction

elements, can simultaneously fulfill the structural and esthetic
function. Its use in the building sector allows it to simultaneously
satisfy the aspects of environmental, economic, and social
sustainability, especially when it is accompanied by implementation of

short supply chain processes that allow the use of local wood and
processes for controlling the sustainable management of forests that
avoid deforestation and the impoverishment of the territories.

In the current context of implementing strategies to combat climate

change and in general to protect the environment, the
characteristics of this material and its qualities suggest giving
impetus to its use in highly polluting sectors such as construction.

The possibility of implementing short supply chains based on the use

of local wood, for example, makes it possible to reduce the energy
consumption linked to transport from distant areas of growth and
at the same time allows to create employment in areas far from
urban centers and therefore often economically Depressed.

The wood market is constantly expanding given the considerable

possibilities of use, the high performance, and the technological
progress of this material. The impulse to use timber in
construction, especially if connected tonshort-term production
chains, can allow:
The reduction of the costs of timber structures, thanks to the
possibility of producing them on site instead of importing them
from afar, thus promoting the sustainable building sector with great
environmental advantages.

An increase in the demand for structural timber, with a consequent

increase in forest surfaces for environmental, tourist, and hydro-
geological protection advantages.

The creation of new jobs in the structural timber supply chain—

activities related to forest care; new plants for the production of
sawn wood (sawmills) and preparation of structural components
(prefabrication workshops); new specialized assembly companies, with
important repercussions in terms of employment; and ansignificant
social function of reducing unemployment and abandoning depressed
areas.

Wood is a material characterized by good mechanical strength both

in tension and in compression, so it can be used for the
manufacturing of elements prone to bending such as beams,
compressed like the pillars, stretched like tie rods, without the need
to combine it with other materials, unlike for example concrete and
masonry.

Wood is a material with a high strength to weight ratio, of the same

order as steel,and it offers a compressive strength of the same
order as reinforced concrete.Lightness is an important feature from
the point of view of both strength and cost effectiveness. In terms
of strength, the reduced mass put into play by timberstructures,
for example, with respect to masonry, makes them less affected
byseismic actions. In terms of cost-effectiveness, the use of a light
material guaranteesease of manufacturing and handling and
transport and minimization of the cost of supporting or foundation
structures. Furthermore, the possibility of dry construction process
allows rapid execution, modularity, and high degree of
prefabrication.

Wood contributes to environmental comfort due to its low

conductivity, high thermal inertia, and natural hygroscopicity.
Natural materials such as wood or cork are already comfortable at
room temperature, while those like stone or cement areperceived as
comfortable only at higher surface temperatures.
Last but not least, the use of wood matches well the current trends
of ecocompatible and sustainable construction as it minimizes the
environmental impact

at all levels as it is recyclable, renewable, biodegradable, and free of

toxic contents.

The Environmental Impacts of Concrete

The cement industry is one of the main producers of carbon

dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas.

Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the earth, the
topsoil.

Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to

surface runoff that

may cause soil erosion, water pollution and flooding.

 Landscape degradation
 Dust and noise
 Visual impact on some areas of outstanding natural beauty
 Proximity to population centres
 Loss of agricultural land
 Use of potable water to wash aggregates, dust suppression and
in the manufacturing process and Energy consumption during
transportation
 Vehicle pollution

The Environmental Impacts of steel

 has a number of impacts on the environment, including air

emissions (CO, SOx, NOx, PM2), wastewater contaminants, hazardous

wastes, and

solid wastes. The major environmental impacts from integrated steel

mills are from

coking and iron-making.

 Climate change

Virtually all of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with steel

production are

from the carbon dioxide emissions related to energy consumption.

 Emissions to air
Coke production is one of the major pollution sources from steel
production. Air

emissions such as coke oven gas, naphthalene, ammonium

compounds, crude light

oil, sulfur and coke dust are released from coke ovens.

 Emissions to water

Water emissions come from the water used to cool coke after it has
finished baking.

Quenching water becomes contaminated with coke breezes and other

compounds.

While the volume of contaminated water can be great, quenching

water is fairly

easy to reuse. Most pollutants can be removed by filtration.

 Waste

Slag, the limestone and iron ore impurities collected at the top of
the molten iron,

make up the largest portion of iron-making by-products. Sulfur

dioxide and

hydrogen sulfide are volatized and captured in air emissions control

equipment

and the residual slag is sold to the construction industry. While this
is not a

pollution prevention technique, the solid waste does not reach

landfills.

Gaseous emissions and metal dust are the most prominent sources
of waste from electric arc furnaces.

5. Briefly describe the manufacturing processes of 3

main types of bricks of your choice

1. Manufacturing of clay bricks

There are four different operations are involved in the
process of manufacturing of bricks:

1. Preparation of clay

2. Moulding

3. Drying

4. Burning

1. Preparation of clay for brick manufacturing:

Preparation of clay for bricks manufacturing is done in

six steps:

Unsoiling of clay pure clay is needed for the preparation

of bricks. The top layer of soil contains impurities, so
the clay in top layer of soil about 200mm depth is
thrown away. Digging After the removal of top layer, the
clay is dug out from the ground and spread on the plain
ground.

Cleaning at this stage, the clay is cleaned of stones,

vegetable matter etc. If large quantities of particulate
matter are present, then the clay is washed and
screened. The lumps of clay are converted into powder
with earth crushing rollers.

Weathering The cleaned clay is exposed to atmosphere for

softening. The period of weathering may be 3 to 4 weeks
or a full rainy season. Generally, the clay is dug out just
before the rainy season for larger projects.

Blending If we want to add any ingredient to the clay, it

is to be added in this stage by making the clay loose and
spread the ingredient over it. Then take small portion of
clay into the hands and tuning it up and down in
vertical direction. This process is called blending of clay.
Tempering at this stage, water is added to clay and
pressed or mixed. The pressing will be done by cattle or
with feet of men for small scale projects, pug mill is
used as grinder for large scale projects. So, the clay
obtains the plastic nature and now it is suitable for
moulding.

2. Moulding of clay for brick manufacturing

In the moulding process, prepared clay is mould into

brick shape (generally rectangular). This process can be
done in two ways according to scale of project.

• Hand moulding (for small scale)

• Machine moulding (for large scale)

Hand moulding of bricks

If manufacturing of bricks is on a small scale and

manpower is also cheap then we can go for hand
moulding. The moulds are in rectangular shape made of
wood or steel which are opened at the top and bottom.
The longer sides of moulds are projected out of the box
to serve it as handles. If we take durability in
consideration steel moulds are better than wooden
moulds. In hand moulding again there are two types and
they are:

1. Ground moulded bricks

2. Table-moulded bricks

Ground moulded bricks

• In this process of ground moulding, first level the

ground and sand or ash is sprinkled over it.

• Now place the wet mould in the ground and filled it

with tempered clay and press hard to fill all corners of
the mould. Extra clay is removed with metal strike or
wood strike or with wire.

• The mould is then lifted up and we have raw brick

in the ground. And again wet the mould by dipping it in
water and repeat the same process. The process of
dipping mould every time to make bricks is called slop
moulding.

• Sometimes, the inside surface of mould is sprinkled

with sand or ash instead of dipping in water this is
called sand moulding

• Frog mark of bricks are made by using a pair of

pallet boards. Frog mark means the mark of depth
which is placed on raw brick while moulding. The depth
may be 10mm to 20mm.

• Frog mark stats the trademark of manufacturing

company and also it is useful to store mortar in it when
the bricks are placed over it.

Table moulded bricks

• This process is similar to ground moulding process,

but here the bricks on moulded on the table of size 2m
x 1m.

• Ground moulding is economical when compared to

table moulding.

Machine moulding of bricks

The bricks required are in large quantity, then machine

moulding is economical and also saves more time. Here
also we are having two types of machines,

• Plastic clay machines

• Dry clay machines

Plastic clay machines

These machines contain an opening in rectangular shape

and when the tempered clay is placed in to this machine
it will come out through the opening. Now, the
rectangular strips coming out the opening are cut by
wires to get required thickness of brick. So, these are
also called wire cut bricks. Now these raw bricks are
ready for the drying process.

Dry clay machines

Dry clay machines are more time saving machines. We

can put the blended clay into these machines directly
without tempering. Means tempering is also done in this
machine by adding some water. When the required
stiffness is obtained the clay is placed in mould and
pressed hard and well-shaped bricks are delivered. These
are called pressed bricks and these do not require
drying they may directly be sent to the burning process.

3. Drying of raw bricks

• After the moulding process the bricks contain some

amount of moisture in it. So, drying is to be done
otherwise they may crack while burning. The drying of
raw bricks is done by natural process.

• The bricks are laid in stacks. A stack consists 8 to

10 stairs. The bricks in these stacks should be arranged
in such a way that circulation of air in between the
bricks is free.

• The period of drying may be 3 to 10 days. It also

depends upon the weather conditions.
• The drying yards are also prepared on higher level
than the normal ground for the prevention of bricks
from rain water.

• In some situations, artificial drying is adopted under

special dryers or hot gases.

4. Burning of bricks

• In the process of burning, the dried bricks are

burned either in clamps (small scale) or kilns (large
scale) up to certain degree temperature. In this stage,
the bricks will gain hardness and strength so it is
important stage in manufacturing of bricks.

• The temperature required for burning is about

1100oC. If they burnt beyond this limit they will be
brittle and easy to break. If they burnt under this limit,
they will not gain full strength and there is a chance to
absorb moisture from the atmosphere.

• Hence burning should be done properly to meet the

requirements of good brick.

Cooling: In this stage of manufacturing of brick. The

burnt bricks are placed for some time to be cooled
before using it in the construction.

2. Manufacturing process of concrete bricks

The production of concrete blocks consists of four basic processes:
mixing, molding, curing, and cubing. Some manufacturing plants
produce only concrete blocks, while others may produce a wide
variety of precast concrete products including blocks, flat paver
stones, and decorative landscaping pieces such as lawn edging. Some
plants are capable of producing 2,000 or more blocks per hour.

The following steps are commonly used to manufacture concrete

blocks: Mixing

• 1 The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are
transferred into storage bins in the plant by a conveyor belt as
they are needed. The Portland Cement is stored outside in large
vertical silos to protect it from moisture.

• 2 As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand,

gravel, and cement are transferred by gravity or by mechanical
means to a weigh batcher which measures the proper amounts of
each material.

• 3 The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where

they are blended together for several minutes. There are two types
of mixers commonly used. One type, called a planetary or pan
mixer, resembles a shallow pan with a lid. Mixing blades are
attached to a vertical rotating shaft inside the mixer. The other
type is called a horizontal drum mixer. It resembles a coffee can
that has been turned on its side and has mixing blades attached to
a horizontal rotating shaft inside the mixer.

• 4 After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of

water is added to the mixer. If the plant is located in a climate
subject to temperature extremes, the water may first pass through
a heater or chiller to regulate its temperature. Admixture chemicals
and colouring pigments may also be added at this time. The concrete
is then mixed for six to eight minutes.

Moulding

• 5 Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped

into an inclined bucket conveyor and transported to an elevated
hopper. The mixing cycle begins again for the next load.

• 6 From the hopper the concrete is conveyed to another hopper

on top of the block machine at a measured flow rate. In the block
machine, the concrete is forced downward into moulds. The moulds
consist of an outer mould box containing several mould liners. The
liners determine the outer shape of the block and the inner shape
of the block cavities. As many as 15 blocks may be molded at one
time.

• 7 When the moulds are full, the concrete is compacted by the

weight of the upper mould head coming down on the mould cavities.
This compaction may be supplemented by air or hydraulic pressure
cylinders acting on the mould head. Most block machines also use a
short burst of mechanical vibration to further aid compaction.

• 8 The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the

moulds onto a flat steel pallet. The pallet and blocks are pushed out
of the machine and onto a chain conveyor. In some operations the
blocks then pass under a rotating brush which removes loose
material from the top of the blocks.

Curing

• 9 The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated stacker

or loader which places them in a curing rack. Each rack holds
several hundred blocks. When a rack is full, it is rolled onto a set
of rails and moved into a curing kiln.

• 10 The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold

several racks of blocks at a time. There are two basic types of
curing kilns. The most common type is a lowpressure steam kiln. In
this type, the blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at
room temperature to allow them to harden slightly. Steam is then
gradually introduced to raise the temperature at a controlled rate
of not more than 60°F per hour (16°C per hour). Standard weight
blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150165°F (66-74°C),
while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-185°F (77-85°C). When the
curing temperature has been reached, the steam is shut off, and
the blocks are allowed to soak in the hot, moist air for 12-18
hours. After soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting the moist
air and further raising the temperature in the kiln. The whole
curing cycle takes about 24 hours.

Another type of kiln is the high-pressure steam kiln, sometimes

called an autoclave. In this type, the temperature is raised to 300-
375°F (149-191°C), and the pressure is raised to 80-185 psi (5.5-12.8
bar). The blocks are allowed to soak for five to 10 hours. The
pressure is then rapidly vented, which causes the blocks to quickly
release their trapped moisture. The autoclave curing process
requires more energy and a more expensive kiln, but it can
produce blocks in less time.

Cubing

• 11 The racks of cured blocks are rolled out of the kiln, and
the pallets of blocks are unstacked and placed on a chain conveyor.
The blocks are pushed off the steel pallets, and the empty pallets
are fed back into the block machine to receive a new set of molded
blocks.

• 12 If the blocks are to be made into split-face blocks, they are

first molded as two blocks joined together. Once these double blocks
are cured, they pass through a splitter, which strikes them with a
heavy blade along the section between the two halves. This causes the
double block to fracture and form a rough, stone-like texture on
one face of each piece.

• 13 The blocks pass through a cube which aligns each block and
then stacks them into a cube three blocks across by six blocks deep
by three or four blocks high. These cubes are carried outside with
a forklift and placed in storage.

Quality Control

The manufacture of concrete blocks requires constant monitoring to

produce blocks that have the required properties. The raw materials
are weighed electronically before they are placed in the mixer. The
trapped water content in the sand and gravel may be measured with
ultrasonic sensors, and the amount of water to be added to the mix
is automatically adjusted to compensate. In areas with harsh
temperature extremes, the water may pass through a chiller or
heater before it is used.

As the blocks emerge from the block machine, their height may be
checked with laser beam sensors. In the curing kiln, the
temperatures, pressures, and cycle times are all controlled and
recorded automatically to ensure that the blocks are cured
properly, in order to achieve their required strength
Manufacturing process of Calcium Silicate bricks

Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand lime and are popularly
known as sand lime bricks. These bricks are used for several
purposes in construction industries such as ornamental works in
buildings, masonry works etc.

Raw Materials:

• Sand

• Lime

• Water

• Pigment

Sand

Calcium silicate bricks contain high amount of sand which is about

88-922%. This means the properties of this brick depend on the
characteristic of the sand used. Hence the sand used should not
contain any impurities.

Lime

Lime content in calcium silicate bricks varies from 8 to 12%. The

lime should be of good quality and high calcium lime

Water

Clean water should be used when preparing calcium silicate bricks.

Sea water or water containing soluble salts or organic matter more
than 0.25% are not suitable.

Pigment
Pigments are generally used to give colour to the bricks. They are
added to the sand and lime while mixing. Total weight of brick
contains 0.2 to 35 of pigment quality

Manufacturing

in the first step suitable proportions of sand, lime and pigment are
taken and mixed thoroughly with 3 to 5% water. Then a paste with
mouldable density is obtained.

The mixture is moulded into bricks using rotary table press which
uses mechanical pressure to press the bricks. The pressure of
pressing varies from 31.5 to 63N/mm2

In the final stage, bricks are placed in autoclave. Autoclave is

nothing but a steel cylinder with tightly sealed ends. The diameter of
autoclave is about 2m and a length of about 20m.

After placing bricks in this closed chamber saturated steam

pressure steam is released which is about 0.85 to 1.6N/mm2. The
temperature inside the chamber is raised and the reaction process
begins.

Silica content in sand and calcium content in lime reacts and forms
crystal like compound called calcium hypo silicate. This process is
done for 6 to 12 hours. Finally, the obtained bricks are transported
to the work place.

6, List any 5 Civil Engineering Materials and describe

their various applications in

construction

1.Timber

Applications/uses

 used for furniture making.

 Timber is mostly used for the shuttering work in construction.
  It is also used for industrial uses like pulps (used in making
papers), wallpapers, and cardboard.
 It is also used for making musical instruments and sports
goods.
 For manufacturing battens, veneers, and plywoods.
 For manufacturing machinery.
 It is also used for light construction works such as doors,
windows, flooring and roofing constructions.
 For manufacturing tool handles, toys, and for light and heavy
packing cases.
 The timber was used in construction works such as columns,
trusses, and piles etc.
 The wood is also used for temporary constructions such as
centering, scaffolding, shoring and strutting.
 It is also used in decorative purposes such as showcases and
furniture’s.

2. Steel

Applications/uses

 Structural steel (vertical columns) produced by continuous

casting and hot rolling of large structural shapes, plates and
sheet steel.
 Cold-formed steel (trusses and decking) produced by cold
forming of sheet steel into desired shapes.
 Fastening products used for the structural connection,
including bolts, nuts, and washers.
 Reinforcing steel rebar used in concrete reinforcement.
 Miscellaneous products f3or use in such application as forms
and pans.

3. STONES

Applications/uses
  Stone masonry are used for making foundation and also in sub
or super structures.
 Stones are also used for the construction for flooring, walls,
columns and are in arches.
 Marble, slate, granite, laterite, and quartzite are widely used
for the facing work.
 Stones are used in the construction of retaining walls, breast
walls.
 It is mostly used in the construction of dams, piers and
abutments of bridges.
 It is most suitable in the hilly area construction.
 Its slabs are used in slabs as a damp proof courses

4. Butimen

Applications/uses

 The main use of bitumen is in the pavement construction and

maintenance.
 Bitumen is used in the sealing the different structural
members.
 Bitumen is also used as a waterproofing material such as roofs
and underground foundations.
 It is also be used in the DPC at the plinth level of any building
to avoid the seepage.
 Bitumen is used to make hot mix asphalt concrete

5. cement

Applications/uses
  It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing,
etc.
 It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
 It is used for water tightness of structure.
 It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc.
 It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection
of exposed surfaces of structures against the
 destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or
inorganic chemicals.
 It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts
etc.
 It is used in the construction of important engineering
structures such as bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels,
 lighthouses etc.
 It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors,
footpaths etc.
 It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis
courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins, roads etc

7. The use of Concrete and Steel in the construction field

has compromised the environmental sustainability which
makes the SDGs almost impossible to achieve. Discuss.

Sustainable development basically consist with three pillars: economic,

social and environment.

Concrete and steel are not obtain as naturally occurring forms of

the environment. They are the innovations which made by man as a
effect of industrial revolution.

The concrete structural-frame construction has more associated

energy use, CO2, CO, NO2, particulate matter, SO2, and hydrocarbon
emissions due to more formwork used, larger transportation impacts
due to a larger mass of materials, and longer equipment use due to
the longer installation process. In contrast, the steel-frame
construction has more volatile organic compound (VOC) and heavy
metal (Cr, Ni, Mn) emissions due to the painting, torch

cutting, and welding of the steel members. The energy use and the
environmental emissions of the two buildings are comparable if the
total impacts from materials' manufacturing, construction,
transportation, use, maintenance,

and demolition are considered. Energy use and environmental

emissions from office buildings can be reduced

through a careful selection of embedded and temporary materials

and construction equipment.

In cities, concrete also adds to the heat-island effect by absorbing

the warmth of the sun and trapping gases from car exhausts and
air-conditioner units.

Concrete is a thirsty behemoth, sucking up almost a 10th of the

world’s industrial water.

This often strains supplies for drinking and irrigation, because 75%
of this consumption is in drought and waterstressed regions.

In the United States, the construction industry accounts for almost

75% of total raw material used. This is an

obvious drain on natural resources and has a major impact on the

surrounding environment. The commercial

construction industry is dominated by the use of steel and in-situ

concrete as building materials. It is intuitive then,

to state that these two materials and their respective production

flows have a significant impact on the

environment, simply because of the amount of material being

produced and consumed in the building industry

today. In addition, due to drastic increases in energy prices and

potential shortages in the future, the amount of

energy consumed in the production of construction materials

(embodied energy) and the amount of energy used

over a projected life span (operational energy) are becoming

increasingly more important to builders, designers, and
owners of buildings.

However,concrete and steel are the key enablers of resilient and

sustainable infrastructure development. As

sustainable building materials, it combines durability, resilience to

climate-related and natural disasters, costeffectiveness and
widespread availability. Without them, much of the modern world
would not have been built and much of what is still required to
achieve SDG9 targets could not be built. Investment in infrastructure
also supports

industrialisation and innovation, helping to increase employment.In

the last several years, the concrete and steel

industries have spent significant resources to promote their

material as the optimum solution for sustainable

building design to promote the Sustainability Development Goals.

As a building material that is durable, disaster resilient, widely

available and cost effective, concrete is a key element in the
construction of the sustainable infrastructure that is a prerequisite
to all SDG1 goals

the GCCA is committed to supporting its members achieve carbon-

neutral concrete by 2050.

Development and provision of steel materials for high-pressure

hydrogen to support a hydrogen-oriented society