C O N V E RT E R

DYNAMICS AND
CONTROL
PREPARED BY:
GROUP 4
 CONVERTER DYNAMICS AND
CONTROL

1. MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

- VOLTAGE INJECTION
- CURRENT INJECTION
2. DEVICES
- B-H LOOPS
- CORE VS. COPPER LOSSES
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

A LOOP GAIN is the product of all gains present
around a feedback loop.It is the term applied to
the gain in a parameter when a portion of the
output of a device in the circuit or system is
returned as input to the device.
One method to measure the loop gain in negative The loop gain system is
defined as :
feedback systems is the voltage injection method.
By using a suitable injection transformer, we can T(s) = G(s) ∙ H(s)
inject a test voltage at an appropriate injection WHERE:
T = loop gain
point in the feedback loop of the system. Then the G(s) = gain from duty cycle
response of the loop can be measured using a H(s) = closed loop amplifier’s transfer
network analyzer. function
In principle, loop gain T(s) can be MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS
measured by opening a feedback
loop at an appropriate point,
application of a test signal in the
forward direction at the opened
point, and measurement of the
resulting loop-transmitted signal
that appears looking backward at
the opened point.More specifically,
one such appropriate point is at the
output of a dependent voltage
generator within the feedback loop,
as indicated in Fig. I (a). The closed
loop is defined by proportionality
between the voltage developed by
the dependent voltage generator
and a signal ( either voltage or
current ) at impedance Z.
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Figure shows a setup using the voltage

injection method to measure the loop
gain of a feedback system. A low value
resistor is inserted in the feedback
loop at the injection point. The
injection transformer secondary C
winding is connected across the
injection resistor to apply the test
voltage. This allows the injection of a
test voltage without changing the dc
bias operating point of the system.

• The network analyzer inputs are connected to both sides of the injection resistor using voltage probes. The
loop gain is then measured by measuring the complex voltage gain from point A to B:

• The network analyzer inputs are connected to both sides of the injection resistor using voltage
probes. The loop gain is then measured by measuring the complex voltage gain from point A to B:
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Objective: experimentally determine loop gain T( s ), by making

measurements at point A .
Correct result is
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Conventional approach: break loop, measure T(s) as

conventional transfer function
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Measured vs. Actual loop gain

Actual loop gain :

Measured loop gain:

Express as function of T:
provided that

The measured loop gain T(S) approximately equals the actual loop gain if
the following two conditions are met.
Condition 1:
The impedance looking forward around the
feedback loop (ZIN(s) of block H(s)) is
much greater than the impedance looking
backward from the injection point
(ZOUT(s) of block G(s)).
MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Condition 2:
The second condition that must be fulfilled
to ensure that the measured loop gain
equals approximately the real loop gain is:
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

From these conditions we see that it is important to choose a suitable

injection point that fulfills both conditions.

The first condition is often fulfilled at the output of an op amp that is

normally low impedance. Other suitable points are generally at high
impedance inputs like op amp inputs.

The second condition is more difficult to check, especially small loop

gain results. When these results are above the crossover frequency, they
need to be checked very carefully.
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

VOLTAGE INJECTION
The voltage injection method utilizes a
test voltage to measure the loop gain of a
system. By using a voltage regulator, this
method establishes the determination of
the phase and magnitude of the loop gain
with only voltage measurements. 
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

VOLTAGE INJECTION

• Ac injection source V(z) is connected between blocks 1 and 2

• Dc bias is determined by biasing circuits of the system itself
• Injection source does modify loading of block 2 on block 1
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Voltage injection: measured transfer function

 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

Comparison of with
Actual loop gain is: Gain measured via voltage injection:
+

Express in terms of T(s):

(

Condition for accurate measurement:

provided that
(ii)
Example: Voltage injection
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

CURRENT INJECTION
Similar to the voltage injection
method, there is a current injection
method where a test current is
injected at an appropriate injection
point, instead of test voltage.
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

CURRENT INJECTION
It can be shown that

Conditions for obtaining accurate measurement:

, and
(ii)
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

CURRENT INJECTION
 MEASUREMENT OF LOOP GAINS

MAGNETIC DEVICES
Their B-H loops and Core vs. Copper loss
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

MAGNETIC DEVICES
It is a magnetic device in which a rotating magnetic flux produced by
current in a field winding on the rotor generates voltages in three phases
of an armature winding mounted on the stator.
B-H LOOP: A curve, or loop, plotted on B-H coordinates showing how the magnetization of a
ferromagnetic material varies when subjected to a periodically reversing magnetic
field, is known as Hysteresis Loop or Magnetization Curve.
The term ‘hysteresis’ means to lag behind. In electrical terminology it is used to
describe the lag between a change in value or direction of the magnetizing force
(H) and the resulting change in value or direction of flux (B).

CORE VS. COPPER LOSSES:

Copper loss is caused by the ohmic resistance (R) of the transformer

winding and electric current (I).
-Core loss is known as ‘Magnetizing current Loss’ or Constant Loss‘. It is
caused by the generated alternating flux in the transformer core.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

Types of Magnetic Devices

• Filter inductor
• AC inductor
• Conventional Transformer
• Coupled inductor
• DCM Flyback Transformer
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

FILTER CONDUCTOR
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

FILTER CONDUCTOR

• Negligible core loss, negligible proximity loss.

• Loss dominated by dc copper loss.
• Flux density chosen simply to avoid saturation.
• Air gap is employed.
• Could use core materials having high.
• Saturation flux density (and relatively high core
loss),even though converter switching frequency is
high.
 AC INDUCTOR MAGNETIC DEVICES

the number of turns also affects the

inductance. An AC inductor, as it is with a
transformer, has to support the peak magnetic
flux without saturation and this is determined
by the applied voltage and number of turns for
a given core size and core material. The
following equation is used to determine the
minimum number of turns:

N=

• where:
• Vin = maximum applied RMS voltage in volts
• Kf = constant depending on the waveform type and is equal to 4.0 for
a square wave and 4.44 for a sine wave
• F = applied frequency in Hz
• Ac = effective core area in cm^2
• B = maximum flux density in the core.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

AC INDUCTOR
• Core loss, copper loss, proximity loss are all significant.
• An air gap is employed.
• Flux density is chosen to reduce core loss.
• A high-frequency ,material (ferrite) must be employed.

WHAT ARE AC INDUCTORS USED FOR?

Inductors are used for reducing current in circuits without any loss
oof electrical energy . When resistors are used, electrical energy is
wasted in the form of heat.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

CONVENTIONAL TRANSFORMER
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

CONVENTIONAL TRANSFORMER

• Core loss, copper loss, and proximity loss are

usually significant.
• No Air gap is employed.
• Flux density is chosen to reduce core loss.
• A high frequency material (ferrite) must be
employed.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

COUPLED INDUCTOR

What is Coupled Inductor?

An inductor is a two-terminal electrical component, used to store energy within a magnetic field once
electric current supplies through it. It is also known as a choke, coil, or reactor. Generally, an inductor
includes an insulated wire which is wounded into a coil. A pair of inductors is known as coupled inductors,
which is used to transmit energy from one winding to another using the common core. So, this article
discusses an overview of a coupled inductor and its differences from a transformer.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

COUPLED INDUCTOR
• A filter inductor having multiple windings.
• Air gap is employed.
• Core loss and proximity loss usually not significant.
• Flux density chosen to avoid saturation.
• A low-frequency core material can be employed.
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

DCM FLYBACK TRANSFORMER

Flyback converters can operate either in continuous-conduction mode (CCM) or

discontinuous-conduction mode (DCM). Advertisement. DCM operation is
characterized by the converter having its rectifier current decreasing to zero before
the start of the next switching cycle
 MAGNETIC DEVICES

DCM FLYBACK TRANSFORMER

• Core loss, copper loss, and proximity loss are significant.

• Flux density is chosen to reduce core loss.
• Air gap is employed.
• A high-frequency core material (ferrite )must be used.
SOURCES

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3. ctors%20and%20power%20stages

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6. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-the-frequency-conversion-process-where-red-arr
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