Electrodynamic Meters

 structural principles
 Consists of
• a pivoted moving coil (Dynamic coil)
• a stationary field coil (Static coil)
• control springs (used to create drag torque)
• a pointer
• a calibrated scale.
 Can measure DC&AC current, voltage

Structure of an AC moving-coil meter

35
 Electrodynamic Meters
 operating principle:
 a current flowing in the static coil I1 generates a magnetic field. This magnetic
field affects the current I2 flowing in the dynamic coil. This causes the dynamic
coil to rotate an alpha angle
 When balancing, the torque is equal to the drag torque. We have the formula:
Mutual inductance
between 2 coils

phase difference angle

between two currents

Variation of alpha with

currents
36
Thermal Meters
 Based on thermocouple operating principle:
2 different metal bars, with two tips:
 1 tip at measuring point
 1 tip connect to volmeters
Heat insulation
connectors
Indicator
Thermo
couples

Heat generating
from resistor Thermocouples

Stuctural diagram Realistic connection 37

Thermal Meters
 When operating temperature t1 is different from free tip temperature t0
Generate electromotive force:

When using Ix to burn t1 tip:

Can be used to measure DC current, RMS value of AC current (sinusoidal).

38
 Thermal Meters
 Characteristics:
Material:
 Iron-constantan
 Copper-constantan
 Crom-alumen
 Platin-rodi
High error due to large power consumption
Measuring frequency range is large (from DC to Mhz).

39
Digital Multimeter

 Definition:
An electronic instrument which can
measure very precisely the DC and AC
voltage, current and resistance,…
Digital multimeters (DMMs) are often
(inaccurately) referred to as digital
voltmeters or DVMs

40
Digital Multimeter
 Main factors that characterize DVMs are:
Offer the best combination of speed and
accuracy
Offer capability of automatic operation
and programmability
=> Very useful in applications where
flexibility, high speed and computer
controllability are required

A typical digital multimeteter

41
Digital Multimeter
 Block diagram: At their hearts is the uP and Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)

ux Signal Display
Conditioning
Circuit ADC uP
RS232, 485
Communication
ix Signal Interface
Conditioning
Circuit

Power Supply

42
 Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

Common Electronic Circuits

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Signal Conditioning Circuit

 Inverting Amplifier Circuit

K=-Rf/Ri

 Exercise:
An inverting amp is to have a gain of 10. The signal source is a sensor with an output impedance of 1 kΩ.
Draw a circuit diagram of the completed amplifier.

44
Signal Conditioning Circuit

 Noninverting Amplifier Circuit

K=Rf/Ri +1

 Exercise:

Draw the circuit diagram of a noninverting amp. with a gain of 20.

45
Signal Conditioning Circuit

 Summing Amplifier Circuit

K=-Rf/Ri (Va+Vb+Vc)

Excersice:
According to a comfort scale, the air conditioning in a building should come on when the sum of the
temperature and humidity sensor voltages goes above 1 V. A threshold circuit in the air conditioner requires
5 V for turn-on. Design an interface circuit to connect the two sensors to the air conditioning unit.
46
Signal Conditioning Circuit

 Differential Amplifier Circuit

Vout=Rf/Ra (Vb-Va)

Excersice:
A differential amp is needed to amplify the voltage difference between two temperature sensors. The
sensors have an internal resistance of 5 kΩ, and the maximum voltage difference between the sensors will
be 2 V. Design the differential amp circuit to have an output of 12 V when the difference the inputs is 2 V

47
Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

Hall Effect Sensors

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Hall Effect Sensors
 Based on Hall Effect:
Was discovered in 1879 by Edward Herbert
Hall.
Exists in all conducting materials.
Is particularly pronounced and useful in
semiconductors.
One of the simplest of all magnetic sensing
devices.
Used extensively in sensing position and
measuring magnetic fields.
49
Hall Effect Sensors
 Based on Hall Effect:
Principle:
 Consider a thin piece of rectangular p-type
semiconductor material:
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
• Indium Antimonide (InSb)
• Indium Arsenide (InAs)

50
Hall Effect Sensors
 Based on Hall Effect:
Principle:
 A current I is flowing through semiconductor.
 A magnetic field B is established across the
conductor, perpendicular to the current ( =
90)
 A voltage develops between the back (positive)
and front (negative) surface – Hall voltage:
 d is the thickness of the hall plate
 n is the carrier density [charges/m3]
 q is the charge of the electron [C] 51
Hall Effect Sensors
 Based on Hall Effect:
If the current changes direction or the magnetic field
changes direction: the polarity of the Hall voltage
flips.
The Hall effect sensor is polarity dependent.
Hall coefficient:
 Varies from material to material.
 Are particularly large in semiconductors.
 Is temperature dependent
Must be compensated if accurate sensing is needed.
52
Hall Effect Sensors
 Operating principle:
Provides constant and
controlled current.
Hall effect is effected only by
magnetic field strength.
Proportional relationship
between input current – hall
voltage.

54
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer Types:
 Open-loop:
 Primary current goes through
conductor will generate magnetic
field.
 Use magnetic core to concentrate
the field.
 Place a Hall element in the gap of
the core.

55
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer
Types:
 Open-loop:
 A Hall voltage develops from Hall
element.
 Use an amplifier to amplify Hall
voltage.

56
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer Types:
 Open-loop:
 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
• Simple circuit • Poor accuracy
• Low cost • Poor linearity
• High energy efficiency • Slow response speed
• Wide sensing range • Large temperature drift
• Low power consumption

57
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer Types:
 Close-loop:
 After Hall voltage goes through
amplifier: the amplified signal is sent
to the secondary coil.
The magnetic field generated by
secondary coil is opposite to the
magnetic field generated by the
primary current.

58
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer Types:
 Close-loop:
 When 2 magnetic field balance in
strength but opposite at the air gap.
The hall element is in a zero flux
environment.
The amplifier output current can
represent the primary current.

59
Hall Effect Sensors
 Hall Effect Current Transducer Types:
 Close-loop:
 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
• High precision • Narrow range
• Fast response speed • High cost
• Low temperature drift • High energy consumption
• Good linearity
• Strong anti-interference ability

60
Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

I n s t r u m e n t Tr a n s f o r m e r s

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Instrument Transformers

 Introduction:
Instrument transformers are necessary for
 Isolating the protection, control &
measurement equipment from the high
voltages of a power system
 Supplying the equipment with the
appropriate values of current and voltage

62
Instrument Transformers

 Two Types:
Current Transformers
Voltage Transformers

63
Current Transformers
 Design:
 Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a
primary winding, a magnetic core and a secondary winding.
 The primary winding of a current transformer is connected
in series with the power circuit.
 The impedance is negligible compared with that of the
power circuit.
 The alternating current flowing inthe primary produces a
magnetic field in the core & induces a current in the
secondary winding.
 TheCT'sprimary circuit consists of a single 'turn’ of
conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of
turns.
 Theprimary winding may be a permanent part of the
current transformer, with a heavy copperbar to carry
current through the magnetic core. 64
Current Transformers

 Function:
Reduce power system current to lower
value for measurement.
Insulate secondary circuits from the
primary.
Permit the use of standard current ratings
for secondary equipment.

65
Current Transformers

 Construction:

66
Current Transformers

 Construction:
Bar primary

67
Current Transformers

 Accuracy
Directly related to:
 Burden : The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden"
to distinguish it from the load of the circuit whose current is being measured.
 Rating factor : Rating factor is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT
can be multiplied to determine its absolute maximum measurable
 Load
 External electromagnetic fields
 Temperature
 Physical configuration.
 The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs
68
Current Transformers

 Safety precaution:
The secondary coil of a current transformer
 Is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary.
 Will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance.
This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary.
This high peaks of voltage may not be measured by conventional voltmeter.
But these high peaks of induced voltage may breakdown the CT insulation, and may
cause accidents to personnel.

69
Current Transformers

 Usage:
Measuring current: Monitoring the operation of the power grid

A CT for operation of an oscilloscope A CT for operation on a 110 kV grid 70

Voltage Transformers
 Design:
 Use the theory of general purpose step down
transformer.
 Primary coil is connected across the phases or
and ground depending upon the requirement.
 Secondary coil has lower turns.
 In an ideal transformer:
 The ratio of primary and secondary voltages of
transformer is equal to the turns ratio
 But in actual transformer there must be an
error in the voltage ratio as well as in the
phase angle between primary and secondary
voltages.
Single phase Voltage Transformer 71
Voltage Transformers

 Two main basic types:

 Electromechanical VTs
 Similar to a power transformer
 May not be economical above 132kV
Capacitor VTs

72
Voltage Transformers

 Two main basic types:

 Electromechanical VTs
Capacitor VTs
 Used at high voltages
 Main difference is that CVT has a capacitor
divider on the front end.

73
Voltage Transformers

 Function:
Provides isolation from high voltages.
Must operate in the linear region to
prevent accuracy problems - Do not over
specify VTs.
Must be capable of driving the burden,
specified by relay manufacturer.
Protection class VT will suffice.

74
Instrument Transformers

 Conclusion:
Current Transformer
 Measuring current
 Monitoring the operation of the power grid
CT secondary should not be kept open
Voltage Transformer:
 Measuring Voltage
 Provides isolation from high voltages

75
Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

ADC/DAC

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Digital Multimeter

 ADCs – Analog to Digital Converters:

An electronic integrated circuit which converts a signal from analog
(continuous) to digital (discrete) form
Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital
world of signal processing and data handling

t
77
Digital Multimeter

 ADCs – Analog to Digital Converters:

An electronic integrated circuit which converts a signal from analog
(continuous) to digital (discrete) form
Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital
world of signal processing and data handling

t
78
Digital Multimeter
 ADCs – Analog to Digital Converters:
ADC conversion process:
1. Sampling and Holding
2. Quantization and Encoding
Analog-to-Digital Converter

Quantizing
and
Encoding

Sampling and Hold

t
Input: Analog Signal t 79
ADC

 An analog-to-digital converter (ADC)

Excersice:
An 8-bit ADC has a Vref of 7 Vdc; the analog input is 2.5 Vdc. What is the binary output of
the ADC?

80
DAC

 A digital-to-analog converter (DAC)

Excersice:
An 8-bit DAC has a Vref of 10 V. The binary input is 10011011. Find the analog output voltage.

81
Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

uP/uC

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uP/uC

uP/uC

83
uP/uC

 A block diagram of a microprocessor-based computer

The arithmetic
logic unit (ALU)
performs the actual
numerical and logic
calculations such
as addition,
subtraction, AND,
OR, and so on

84
uP/uC

 A control system using

parallel interface

85
uP/uC

 Components in a
serial interface circuit

 Serial data format

for the binary word
10110010 (with
even parity)

86
Thank you for your attention

87