ES130 CEOrient Final Module

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
ES 130 CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION Module 6
LESSON 6: CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – SURVEYING

1.1 Surveying
1.2 Measurement
1.3 Plane Survey Computations
1.4 Curves
Time Frame: 6 hrs
Introduction:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of point s
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field. It is
conducted for the preparation of maps, plots topography, and boundaries to
establish ownership of land, and used in the design, planning and construction of
any type of structure and communication networks.
Objectives/ Desired Learning Outcomes:
In this lesson, learners will be able to:

1. Learn the knowledge of the scope of surveying in the field of construction
works
2. Familiarize with the different types of building materials used in construction
3. Familiarize with the basic management in building construction works.
Learning Activities
Let’s do this! Students will be assigned to a breakout room (either for Google meet or
zoom) and allow them to discuss the following questions. Right after the discussion, a
representative from every group will be assigned to report their output thru a concept
map.
PRE-TEST
Briefly answer each question.
ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Questions:
1. What is surveying?
2. Why does surveying is performed?
3. What does a surveyor do?
Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of point s
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface and locating the points in the field. It is
conducted for the preparation of maps, plots topography, and boundaries to
establish ownership of land, and used in the design, planning and construction of
any type of structure and communication networks.
Survey is performed to prepare a map of relative positions on surface of the earth.

It shows the natural feature of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways,
etc. They may also include details of different engineering works such as bridge,
canal, dam etc.
Before commencement of any major engineering project, survey is carried out to
determine the location of site and its surrounding. To understand the topography
of the site and natural resource availability, survey is carried out to prepare the
cadastral map showing property boundaries.
History

Surveying began in Egypt about 1400 BC

- Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.
- “Rope-stretchers” Egyptian surveyors were created to relocate the land divisions
(measurements were made with ropes having knots at unit distances)
- Extensive use of surveying in building Egyptian monuments.
Greeks Period: expanded Egyptian work and developed Geometry
- Developed one of the earliest surveying instrument (diopter)
Roman Period: developed surveying into a science to create the Roman roads,
aqueducts, and land division systems.
- Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional organization
- Developed several instruments:
o Groma
o Libella
o Chorobates
ROMANS GROMA
Figure 1 Figure 2
Groma center cross plumb line over survey marker. Groma plumb lines
aligned for sighting straight line.
Roman surveyors (Agrimensores) used a groma for laying out roads,

buildings and aqueducts. Figure 1 shows a model of a groma. A groma
consisted of a metal drive point attached to the bottom of a pole. A swivel arm
extended from the top of the pole. Attached to the end of the swivel arm was a
cross made with two boards that could be rotated in a circle. Extending down
from the center point of the cross was a plumb line with a plumb bob. The

groma was installed in the ground such that the plumb line extending down from
the center point of the rotating cross was directly over the survey marker on the
ground. Attached to the ends of the boards that formed the cross were plumb
lines. To survey a straight line from the survey marker, the Agrimensore would
position the groma over the survey mark then rotate the cross to align two of the
plumb lines at the end of the wooden cross with the center plumb line as shown
in Figure 2. He would then sight along the three aligned plumb lines to survey
poles moved into alignment by assistants (likely slaves). The survey line would
be extended by moving the groma to one of aligned pole positions and repeating
the procedure.
ROMAN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
Groma
The principal Roman surveying instrument

was the groma. It was regarded as the tool
most typical of a surveyor; it appeared in
stylised form on the tomb of Lucius Aebutius
Faustus. L. Aebutius Faustus lived in the
colony of Eporedia in northern Italy. He was
a freedman (Hauck, 1988:42).
The groma was used in military and civilian
surveying, and we are told that a central
point in a military camp was called the
gromae locus (Dilke, 1971:66). Since no
groma has survived completely intact, we
do not have an accurate picture of one.
The one that appears on Lucius Aebutius
Faustus' tomb serves as a starting point (see
illustration of the tombstone of Lucius
Aebutius Faustus). The staff of the
surveying instrument is upright and the
cross is detached and laid diagonally across
it. There is not enough evidence to say for
certain that this instrument is a groma, but
the consensus is that it most likely is (Dilke,
1971:66). It certainly matches the
description.

Chorobates
The chorobates was a bench with weighted

strings on its sides for measuring the
ground's angle on a system of notches, and
a short channel in the center, likely for
testing the direction of the water flow
(O'Conner, 1993: 45). It was mostly used
for the levelling of aqueducts. It was
probably too unwieldy for general levelling
(Dilke 1971:76).
It was also probably too unwieldy to use in
the construction of tunnels, being too big to
manoeuver easily in confined spaces. See
the illustration of a chorobates
Dioptra
The dioptra was a different kind of level. It

rested on the ground, and was finely
adjusted by tilting and rotating the top part
by means of precision screw, it could assess
the angle of a stretch of aqueduct by looking
through pivoting sights (O'Conner 1993:
45). See the illustration of a dioptra.
Whether or not it was actually used is
debatable, as only Hero of Alexandria - he
lived during Nero's reign - gives us a
description of the device. Vitruvius
recommends the dioptra as an alternative
for levelling water-courses and Pliny the
Elder recognized its efficiency for
astronomical work. Vitruvius' reservations
and the lack of further written evidence
suggest that it may have been regarded as
too elaborate, expensive and unwieldy for
general use (Dilke, 1971:79). As Hauck
(1988:44) points out, the dioptra was
essentially a forerunner of the modern
theodolite. Despite its apparent complexity,

it would have been useful in tunnels where

the chorobates could not be used.
Other Surveying Instruments
The chorobates (see above) was already

equipped with a plumb line.
Another levelling instrument used by the
Romans was the simple libella. It consisted
of a frame in the shape of the letter A, with
the addition of a horizontal bar on top (see
photo). From the apex a plumb line was
suspended that coincided with a mark on
the lower crossbar when the instrument was
level. Other marks could have been added
to indicate other slopes, but there is no
evidence that this was done (Hauck,
1988:43).
A portable sundial was found in Verus'

workshop in Pompeii. Not only was this
intended to indicate time, but lines on two
of the sides were used for measurements.
The exact use of the sundial is uncertain
(Dilke, 1971:72). A sundial can be used for
more than tracking time. It can also be used
to orientate buildings.
MIDDLE AGES: Land division of Romans continued in Europe

- Quadrans – Square brass frame capable of turning angles up to 90 degree and
has a graduated scale.
18th and 19th CENTURY: The need for mapping and marking land claims
caused extensive surveying, especially by the English.
- 1785: United States began extensive surveys of public lands into one mile square
sections.
- 1807: United State Geological Survey founded to establish an accurate control
network and mapping.

- George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln are
some famous American Surveyors.
Famous American Surveyors
20th CENTURY: As technology advanced, population increase and land value

caused development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
- Educational requirements for licensure began in early 1990’s.
- Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning using global positioning
systems, construction machine control, and lidar (scanning) mapping.
- Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and geographic information system
(GIS).
Surveying Basics
Phases of Surveyor Work

1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording data in the
field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon the recorded
data to determine locations in useable form.
4. Mapping or Data presentation – plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in
the proper form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monument or stakes in the proper locations
in the field.
Categories of Surveying:
1. Plane Surveying – surveying with the reference base for fieldwork and
computations are assumed to be flat horizontal surface. All triangles formed by

survey lines are considered as plane triangles. The level line is considered as
straight and plumb lines are considered parallel.
2. Geodetic Surveying – surveying technique to determine relative positions of

widely spaced points, lengths, and directions which require the consideration of
the size and shape of the earth. The object of geodetic survey is to determine
the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant
points which form control stations in which surveys of less precision may be
referred. Line joining two points is considered as curved line and angles are
assumed as spherical angles. It is carried out if the area exceeds over 250 km 2.
Type of Surveys:
1. Photogrammetry - mapping utilizing
data obtained by camera or other.
2. Boundary surveying - establishing

property corners, boundaries, and area of land
parcels.
3. Control Surveying - establish a network

of horizontal and vertical monuments that
serve as a reference framework for other
survey points.

3. Engineering Surveying - providing points and elevations for the building Civil
Engineering projects.
4. Topographic surveying - collecting

data and preparing maps showing the
locations of natural man-made features
and elevations of points on the ground for
multiple l uses.
5. Route surveys-topographic and other surveys for long – narrow projects

associated with Civil engineering projects.
6. Hydrographic surveying - mapping of

shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water
for navigation and resource management.
Measurement
Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even though angles may be
read precisely, the length of at least one line in a tract must be measured to
supplement the angles in locating points.
Horizontal Measurement:
Methods of measuring a horizontal distance
1. Pacing - can be used over short distances.
2. Odometer readings - can be used over longer or inaccessible distances.
3. Tacheometry - uses the relationship between the angle subtended by a short
base distance perpendicular to the bisector of the line and the length of the
bisecting line. Stadia and subtense bar are two tacheometric methods capable of
accuracies in the range of 1 part in 500 to 1 part in 1000.

4. Taping - direct method of measuring

distance in which a tape of known length and
graduated at intervals throughout its length is
stretched along the line to be measured.
5. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) - distance can be measured

electronically if the velocity and travel time of electromagnetic energy propagated
along a survey line are determined.
6. GPS - Global positioning system, It is based on the use of satellites in Earth
orbit that transmit information which allow to measure the distance between the
satellites and the user.
Elevation measurement:
Elevation is measured with respect to a
datum surface that is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
The datum surface most often chosen is
called the geoid. The geoid is an
equipotential surface that closely coincides
with mean sea level. Elevations measured
with respect to the geoid are called
orthometric heights.
Leveling is a branch of surveying to measure levels of different points with respect

to a fixed point such as elevation of a building, height of one point from ground
etc. It deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
Types of leveling:
1. Direct leveling - most commonly used method of leveling. In this method,
measurements are observed directly from leveling instrument. Based on the
observation points and instrument positions direct leveling is divided into different
types:
a) Simple leveling - the simplest and basic form of leveling in which the leveling
instrument is placed between the points which elevation is to be find. Leveling
rods are placed at that points and sighted them through leveling instrument. It is
performed only when the points are nearer to each other without any obstacles.
b) Differential leveling - performed when the distance between two points is
more. In this process, number of inter stations are located and instrument is

shifted to each station and observed the elevation of inter station points. Finally
difference between original two points determined.
c) Fly leveling - conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work station.
In such case, a temporary bench mark is located at the work station which is
located based on the original benchmark. Even it is not highly precise it is used
for determining approximate level.
d) Profile leveling-is adopted to find elevation of points along a line such as for
road, rails or rivers etc. In this case, readings of intermediate stations are taken
and reduced level of each station is found. From this cross section the alignment
is drawn.
e) Precise leveling-similar to differential leveling but in this case higher precise is
wanted. To achieve high precise, serious observation procedure is performed.
The accuracy of 1 mm per 1 km is achieved.
f) Reciprocal leveling-when it is not possible to locate the leveling instrument in
between the inter visible points, reciprocal leveling is performed. This case
appears in case of rivers. In case of reciprocal leveling, instrument is set nearer
to 1st station and sighted towards the 2nd station.
2. Trigonometric leveling – process of leveling in which the elevation of points
or the difference between points is measured from the observed horizontal
distances and vertical angles in the field is called trigonometric leveling.
In this method, trigonometric relations are used to find the elevation of a point
from angle and horizontal distance. It is also called as indirect leveling
3. Barometric leveling - barometer is an instrument used to measure
atmosphere at any altitude. In this method of leveling, atmospheric pressure at
two different points is observed, based on which the vertical difference between
two points is determined. It is a rough estimation and rarely used.
4. Stadia leveling - modified form of trigonometric leveling in which Tachometer
principle is used to determine the elevation of point. In this case the line of sight
is inclined from the horizontal. It is more accurate and suitable for surveying in
hilly trains.
Angles and Direction measurement:

The angular orientation of a line is expressed in terms of horizontal angles and vertical
angles. Survey angles are defined by specifying the plane that contains the angle, the
reference line or plane where the angle starts, the direction of turning and the terminal
line or plane where the angle ends.
Angles is difference in
Direction of 2 lines
3 kinds of
Horizontal angles:
1. Exterior (< to the
right)

2. Interior
3. Deflection
Angular units:
1. Degrees,
Minutes,
Seconds
2. Radians
3. Grads
Direction angles are horizontal angles from a north-south reference meridian to a

survey line. Direction angles that are computed from field angles include bearing and
azimuths. A bearing, is the acute angle from the reference meridian to the survey line.
It always includes the quadrant designation. An azimuth, is the angles from the north
end of the reference meridian clockwise to the survey line. It can have a magnitude
0˚ to 360˚, and a quadrant designation is not necessary.
Types of Instrument:
1. Transit – develop to its present form during the 1800s. It has been use on
construction projects from railroads across the wild west to the skyscrapers of the
modern city.

2. Theodolite – is a precision optical

instrument for measuring angles
between designated visible points in
the horizontal and vertical planes.
3. Total stations – The electronic total

station is the ultimate in surveying
measurement instruments. It is a
combination digital theodolite and
EDMI that allows the user to measure
distances and angles electronically,
calculate coordinates of points, and
attached an electronic field book to
collect and record data.
Plane Survey Computations

Plane surveys three-dimensional Cartesian

coordinate system as shown in figure below.
The horizontal components of distance,
Angle, and direction are assumed to be in
the plane defined by the X and Y axis or
“up axis” in a vertical plane perpendicular to
the horizontal XY plane.
It ignores the effect of earth curvature,

the fact that actual level surface
is perpendicular everywhere to the direction
of gravity. Plane survey computations can
be used for horizontal control surveys over
a large areal extent if all observations and
positions are properly referenced to a grid
system using an appropriate map projection.
Traverse
Multiple lines of pre-measured lengths are inter-connected to measure angles and
distances. Traverse surveying is a popular method of surveying.
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines from
the framework and the direction and lengths of the survey lines are measured with
the help of an angle measuring instrument and a tape or chain respectively.
Two types of traverse:
a. Closed traverse - when the lines
form
a circuit which ends at the starting
point.
b. Open traverse – when the lines
form a
circuit ends elsewhere accept starting
point.
Partitioning Land
Partitioning land is a problem that can usually be classified according to one of two
types of dividing line --- a line of known direction of a line through a known point.
A preliminary line is often required that satisfies the given condition. Then the line
is translated parallel to itself in the first condition of pivoted about the known point
in the second condition to obtain the required area.

Curves
Horizontal curves – Horizontal
curves are used in route projects to
provide a smooth transitions
between straight-line tangent
sections. These curves are simple
circular curves.
Vertical curves – are used in

vertical alignments of route projects to provide smooth transition between grade
lines. These curves are usually equal-tangent parabolic curves.

TO DO:
1. Assignment No. 6: Group Activity

Write the name of the Members and Team Leader
Part A: PREPARATION
Instruction:
Prepare of the following materials:

1. Steel tape
2. Stone
Part B: MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCE AND ANGLES

Instruction:
1. Go to your nearest brgy. Gymnasium or basketball court or any court or any safe area
in your community.
2. Establish a point on a field and mark.
3. From the established point measure 5 lines of distance 20 m in different directions with
the established point as the reference.
4. Use the stone to mark the vertices of the triangle and call it as point A. and B…. and
so on.
5. Measure and record the distance of each adjacent 2 lines from their outward point.
6. Compute the included angle (using sine or cosine law).
7. Compute the area of each triangle and the total marked area.
8. Make sure to document the activities by recording video.
Part C: DATA RECORDING
Instruction:
1. Tabulate the data using the format below:
TOTAL AREA
Included Chord Length of Computed Correction Adjusted Area
Angle Distance Side Angles Angle Angle sq.m
<ARB 20 m
<BRC 20 m
<CRD 20 m
<DRE 20 m
<ERA 20 m
TOTAL AREA
2. Show your computations
Part D: SUMMARY:
Describe your learning and problems encountered during the activities.
Review of Concepts:
The term opportunity implies a good chance or a favourable situation to do something

offered by circumstances. In the same vein, business opportunity means a good or
favourable change available to run a specific business in a given environment at a given
point of time
Entrepreneurial opportunity is the point at which identifiable consumer demand meets

the feasibility of satisfying the requested product or service. In the field of
entrepreneurship, specific criteria need to be met to move from an idea into an
opportunity.

Lesson 7: CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT- Construction

Project Management
1.1 Construction Project
1.2 Project Life Cycle
1.3 Labour and Material Utilization
1.4 Cost Estimation
Time Frame: 6 hrs
Introduction:
The largest industry in the world is the construction industry. growth in this
industry in fact is an indicator of the economic conditions of a country. This is
because the construction industry consumes a wide employment circle of labor. In
general, the construction industry is more challenging than other industries due
to: its unique nature; every project is one of a kind; and many conflicting parties
are involved; projects are constrained by time, money and quality; and high risk.

1. Learn the knowledge of the stage of surveying in the field of construction works.
2. Familiarize with the different types of building materials used in constructions.
3. Familiarize with basic management in building construction works
Learning Activities
map.
PRE-TEST
Questions:
1
1. What is construction project?

2. What is the goal of construction project?
Construction Project
A project is made up of a group of interrelated work activities constrained by a
specific scope, budget, and schedule to deliver capital assents needed to achieve
the strategic goals of an agency. The goal of construction projects is to build
something. What differentiate the construction industry from other industries is
that its project are large, built on site and generally unique. Time, money, labor,
equipment and materials are kinds of resources that are consumed by the project
Projects begin with a stated goal established by the owner and accomplished by
the project team. As the team begins to design, estimate, and plan the project,
the members learn more about the tlpr9ject than was known when the goal was
first established. The often to a redefinition of the project goals.
You can't possibly reach your project's goal if you don't know what it is. When you
understand how your projects fit in with the broader company direction. It's time
to really pin down your goal.
How exactly do you go about determining your goal? First go back to the person
who asked you to take on the projects and grill him or her about what's expected
of this project. But think about whether that's realistic and whether one of these
goals should be paramount in guiding you and your project team.
When you understand how your goal you can begin to define the specific para
meters of the project. This is often referred to as a project's scope. It is necessary
to know that a scope is not a goal.
All project must have a definite beginning and end. It needs to determine the time
it will take to complete the project by developing the project schedule. Scheduling
involves breaking down the work into manageable activities needed to accomplish
the scope of each deliverable estimating the duration of each activity, and placing
them in logical sequence.
Every project needs a budget in initially define its funding requirement. The project
manager developed the budget based on the cost. estimates at the beginning of
each project.
Breaking Project into Phases
2
How does all the goal and scope analysis relate to project? Knowing your goal and
scope helps you to identify the steps you should be performing to accomplish
them. Before you create your first task, you should probably begin to think beyond
the scope of your projects to more detailed project parameters.
Parameters to consider:
1.Deliverable are tangible products, services, or results that you'll produce during
your project.
2.key Dates. In addition to the project and date, do you have meet other key dates
along the way?
3. Completion Criteria "Knowing your completion criteria gives your team
something specific to aim for and helps you create the last phase of your project.
4. Expectations: Knowing when you escape from your team, management, and
yourself can help you identify some tasks.
5. Potential Risks: Identifying potential areas can help you build in sone checks
and balances to help avoid or minimize them.
Project Life Cycle
The project life cycle may be viewed

as a process through which a project
is implemented from cradle to grave.
This process is often very complex;
however, it can be decomposed into
several stages as indicated by the
general outline in Figure 1-1. The
solutions at various stages are then
integrated to obtain the final
outcome. Although each stage
requires different expertise, it
usually includes both technical and
managerial activities in the
knowledge domain of the specialist.
The owner may choose to
decompose the entire process into
more or less stages based on the size
and nature of the project, and thus
obtain the most efficient result in
implementation. Very often, the owner retains direct control of work in the
3
planning and programming stages, but increasingly outside planners and financial
experts are used as consultants because of the complexities of projects.
Since operation and maintenance of a facility will go on long after the completion
and acceptance of a project, it is usually treated as a separate problem except in
the consideration of the life cycle cost of a facility. All stages from conceptual
planning and feasibility studies to the acceptance of a facility for occupancy may
be broadly lumped together and referred to as the Design/Construct process, while
the procurement and construction alone are traditionally regarded as the province
of the construction industry.
Construction Project Phases:

Preconstruction Phase
The preconstruction phase of a project can be broken into conceptual planning,
schematic design, and design development, and contract document.
1. Design:
a. First stage of construction project
b. The designer (architect or engineer) assesses the feasibility of the design based
on regulations and codes of the building, the size of the building and the amount
of space needed by the owner.
c. Prepare the schematic design, researching the type of equipment and materials
needed and their cost.
d. Final preparation of the documents such as drawing, specifications, general
conditions, and bill of quantities.
2. Bidding and award phase:
a. The project formally transits from design into construction.
b. It begins with an invitation for specific bidders.
c. In fast-track projects, this phase overlaps with the design phase.
d. If the project is phased, each work package will be bid out individually.
e. It is very important stage to select highly qualified contractors. It is not wise to
select the under-bid contractors
Procurement Phase
The project team purchases the required equipment, materials, and hire labor to
complete the project.
Construction Phase
1. This stage takes the project from procurement through the final completion.
2. It includes setting up of temporary facilities, securing the site, developing
materials and handling plan, establishing safety programs and more.
Closeout Phase
1. Transition from design and construction to the actual use of the constructed
facility.
4
2. The project team create a project punch-list of any tasks that did not get
accomplished and many conduct a post-project review, document lesson learned,
archive documents, or prepare a project completion report.
Types of Construction:
1. Residential Housing construction – includes single-family houses, multi-family
dwellings, and high-rise apartments of condominium.
2. Institutional and commercial building construction – encompasses a great
variety of project types and sized, such as schools and universities, medical clinics
and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and
large shopping centers, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and
skyscrapers for offices and hotels.
3. Specialized Industrial construction – involves large scale projects with high
degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical
processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants.
4. Infrastructure and heavy construction – includes projects such as highways,
mass transit system, tunnels, bridge, pipelines, and drainage system and sewage
treatment plants. Most are publicly owned.
Labour And Material Utilization
Materials utilization is definitely in of our local areas when we start planning the
development projects. Bringing ideas which can facilitate the reduction of energy,
waters and materials use as well as the enhancement of overall efficiency of
building and facilities.
Historical Perspective
Good project management in construction must vigorously pursue the efficient
utilization of labor, material and equipment. Improvement of labor productivity
should be a major and continual concern of those who are responsible for cost
control of constructed facilities. Material handling, which includes procurement,
inventory, shop fabrication and field servicing, requires special attention for cost
reduction. The use of new equipment and innovative methods has made possible
wholesale changes in construction technologies in recent decades. Organizations
which do not recognize the impact of various innovations and have not adapted to
changing environments have justifiably been forced out of the mainstream of
construction activities.
Observing the trends in construction technology presents a very mixed and
ambiguous picture. On the one hand, many of the techniques and materials used
for construction are essentially unchanged since the introduction of mechanization
in the early part of the twentieth century. For example, a history of the Panama
Canal construction from 1904 to 1914 argues that:
5
The work could not have done any faster or more efficiently in our day, despite all
technological and mechanical advances in the time since, the reason being that no
present system could possibly carry the spoil away any faster or more efficiently
than the system employed. No motor trucks were used in the digging of the canal;
everything ran on rails. And because of the mud and rain, no other method would
have worked half so well.
In contrast to this view of one large project, one may also point to the continual
change and improvements occurring in traditional materials and techniques.
Bricklaying provides a good example of such changes:
Bricklaying is said not to have changed in thousands of years; perhaps in the literal
placing of brick on brick it has not. But masonry technology has changed a great
deal. Motorized wheelbarrows and mortar mixers, sophisticated scaffolding
systems, and forklift trucks now assist the bricklayer. New epoxy mortars give
stronger adhesion between bricks. Mortar additives and cold-weather protection
eliminate winter shutdowns.
Add to this list of existing innovations the possibility of robotic bricklaying;
automated prototypes for masonry construction already exist. Technical change is
certainly occurring in construction, although it may occur at a slower rate than in
other sectors of the economy.
The United States construction industry often points to factors which cannot be
controlled by the industry as a major explanatory factor in cost increases and lack
of technical innovation. These include the imposition of restrictions for protection
of the environment and historical districts, requirements for community
participation in major construction projects, labor laws which allow union strikes
to become a source of disruption, regulatory policies including building codes and
zoning ordinances, and tax laws which inhibit construction abroad. However, the
construction industry should bear a large share of blame for not realizing earlier
that the technological edge held by the large U.S. construction firms has eroded
in face of stiff foreign competition. Many past practices, which were tolerated when
U.S. contractors had a technological lead, must now be changed in the face of stiff
competition. Otherwise, the U.S. construction industry will continue to find itself in
trouble.
With a strong technological base, there is no reason why the construction industry
cannot catch up and reassert itself to meet competition wherever it may be.
Individual design and/or construction firms must explore new ways to improve
productivity for the future. Of course, operational planning for construction
projects is still important, but such tactical planning has limitations and may soon
reach the point of diminishing return because much that can be wrung out of the
existing practices have already been tried. What is needed the most is strategic
planning to usher in a revolution which can improve productivity by an order of
magnitude or more. Strategic planning should look at opportunities and ask
whether there are potential options along which new goals may be sought on the
6
basis of existing resources. No one can be certain about the success of various
development options for the design professions and the construction industry.
However, with the availability of today's high technology, some options have good
potential of success because of the social and economic necessity which will
eventually push barriers aside. Ultimately, decisions for action, not plans, will
dictate future outcomes.
Labor Productivity
Productivity in construction is often broadly defined as output per labor hour.
Since labor constitutes a large part of the construction cost and the quantity of
labor hours in performing a task in construction is more susceptible to the
influence of management than are materials or capital, this productivity measure
is often referred to as labor productivity. However, it is important to note that
labor productivity is a measure of the overall effectiveness of an operating
system in utilizing labor, equipment and capital to convert labor efforts into
useful output, and is not a measure of the capabilities of labor alone. For
example, by investing in a piece of new equipment to perform certain tasks in
construction, output may be increased for the same number of labor hours, thus
resulting in higher labor productivity.
Construction output may be expressed in terms of functional units or constant
dollars. In the former case, labor productivity is associated with units of product
per labor hour, such as cubic yards of concrete placed per hour or miles of
highway paved per hour. In the latter case, labor productivity is identified with
value of construction (in constant dollars) per labor hour. The value of
construction in this regard is not measured by the benefit of constructed
facilities, but by construction cost. Labor productivity measured in this way
requires considerable care in interpretation. For example, wage rates in
construction have been declining in the US during the period 1970 to 1990, and
since wages are an important component in construction costs, the value of
construction put in place per hour of work will decline as a result, suggesting
lower productivity.
Productivity at the Job Site

Contractors and owners are often concerned with the labor activity at job sites.
For this purpose, it is convenient to express labor productivity as functional units
per labor hour for each type of construction task. However, even for such
specific purposes, different levels of measure may be used. For example, cubic
yards of concrete placed per hour is a lower level of measure than miles of
highway paved per hour. Lower-level measures are more useful for monitoring
individual activities, while higher-level measures may be more convenient for
developing industry-wide standards of performance.
7
While each contractor or owner is free to use its own system to measure labor
productivity at a site, it is a good practice to set up a system which can be used
to track productivity trends over time and in varied locations. Considerable
efforts are required to collect information regionally or nationally over a number
of years to produce such results. The productivity indices compiled from
statistical data should include parameters such as the performance of major
crafts, effects of project size, type and location, and other major project
influences.
In order to develop industry-wide standards of performance, there must be a
general agreement on the measures to be useful for compiling data. Then, the job
site productivity data collected by various contractors and owners can be
correlated and analyzed to develop certain measures for each of the major
segment of the construction industry. Thus, a contractor or owner can compare
its performance with that of the industry average.
Productivity in the Construction Industry

Because of the diversity of the construction industry, a single index for the entire
industry is neither meaningful nor reliable. Productivity indices may be developed
for major segments of the construction industry nationwide if reliable statistical
data can be obtained for separate industrial segments. For this general type of
productivity measure, it is more convenient to express labor productivity as
constant dollars per labor hours since dollar values are more easily aggregated
from a large amount of data collected from different sources. The use of constant
dollars allows meaningful approximations of the changes in construction output
from one year to another when price deflators are applied to current dollars to
obtain the corresponding values in constant dollars. However, since most
construction price deflators are obtained from a combination of price indices for
material and labor inputs, they reflect only the change of price levels and do not
capture any savings arising from improved labor productivity. Such deflators tend
to overstate increases in construction costs over a long period of time, and
consequently understate the physical volume or value of construction work in years
subsequent to the base year for the indices.
Factors Affecting Job-Site Productivity

Job-site productivity is influenced by many factors which can be characterized
either as labor characteristics, project work conditions or as non-productive
activities. The labor characteristics include:
• age, skill and experience of workforce
• leadership and motivation of workforce
The project work conditions include among other factors:
• Job size and complexity.
• Job site accessibility.
8
• Labor availability.
• Equipment utilization.
• Contractual agreements.
• Local climate.
• Local cultural characteristics, particularly in foreign operations.
The non-productive activities associated with a project may or may not be paid
by the owner, but they nevertheless take up potential labor resources which can
otherwise be directed to the project. The non-productive activities include among
other factors:
• Indirect labor required to maintain the progress of the project
• Rework for correcting unsatisfactory work
• Temporary work stoppage due to inclement weather or material shortage
• Time off for union activities
• Absentee time, including late start and early quits
• Non-working holidays
• Strikes
Each category of factors affects the productive labor available to a project as well
as the on-site labor efficiency.
Labor productivity is a ratio of output to input that can be used to measure
economics growth, technical progress, and worker efficiency.
Labor Characteristics:
1. Quality of work – caliber of work produced or accomplished
2. Quality of work – volume of acceptable work
3. Job knowledge – knowledge of requirements, methods, techniques and skill in
doing the job
4. Judgment – decision and actions
5. Initiatives – ability to take effective action without being told
6. Communicative ability – effectiveness in oral and written communications
7. Ability to work under pressure – ability to meet tight deadlines and adapt to
changes
8. Security sensitivity – ability to handle confidential information appropriately
9. Safety consciousness – knowledge of good safety practices
10. Related Work knowledge – knowledge of effects of work upon other areas and
knowledge of related areas which have influence on assigned work.
11. Resources Utilization – ability to delineate project needs and locate, plan and
effectively use all resources available.
12. Dependability – reliability assuming and carrying commitments and obligations.
13. Analytic ability – effectiveness in thinking through a problem and reaching sound
conclusion.
14. Interpersonal Skill – effectiveness in relating in a appropriate and productive
manner to others.
9
15. Profit and Cost Sensitivity – ability to seek out, generate and implement profit
making ideas.
16. Planning Effectiveness – ability to anticipate needs, forecast condition, set goals
and standard, plan and schedule work and measure result.
17. Leadership – ability to develop in the others willingness and desire to work
towards common objectives.
18. Delegating – effectiveness in delegating work appropriate.
19. Development People – ability to select, train and appraise personnel, set standard
of performance, and provide motivation to grow. In their capacity. <li>Diversity
(Equal Employment Opportunities) – ability to be sensitive to the needs of
minorities, female and other protected groups and to demonstrates affirmative
action in responding to these needs.
Materials management – refers overseeing the location and movement of
physical items or products. Materials represent major expenses in constructions,
so minimizing procurement or purchase cost presents important opportunities for
reducing costs. The availability of materials may greatly influence the schedule in
projects with a fast track or very tight time schedule: sufficient time for obtaining
the necessary materials must be allowed.
Main elements:
1. Spare parts – integral to the continuing operation of production lines and related
equipment
2. Quality control – ensuring products are of high and consistent value is a major
part of materials management. All parts and materials must be tested to ensure
specific level of quality.
3. Inventory management – refers to method by which business handle tangible
resources and materials in order to make sure resources are readily available for
use.
Tracking of all materials in a company’s inventory.
Cost Estimation
Cost estimates establishes the base line of the project cost at different stages of
development of the project. A cost estimate at a given stage of project
development represents a prediction provided by the cost engineer or estimator
on basis of available data.
Importance of Estimating:
1. Enables to weigh anticipated benefits against anticipated costs to see whether
the project makes sense.
10
2. Allows to see whether the necessary funds are available to support the
project. 3. Serves as guidelines to help ensure sufficient funds to complete the
project.
Construction cost estimates may be viewed from different perspectives because
of different institutional requirements. In spite of the many types of cost
estimates used at different stages of a project, cost estimates can best be
classified into three major categories according to their functions. A construction
cost estimate serves one of the three basic functions: design, bid and control.
For establishing the financing of a project, either a design estimate or a bid
estimate is used.
Types of Construction cost estimates:
1. Design Estimates- For the owner or its designated design professionals, the
types of cost estimates encountered run parallel with the planning and design as
follows:
a. Screening estimates (or order of magnitude estimates) - made before the
facility is designed and rely on the cost of similar facilities in the past.
b. Preliminary estimates (or conceptual estimates) -based on the conceptual
design of the facility at the state when the basic technologies for the design are
known.
c. Detailed estimates (or definitive estimates) -made when the scope of work is
clearly defined and detailed design is in progress. Engineer's estimates based on
plans and specifications.
For each of these different estimates, the amount of design information available
typically increases.
2. Bid Estimates- For the contractor, a bid estimate submitted to the owner
either for competitive bidding or negotiation consists of direct construction cost
including field supervision, plus a markup to cover general overhead and profits.
The direct cost of construction for bid estimates is usually derived from a
combination of the following approaches.
a. Subcontractor quotations
b. Quantity takeoffs
c. Construction procedures.
3. Control Estimates. For monitoring the project during construction, a control
estimate is derived from available information to establish:
a. Budget estimate for financing
b. Budgeted cost after contracting but prior to construction
c. Estimated cost to completion during the progress of construction.
11
Self-Evaluation
(Copy and paste this part in a new document).
(Identification). Identify the correct answers and put it in the line before each number.
1. It is made up of a group of interrelated work activities constrained by a specific scope,

budget, and schedule to deliver capital assents needed to achieve the strategic goals of
an agency.
a. deliverable c. project
b. risk d. criteria
2. are tangible products, services, or results that you'll produce during your
project.
a. deliverable c. project
b. risk d. criteria
3. It may be viewed as a process through which a project is implemented from cradle to

grave. This process is often very complex.
a. deliverable c. project life cycle
b. risks d. construction project
4. It includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments of

condominium.
a. residential housing construction c. industrial building construction
b. commercial building construction d. heavy construction
5. In construction, it is often broadly defined as output per labor hour.
a. work c. project
b. risk d. productivity
12
6. Establishes the base line of the project cost at different stages of development of the
project.
a. construction project c. leadership
b. quality control d. cost estimation
7. The ability to seek out, generate and implement profit making ideas.
a. analytic ability c. leadership
b. interpersonal skill d. profit and cost sensitivity
8. The effectiveness in relating in an appropriate and productive manner to others.
a. analytic ability c. leadership
9. Refers to overseeing the location and movement of physical items or products.
a. analytic ability c. material management
10. Refers to method by which business handle tangible resources and materials in order
to make sure resources are readily available for use.
a. budget management c. material management
b. inventory management d. construction management
Review of Concepts:
A project is made up of a group of interrelated work activities constrained by a specific

scope, budget, and schedule to deliver capital assents needed to achieve the strategic
goals of an agency. The goal of construction projects is to build something. What
differentiate the construction industry from other industries is that its project are large,
built on site and generally unique. Time, money, labor, equipment and materials are
kinds of resources that are consumed by the project Projects begin with a stated goal
established by the owner and accomplished by the project team. As the team begins to
design, estimate, and plan the project, the members learn more about the project than
13
was known when the goal was first established. The often to a redefinition of the
project goals.
POST TEST
(1-4). Enumerate the four types of construction.
(5-7). Enumerate the types of construction cost estimates.
(8-10). Give the three importance of estimating.
14
Self-Evaluation Answers
1. c
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. d
6. d
7. d
8. b
9. c
10. b
Post-test Answers
(1–4)
1. Residential Housing construction
2. Institutional and commercial building construction
3. Specialized Industrial construction
4. Infrastructure and heavy construction
(5-7)
5. Design Estimates
6. Bid Estimates
7. Control Estimates
(8-10)
8. Enables to weigh anticipated benefits against anticipated costs to see whether the
project makes sense.
9. Allows to see whether the necessary funds are available to support the project.
10. Serves as guidelines to help ensure sufficient funds to complete the project.
15
LESSON 8: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering
1.2 Soil Relationship and Classification
1.3 Geotechnical Structures
Time Frame: 6 hrs
Introduction:
Geotechnical Engineering is a broader term for soil mechanics. Defined as that phase of
civil engineering that deals with the state of rest or motion of soil bodies under the
action of force systems. The application of civil engineering technology to some aspect
of the earth.

1. Define geotechnical engineering and its applications.
2. Familiarize the soil classification systems.
Learning Activities
map.
PRE-TEST
Questions:
1. Explain why is it important to study geotechnical engineering?

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical Engineering is a broader term for soil mechanics. Defined as
that phase of civil engineering that deals with the state of rest or motion of soil
bodies under the action of force systems. The application of civil engineering
technology to some aspect of the earth.
History
Ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Chinese and Indians knew about constructing

dikes and leaves out of the soils found in river flood plains. The Aztecs constructed
temples and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico long before the
Spaniards arrived. European architects and builders during the middle ages learned
about the problem of settlements of cathedrals and large buildings (e.g. Learning
Tower of Pisa) Scandinavian used timber piles to support houses and wharf
structures on their soft clays.
Mid-1700’s – The design of foundations and constructions involving soil and rock
was developed.
Coulomb – most famous geotechnical engineer. Interested in problems of earth
pressures against retaining wall.
Collin – concerned with failures in clay slopes as well as measurement of shear
strengths in clays.
Darcy – established law for the flow of water through sands.
Rankine – developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against retaining
walls.
Gregory – utilized horizontal sub drains and compacted earth-fill buttresses to
stabilize railroad cut slopes.
1914-1922
Atterberg – defined the consistency limits for clays
Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railway – the first to use
the word geotechnical.
1925: Prof. Karl Terzaghi an Austrian – Father of Soil Mechanics, published
firstmodern textbook on soil mechanic.
Geotechnical Engineering contains:
1. Soil Mechanics – soil properties and behavior. Branch of geotechnical
engineering concerned with the engineering mechanics and properties of soil.
2. Soil Dynamics – dynamic properties of soils, earthquake engineering, machine
foundation.

3. Foundation Engineering – deep and shallow foundation. Applies geology, soil

mechanics, rock mechanics and structural engineering to the design and
construction of foundation for civil engineering and other structures.
4. Pavement Engineering – flexible and rigid pavement
5. Rock Mechanics – rock stability and tunneling. Concerned with the engineering
mechanics and properties of rocks.
6. Geo-synthetics – soil improvement
What do geotechnical engineers do?
1. Design foundations
2. Design retaining walls
3. Evaluate slope stability
4. Estimate settlement
5. Evaluate groundwater flow
6. Evaluate hazards: earthquake, landslide, liquefaction
SOIL RELATIONSHIP AND CLASSIFICATION
Soil is the relatively loose agglomerate of mineral and organic materials and
sediments found above the bedrock. Soil is the products of rocks.
Rocks have very strong internal cohesive and molecular forces which hold the
constituent mineral grains together.
Weathering – the geological process that produce soil (chemical and physical).
Soil classification systems:
1. Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D 2487-93) used for virtually
all geotechnical engineering work except highway and road construction.
2. AASHTO Classification system (AASHTO M 145-87) use for highway and
road construction works.
Variation in particle size and shape depends on:
a. Weathering process
b. Transportation process – by water, air and gravity.
Types of soils produced by weathering and transportation process:
a. Boulders
b. Gravel
c. Sand
d. Silt
e. Clay

All soils consist of a collection of gravel, sand, silt or clay particles with varying
spaces between them which are usually filled with water. Soils are usually
cohesionless, cohesive or organics.
Cohesionless soils – have particles that do not tend to stick together. Mostly
composed of sand, may be some silt.
Cohesive soils – characterized by very small particle sizes where surface chemical
effects predominate. They are both sticky and plastic. Mostyle composed of clays.
Organic soils – typically spongy, crumbly and compressible. They are undesirable
for supporting structures. Distinguished by a dark-brown to black color.
Soils contain three components, which may be characterized as solid, liquid, and
gas. Solid components of soils are weathered rock and sometimes organic matter.
Liquid component of soils is almost always water (often with dissolved mater). Gas
component is air. The volume of water and gas is referred to as the void.
SOIL PHYSICAL AND INDEX PROPERTIES

1. Soil composition
Solid, Water, and Air
2. Soil phases
Dry, Fully saturated, and Partially saturated
3. Analytical representation of solid – for the purpose of defining the physical
and index properties of soil it is more convenient to represent the soil skeleton by
a block diagram or phase diagram.

4. Weight – volume relationships

Total volume of soil, V= Vv + Vs or V= Va + Vw + Vs
Va – volume of air
Vw – Volume of water
Vs – Volume of solid
Vv – volume of void
Mass
Total mass of soil, M = Mw + Ms
Ms – Mass of solid
Mw – Mass of water
Weight
Total weight of soil, W = Ww + Ws
Ws – Weight of solid
Ww – Weight of water
Water content or moisture content – the ration of the weight of water to the weight
of solids or equivalently, the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids.

W = Ww/ Ws = Mw/Ms
Unit weight – (specific weight or weight density) ration of the weight of a material
to its volume. The unit weight of water is 9.81 kN/m3
Total unit weight of soil.
Y = W/V = Ws + Ww/ Vv + Vw + Vs
The dry unit weight – ratio of the weight of solids to the weight of solids to the
total volume.
Y = Ws/V = Ws/ Vv + Vw + Vs
GEOTECHNICAL STRUCTURES
Foundation – is a constructed unit that transfer the load from a superstructure

to the ground. Most foundation receive a more or less concentrated load from the
structure and transfer this load the soil underneath the foundation, distributing the
load as a stress over a certain area.
a. Shallow Foundations – mostly for firm soils or light loads. Transfers building
loads to the earth very near to the surface.
b. Deep Foundation – mostly for weak soils or heavy loads.
2. Slope Protection
a. Retaining Walls – for retaining soils from spreading laterally
b. Soil Nailing – steel rods placed into holes drilled into the walls and grouted.
c. Shotcreting – sprayed concrete through a hose and pneumatically at high
velocity onto a surface.
d. Sheet Piles – sheets of interlocking steel or timber driven into the ground,
forming a continuously sheet. Used in excavations, waterfront structures.
3. Dams – for impounding water
a. Earth Dam – embankment dam built by compacting successive layers of the
earth.
b. Concrete Dams – are gravity dams usually built in large blocks divided by
joints to make construction more convenient and reduce thermal stress.
4. Tunnel - underground passageway, dug through the surrounding
soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit commonly at each end.
Geosynthetics – known as geotextiles, geogrids, and geomembranes – use to
increase the safety factor, improve performance and reduce costs in conventional
construction alternatives.
Self-Evaluation
(Copy and paste this part in a new document)

Answer the following questions:
1. What is Geotechnical Engineering?

A. The profession of designing and executing structural works that serve the general
public, such as dams, bridges, aqueducts, canals, highways, power plants, sewerage
systems, and other infrastructure.
B. A branch of engineering that applies the principles of Mechanics and Materials science
for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems.
C. Engineering discipline concerned with the study, design and application of equipment,
devices and systems which use electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.
D. Broader term for soil mechanics. Defined as that phase of civil engineering that deals
with the state of rest or motion of soil bodies under the action of force systems.
2. When does the design of foundations and constructions involving soil and rock was
developed?
A. Mid-1700’s
B. Mid-1800’s
C. Mid-1900’s
D. Mid-1600’s
3. Who is the most famous geotechnical engineer? Interested in problems of earth

pressures against retaining wall?
A. Collin
B. Darcy
C. Coulomb
D. Rankine
4. Who was concerned with failures in clay slopes as well as measurement of shear
strengths in clays?
A. Coulomb
B. Rankine
C. Collin
D. Darcy
5. Who established law for the flow of water through sands?

A. Darcy
B. Coulomb
C. Gregory
D. Rankine
6. Who developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against retaining walls?
A. Darcy
B. Gregory
C. Rankine

D. Coulomb
7. Who utilized horizontal sub drains and compacted earth-fill buttresses to stabilize
railroad cut slopes?
A. Rankine
B. Gregory
C. Coulomb
D. Darcy
8. Who defined the consistency limits for clays?

A. Rankine
B. Coulomb
C. Darcy
D. Atterberg
9. What is the branch of geotechnical engineering concerned with the engineering

mechanics and properties of soil?
A. Soil Mechanics
B. Soil Dynamics
C. Foundation Engineering
D. Pavement Engineering
10. What dynamic properties of soils, earthquake engineering, machine foundation?

A. Pavement Engineering
B. Soil Mechanics
D. Soil Dynamics
11. What applies geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics and structural engineering to
the design and construction of foundation for civil engineering and other structures?
A. Soil Dynamics
B. Soil Mechanics
D. Rock Mechanics
12. It is flexible and rigid pavement, what is this?

A. Pavement Engineering
B. Rock Mechanics
C. Geo-synthetics
D. Foundation Engineering
13. It concerned with the engineering mechanics and properties of rocks, what is this?
A. Geo-synthetics

B. Rock Mechanics
14. It is for soil Improvement, what is this?

A. Foundation Engineering
B. Rock Mechanics
C. Geo-synthetics
15. It is relatively loose agglomerate of mineral and organic materials and sediments
found above the bedrock, what is this?
A. Soil
B. Rocks
C. Weathering
16. These have very strong internal cohesive and molecular forces which hold the
constituent mineral grains together, what is this?
A. Weathering
B. Rocks
C. Soil
17. It is the products of rocks, what is this?

A. Soil
B. Weathering
C. Rocks
18. What is the geological process that produce soil (chemical and physical)?
A. Weathering
B. Rocks
C. Soil
19. These have particles that do not tend to stick together. Mostly composed of sand,
may be some silt. What is this?
A. Cohesionless soils
B. Cohesive soils
C. Organic soils
20. These characterized by very small particle sizes where surface chemical effects
predominate. What is this?
B. Organic soils
C. Cohesive soils

Review of Concepts:
The term opportunity implies a good chance or a favourable situation to do something

offered by circumstances. In the same vein, business opportunity means a good or
favourable change available to run a specific business in a given environment at a given
point of time
Entrepreneurial opportunity is the point at which identifiable consumer demand meets

the feasibility of satisfying the requested product or service. In the field of
entrepreneurship, specific criteria need to be met to move from an idea into an
opportunity.
POST TEST
1. Typically spongy, crumbly and compressible. What is this?

B. Organic soils
C. Cohesive soils
2. Solid, Water, and Air, what soil physical and index properties is this?
A. Soil composition
B. Soil phases
C. Analytical representation of solid
D. Weight – volume relationships
3. Dry, fully saturated, and Partially saturated, what soil physical and index
properties is this?
A. Soil phases
B. Analytical representation of solid
C. Soil composition
D. Weight – volume relationships
4. It is for the purpose of defining the physical and index properties of soil it is
more convenient to represent the soil skeleton by a block diagram or phase
diagram. What soil physical and index properties is this?
A. Weight – volume relationships

B. Soil phases
C. Soil composition
D. Analytical representation of solid
5. Total volume of soil, V= Vv + Vs or V= Va + Vw + Vs, what soil physical and

index properties is this?
A. Soil phases
B. Soil composition
C. Weight – volume relationships
D. Analytical representation of solid
6. It is a constructed unit that transfer the load from a superstructure to the

ground. Most foundation receive a more or less concentrated load from the
structure and transfer this load the soil underneath the foundation, distributing the
load as a stress over a certain area. What is this?
A. Shallow Foundations
B. Deep Foundation
C. Foundation
7. Mostly for firm soils or light loads. Transfers building loads to the earth very
near to the surface. What is this?
B. Deep Foundation
C. Foundation
8. What is mostly for weak soils or heavy loads?

B. Deep Foundation
C. Foundation
9. What slope protection, steel rods placed into holes drilled into the walls and
grouted?
A. Shotcreting
B. Soil Nailing
C. Retaining Walls
D. Sheet Piles
10. What slope protection for retaining soils from spreading laterally?
A. Shotcreting
B. Soil Nailing
C. Retaining Walls
D. Sheet Piles

11. What slope protection sprayed concrete through a hose and pneumatically at
high velocity onto a surface?
A. Shotcreting
B. Soil Nailing
C. Retaining Walls
D. Sheet Piles
12. What slope protection sheets of interlocking steel or timber driven into the
ground, forming a continuously sheet?
A. Shotcreting
B. Soil Nailing
C. Retaining Walls
D. Sheet Piles
13. It is for impounding water, what is this?

A. Earth Dam
B. Concrete Dams
C. Dams
14. What is the embankment dam built by compacting successive layers of the
earth?
A. Earth Dam
B. Concrete Dams
C. Dams
15. Are gravity dams usually built in large blocks divided by joints to make
construction more convenient and reduce thermal stress, what is this?
A. Earth Dam
B. Concrete Dams
C. Dams
II- PICK ONE IN THE BOX
The Aztecs Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railway Prof. Karl Terzaghi
Unified Soil Classification System Geosynthetics

16. They constructed temples and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley
of Mexico long before the Spaniards arrived.
17. The first to use the word geotechnical.
18. Father of Soil Mechanics, published firstmodern textbook on soil
mechanic.
19. It is used for virtually all geotechnical engineering work except highway
and road construction.
20. known as geotextiles, geogrids, and geomembranes – use to increase
the safety factor, improve performance and reduce costs in conventional
construction alternatives.
1. D
2. A
3. C
4. C
5. A

6. C
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. B
14. C
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. A
19. A
20. C
Post-test Answers
1. B
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. C
11. A
12. D
13. C
14. A
15. B
16. The Aztecs
17. Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railway
18. Prof. Karl Terzaghi
19. Unified Soil Classification System

20. Geosynthetics

LESSON 9: WATER RESOURCES

1.1 Water Resource Engineering
1.2 Basics of Hydraulics
1.3 Hydraulic Structures
Time Frame: 6 hrs
Introduction:
Water resources are natural resources of water that are beneficial to human consumption.
Some uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities.
97%of water on the Earth is salt water and only 3% is fresh water, slightly over two
thirds of this frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is
found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the
air.
Water resource Engineering deals with the physical problems associated with water
resources and also with planning and management of these resources which includes
conceptualization and implementation of strategies for delivering water of sufficient
quantity and quality to meet societal needs in a cost-effective manner.
Objectives/Desired Learning Outcomes:
1. Knowledge of the scope of Water Resource Engineering in the field of Civil

Engineering.
Learning Activities
map.
PRE-TEST
Questions:
1
ES130 CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION
1. Explain why is it important to study water resource engineering?
Water Resource Engineering

Water resources engineering is the study and management of equipment, facilities
and techniques that are used to manage and preserve life's most plentiful
resource. In addition to assessing how and the best ways in which to control water
as it pertains to water-related activities - such as irrigation, waste disposal and
canal development - water resource engineers are also frequently involved in water
management to ensure that it's safe to drink both for humans, plants, and animal
usage. Water resource engineers may be charged with developing new systems
or processes for private or government entities that can preserve freshwater
sources and find new ones.
Fundamental of Hydraulics - it presents properties of fluids, hydrostatics,

kinematics, and dynamics of liquid. The basis for all hydraulic system is expressed
by Pascal's law which states that the pressure exerted anywhere upon an enclosed
liquid is transmitted undiminished, in all directions, to the interior of the container.
Hydraulic system s work by using pressurized fluid topower an engine. These
hydraulic presses out pressure on a small amount of fluid in order to generate a
large amount of power. The basic idea of hydraulic system is, water in a contained
system has pressure put on it from one side.
Surface water hydrology - it presents the flow of water in the natural

environment such as rainfall and
subsequent infiltration, evaporation, flow
in rills and streams, etc. It is includes the
study of surface water movement and
the distribution of surface water in space
and time.
2
Groundwater engineering -
concerned with hydraulics of wells,
land subsidence due to excessive
pumping , contaminant transport,
site remediation and landfills. The
main concerns in groundwater
engineering include groundwater
contamination , conservation of
supplies, and water quality.
Coastal engineering - is the topics on interface between land and ocean and
lakes. It is about on the mechanics of ocean
waves and their transformation in shallow
water and resultant coastal circulation. It
also involves the planning, design, and
construction of works aimed at reclaiming
land from the sea, countering subsidence,
protecting shorelines, facilitating navigation,
and providing harbors.
SOURCES OF FRESH WATER

1. Surface Water - water in a river,
lake or fresh water wetland. It is
naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost
through discharge to the oceans,
evaporation, evapotranspiration
and ground water recharge.
2. Under river flow - throughout the

course of a river, the total volume of water
transported downstream will often be a
combination of the visible free water flow
together with a substantial contribution
3
flowing through rocks and sediments that underlie the river and it's floodplain
called hyporheic zone.
3. Groundwater - fresh water located in

the subsurface pore space of soil and
rocks. It is also water that is flowing
within aquifiers below the water table.
4. Frozen water - solid state water

in the form of ice. The Himalayas, which
are often called "The Roof if the World",
contains some of the most extensive
and rough high altitude area on Earth
as well as the greatest area of glaciers
and permafrost of the poles.
5. Desalination - an artificial
process by which saline water (sea
water) is converted to fresh water.
Distillation and reverse osmosis is
the most common desalination
processes.
4
BASICS OF HYDRAULICS
 Fluid density - p, defined as its mass per unit volume (kg/cu.m or slug per
cu.ft)
- it refers to the mass per unit volume of drilling fluid.
 Specific gravity - s.g., refers to the dimensionless ration of the density of a
given material to the density of pure water at a reference temperature and
pressure.
 Specific weight - y, is the weight per unit volume or product of p and g
(gravitational acceleration =9.81 m/s²)
 Discharge - the flow rate of a stream is equal to the flow velocity (speed)
multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the flow . Q = AV (Q = discharge, A =
cross-sectional area, V = velocity)
 Open channel hydraulics - deals with flows having a free surface in
channels constructed for water supply, Irragation, drainage, and hydroelectric
power generations; in sewers, culverts, and tunnels flowing partially full; and in
natural streams and rivers.
 Open channel flow - the flow of a single phase liquid with a free surface in
a gravitational field when the effects of surface tension and of the overlaying gas
can be neglected.
.
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
1. Reservoirs - used for the storage of

water, for the purpose of conservation
for later use, for mitigation of flood
damages, for balancing a time varying
supply and a time varying demand (for
water supply or generation of
hydropower), for maintenance of
downstream flow (for water quality
preservation, navigation, fisheries or wildlife habitat) and for storing excess
runoff in urbanized areas.
Types:
a. Single objective reservoir - built for one purpose only. (Example for
water supply)
5
b. Multi-objective reservoir -
built to satisfy multiple purposes
(example built for flood control
and hydropower)
2. Dams - are generally classified according to the material used in the

structure and the basic type of design.
a. Concrete gravity dams - depend on
their weight for their stability.
b. Concrete Arch dams - transfer the hydrostatic forces to their abutments by

Arch action. Curved in plan so that they
transmit part of the water pressures to the
canyon walls of the valleys in which they
are built.
c. Concrete buttresses dams - the hydrostatic forces is resisted by a slap that

transmits the load to buttresses
perpendicular to the dam axis.
6
d. Embankment dams
i. Earth-fill dams - constructed in lifts of earth having the proper moisture

content. Each lift is thoroughly
compacted and bonded to the
preceding layer by power rollers of
proper design and weight.
ii. Rock-fill dams - a water retaining

barrier composed of three major parts: fill
of loose rock by dumping or roller
compaction; impervious membrane made
of masonry, concrete, asphaltic concrete,
steel sheet piles, timber, or other
materials; and transition layer.
3. Spillways - structures that release

the excess flood water that cannot be
contained in the allotted storage. It is also
a structure used to provide the controlled
release of water from a dam or levee
downstream, typically into the riverbed of
the dammed river itself.
7
4. Outlet works - it's purpose is to

regulate the operational outflows from
the reservoir. The intake structure
forms the entrance to the outlet
works. It may also include trash,
racks, fish screens, and gates.
5. Energy dissipation structures- needed to prevent scour at the toe of the

dam or erosion in the receiving stream or damage to the adjacent structures.
6. Diversion structures - used to divert flow of water especially in

constructing a dam across a perennial river
so that the site can be dewatered and the
foundation excavation can proceed in the
dry.
a. Cofferdams - are temporary dams used

to maintain dewatered a portion of a
construction site.
8
7. Open channel transitions -

used to connect channels of
different cross sections. The
objective of this design is to avoid
excessive energy losses and to
minimize surface waves and outlet
turbulence.
8. Culverts - short conduits that convey

flows under a roadway or other
embankment generally constructed of
concrete or corrugated metal. It is a
structure that channels water past an
obstacle or to channel a subterranean
Waterway.
Self-Evaluation
(Copy and paste this part in a new document)
Multiple Choices. Identify the correct answers and put it in the line before each number.
1. It deals with the physical problems associated with water resources.

A. Water Resource Engineering
B. Surveying
C. Hydraulics
2. It is concerned with hydraulics of wells, lands subsidence due to excessive pumping,

contaminant transport, site recommendation and landfills.
A. Water Source Engineering
B. Coastal Engineering
9
C. Groundwater Engineering
D. Surface Water Hydrology
3. The one who study the rainfall and computer the surface ran off.
A. Water Source Engineering
B. Coastal Engineering
C. Groundwater Engineering
D. Surface Water Hydrology
4. A salt water on our Earth has a percentage of _______.

A. 98%
B. 3%
C. 95%
D. 97%
5. The percentage of fresh water in our Earth has only ______.

A. 2%
B. 87%
C. 5%
D. 3%
6. It presents properties of liquids, hydrostatics, kinematics, and dynamics of liquids.

A. Hydrology
B. Hydrolic
C. Hydraulics
D. Container
7. What is the roles of water resource engineers?

A. Ensure the management of water to make it safe.
B. To build and find new ones that can pressure sources of water.
C. They are incharge with developing new systems or processes for private or
government.
D. All of the above.
8. All of the following is the example of Surface Water Hydrology, except.

A. Streams
B. River flows
C. Landfills
10
D. Lakes
9. What is the main concerns on groundwater engineering?

A. Groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies, and water quality
B. Conservation, water quality, evaporation
C. Groundwater contamination, conservation of supplies and evaporation
D. None of all the above
10. It is a visible free water together with a substantial contribution flowing through
rocks and sediments that underlie the river and its floodplain is?
A. Under river flow
B. Downstream
C. Hyporheic zone
D. Safety zone
Review of Concepts:
Water resources are natural resources of water that are beneficial to human consumption.
Some uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities.
97%of water on the Earth is salt water and only 3% is fresh water, slightly over two
thirds of this frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is
found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the
air.
Water resources engineering is the study and management of equipment, facilities and
techniques that are used to manage and preserve life's most plentiful resource. In
addition to assessing how and the best ways in which to control water as it pertains to
water-related activities - such as irrigation, waste disposal and canal development -
water resource engineers are also frequently involved in water management to ensure
that it's safe to drink both for humans, plants, and animal usage.
11
POST TEST
(Identification). Identify the correct answers and put it in the line before each
number.
1. Fresh water located in the subsurface pore space is in __________.
A. Solid and rock
B. Soil and rock
C. Rock and stone
D. All of the above
2. It is one of the sources of water that is flowing within aquifiers below the water
table.
A. Surface water
B. Frozen water
C. Under river flow
D. Groundwater
3. It is one of the sources of water where the saline water is converted into a mineral
water or fresh water.
A. Desalination
B. Contamination
C. Disalination
D. Evaporation
4. It is used for the storage of water.

A. Dams
B. Reservoir
C. Spillways
D. Outlet works
5. What is the hydraulic structure that is release of excess water?

A. Dams
B. Reservoirs
C. Spillways
D. Outlet works
6. It is the operational outflows from the reservoir.

A. Dams
12
B. Reservoirs
C. Spillways
D. Outlet works
7. Used to maintain dewatered a portion of a construction life.

A. Dams
B. Spillways
C. Cofferdams
D. Outlet works
8. A short conduits that convey flows under a roadway or other embankment generally
constructed of concrete or corrugated metal.
A. Culverts
B. Tube
C. Log
D. Circulated metal
9. The following are the types of reservoirs, except.

A. Double objective reservoir
B. Multi-objective reservoir
C. Single objective reservoir
D. All of the above
10. Who is the person that gives the theories and laws about the Hydraulics?
A. Pakman's law
B. Pacsal's law
C. Pascal's law
D. Oscal's law
13
1. A
2. C
3. D
4. D
5. D
6. C
7. D
8. C
9. A
10. D
Post-test Answers
11. B
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. D
17. C
18. A
19. A
20. C
14

ES130 CEOrient Final Module

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

ES 130 CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION Module 6

LESSON 6: CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT – SURVEYING

Time Frame: 6 hrs

Objectives/ Desired Learning Outcomes:

In this lesson, learners will be able to:

Briefly answer each question.

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Survey is performed to prepare a map of relative positions on surface of the earth.

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Surveying began in Egypt about 1400 BC

Roman surveyors (Agrimensores) used a groma for laying out roads,

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

ROMAN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

The principal Roman surveying instrument

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

The chorobates was a bench with weighted

The dioptra was a different kind of level. It

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

it would have been useful in tunnels where

Other Surveying Instruments

The chorobates (see above) was already

A portable sundial was found in Verus'

MIDDLE AGES: Land division of Romans continued in Europe

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Famous American Surveyors

20th CENTURY: As technology advanced, population increase and land value

Phases of Surveyor Work

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

2. Geodetic Surveying – surveying technique to determine relative positions of

2. Boundary surveying - establishing

3. Control Surveying - establish a network

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

4. Topographic surveying - collecting

5. Route surveys-topographic and other surveys for long – narrow projects

6. Hydrographic surveying - mapping of

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

4. Taping - direct method of measuring

5. EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) - distance can be measured

Leveling is a branch of surveying to measure levels of different points with respect

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Angles and Direction measurement:

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Direction angles are horizontal angles from a north-south reference meridian to a

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

2. Theodolite – is a precision optical

3. Total stations – The electronic total

Plane Survey Computations

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Plane surveys three-dimensional Cartesian

It ignores the effect of earth curvature,

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

Vertical curves – are used in

ES 130 – CIVIL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION

1. Assignment No. 6: Group Activity

Prepare of the following materials:

Part B: MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCE AND ANGLES

2. Establish a point on a field and mark.

Part C: DATA RECORDING

2. Show your computations

The term opportunity implies a good chance or a favourable situation to do something

Entrepreneurial opportunity is the point at which identifiable consumer demand meets