SOURCES

Definition Caplan (1964)

initially defined a crisis as occurring when individuals are confronted with problems that cannot be
solved. These irresolvable issues result in an increase in tension, signs of anxiety, a subsequent state of
emotional unrest, and an inability to function for extended periods. James and Gilliland (2005) define
crises as events or situations perceived as intolerably difficult that exceed an individual’s available
resources and coping mechanisms. Similarly, Roberts (2000) defines a crisis as “a period of psychological
disequilibrium, experienced as a result of a hazardous event or situation that constitutes a significant
problem that cannot be remedied by using familiar coping strategies” (p. 7). The Chinese translation of
the word “crisis” consists of two separate characters, which paradoxically mean danger and opportunity
(Greene, Lee, Trask, & Rheinscheld, 2000). Crisis intervention thus provides opportunities for clients to
learn new coping skills while identifying, mobilizing, and enhancing those they already possess.

Crisis Stages Caplan was the first to describe the main stages of a crisis reaction. The contributions of
later theorists have been based on Caplan's work and have basically consisted on a restatement of his
phases. According to CAPLAN (1964) most crisis reactions follow 4 distinct phases: 1. In the initial phase
the individual is confronted by a problem that poses a threat to his homeostatic state: the person
responds to feelings THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CRISIS INTERVENTION 127 of increased tension by
calling forth the habitual problem-solving measures in an effort to restore his emotional equilibrium. 2.
There is a rise in tension due to the failure of habitual problem-solving measures and the persistence of
the threat and problem. The person's functioning becames disorganized and the individual senses
feelings of upset and ineffectuality. 3. With the continued failure of the individual's efforts, a further rise
in tension acts as a stimuli for the mobilization of emergency and novel problem-solving measures. At
this stage, the problem may be redefined, the individual may resign himself to the problem or he may
find a solution to it. 4. If the problem continues, the tension mounts beyond a further threshold or its
burden increases over time to a breaking point. The result may be a major breakdown in the individual's
mental and social functioning.

A crisis situation is, by definition, both short-term and overwhelming. As a result, crisis situations require
assessment and treatment methods that differ in a number of ways from methods used in non-crisis
situations. For example, crisis interventions are ordinarily characterized by a "here-and-now" orientation,
a time-limited course of intervention (typically 1-6 sessions), a view of the client's behavior as an
understandable reaction to stress, and the assumption that an active directive role is needed by therapists
and others trained in crisis intervention methods.
Included in this section are an overview of crisis intervention, a brief review of legal and ethical issues
relevant to crisis situations, and a discussion of specific crisis situations (i.e., situations involving suicidal
clients, dangerous clients, clients who have been the victims of abuse).
Definition Caplan (1964) initially defined a crisis as occurring when individuals are confronted with
problems that cannot be solved. These irresolvable issues result in an increase in tension, signs of anxiety,
a subsequent state of emotional unrest, and an inability to function for extended periods. James and
Gilliland (2005) define crises as events or situations perceived as intolerably difficult that exceed an
individual’s available resources and coping mechanisms. Similarly, Roberts (2000) defines a crisis as “a
period of psychological disequilibrium, experienced as a result of a hazardous event or situation that
constitutes a significant problem that cannot be remedied by using familiar coping strategies” (p. 7). The
Chinese translation of the word “crisis” consists of two separate characters, which paradoxically mean
danger and opportunity (Greene, Lee, Trask, & Rheinscheld, 2000). Crisis intervention thus provides
opportunities for clients to learn new coping skills while identifying, mobilizing, and enhancing those
they already possess.

Definition
Crisis is a situation or period in an individual’s life that produces an
overwhelming emotional response. This event occurs when an individual is
confronted by a certain life circumstance or stressor that he or she cannot
effectively manage by using his or her usual coping skills. Crisis is an
unexpected event that can create uncertainty to an individual and has been
viewed as a threat to a person’s important goals.

Stages of Crisis
The first stage of crisis occurs when the person is confronted by a stressor.
Exposure to this stressor would result to anxiety. The individual then tries to
handle things by using his or her customary coping skills. Second stage of
crisis occurs when the person realizes that his usual coping ability is
ineffective in dealing with anxiety. As the person becomes aware of his
unsuccessful effort in dealing with the perceived stressor, he moves on to the
next stage of crisis where the individual tries to deal with the crisis using new
methods of coping.  The fourth stage of crisis takes place when the person’s
coping attempts of resolving the crisis fail. The individual then experiences
disequilibrium and significant distress.

Types of crisis
1. Maturational crisis – also called developmental crisis. These are
predictable events in a person’s life which includes getting married,
having a baby and leaving home for the first time.
2. Situational crises – unexpected or sudden events that imperils ones
integrity. Included in this type of crisis are: loss of a job, death of a
loved one or relative and physical and emotional illness of a family
member or an individual.
 3. Adventitious crisis – also called social crisis. Included in this category
are: natural disasters like floods, earthquakes or hurricanes, war,
terrorist attacks, riots and violent crimes such as rape and murder.
Crisis Intervention
Crisis intervention refers to the methods used to offer immediate, short-term
help to individuals who experience an event that produces emotional, mental,
physical, and behavioral distress or problems.

Guide for an effective crisis intervention:

1. Assist the person to view the event or issue in a different

perspective.
2. Assist the individual to use the existing support systems. It is vital to
help the person find new sources of support that can help in
decreasing the feelings of being alone or overwhelmed.
3. Assist the individual in learning new methods of coping that will help
resolve the current crisis and give him or her new coping skills to be
used in the future when dealing with another overwhelming
situation.

Types of Crises
We often think of a crisis as a sudden unexpected disaster, such as a car accident, natural
disaster, or another cataclysmic event. However, crises can range substantially in type and
severity.1

A few different types of crises include:

 Developmental crises: These occur as part of the process of growing and developing
through various periods of life. Sometimes a crisis is a predictable part of the life cycle,
such as the crises described in Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
 Existential crises: Inner conflicts are related to things such as life purpose, direction, and
spirituality. A midlife crisis is one example of a crisis that is often rooted in existential
anxiety.
 Situational crises: These sudden and unexpected crises include accidents and natural
disasters. Getting in a car accident, experiencing a flood or earthquake, or being the
victim of a crime are just a few types of situational crises.
A. Stages of Crisis

A crisis situation involves a sequence of events that leads individuals from "equilibrium to
disequilibrium and back again" (Golan, 1978). This sequence generally involves five components:
1. The Hazardous Event:
‘The hazardous event is a stressful circumstance that disrupts an individual's equilibrium and
initiates a series of actions and reactions. The hazardous event may be anticipated (e.g., divorce,
retirement) or unanticipated (e.g., the sudden loss of a family member).

2. The Vulnerable State:

An individual's reaction to the hazardous event is ordinarily linked to his/her subjective interpretation
of the event. Most commonly, a hazardous event is perceived either as a threat, a loss, or a challenge.
The vulnerable state is characterized by an increase in tension which the individual attempts to
alleviate by using one or more of his/her usual coping strategies. If these strategies are unsuccessful,
the individual's tension continues to increase and, as a result, he/she eventually becomes unable to
function effectively.

3. The Precipitating Factor:

The precipitating factor is the event that converts a vulnerable state into a crisis state. In some
situations, the hazardous event and precipitating factor are identical; in other situations, the
precipitating factor follows the hazardous event (i.e., the precipitating factor acts as the "last straw").
The precipitating factor may produce a variety of responses including, for example, a suicide attempt
or, more constructively, a desire to seek help.

4. Active Crisis State:

The active crisis state is characterized by disequilibrium and normally involves the following:
physical and psychological agitation (e.g., disturbed appetite and/or sleep, impaired concentration
and problem-solving ability, anxiety, or depression), preoccupation with the events that led to the
crisis, and, finally, a gradual return to a state of equilibrium. The individual ordinarily recognizes
during the active crisis stage that his/her usual coping mechanisms are inadequate and, thus, is
usually highly motivated to seek and accept outside help.

5. Reintegration:

Successful reintegration (restoration of equilibrium) is dependent on a number of factors including

the individual's ability to objectively evaluate the crisis situation and to develop and utilize effective
coping strategies.

C. Crisis Intervention Goals

The precise goals of a crisis intervention depend, of course, on the specific nature of the crisis.
However, crisis-oriented treatments do share a number of common goals. For example, the general
goals of crisis intervention are:
 1. Relieving the client's symptoms;
2. Restoring the client to his/her previous level of functioning;
3. Identifying the factors that led to the crisis state;
4. Identifying and applying remedial measures;
5. Helping the client connect current stresses with past life experiences; and
6. Helping the client develop adaptive coping strategies that can be used in the current situation as
well as in any future situation.

Many consider the last two goals "optional" (i.e., feasible only in certain situations), while most
agree that the first four are the minimal goals for all types of crisis intervention.

B. Principles of Crisis Intervention

According to Puryear, crisis intervention is based on the following eight principles:

 Immediate Intervention: People are unable to endure crises for long periods of time; thus, crisis
interventions must be immediate. If the therapist cannot see a client requesting help immediately, the
client should be referred to someone who can. It is when clients request help and are at the peak of
their crisis that they are most amenable to treatment; i.e., when they are least defensive and most
introspective.
 Action: The therapist actively participates in and directs those activities that help the client resolve
the crisis.
 Limited Goals: While long-term forms of therapy may address a number of goals, crisis
intervention focuses on goals that are clearly related to the crisis situation.
 Hope and Expectations: Because people in crisis usually feel hopeless, a primary task for the
therapist is to instill the expectation that the crisis will be resolved.
 Support: Lack of support is ordinarily an important contributing factor to the development of a
crisis; thus, provision of support is a crucial factor in crisis intervention.
 Focused problem-solving: Crisis interventions are problem oriented; i.e., their emphasis is on
resolution of the problem(s) underlying the crisis.
 Self-Image: The client experiencing a crisis typically sees him/herself as inadequate. Therefore,
the therapist must assume an approach that both protects and raises the client's self-esteem.
 Self-Reliance: From the onset of the crisis intervention, the therapist must maintain a balance
between providing support and fostering the client's self-reliance and independence.

Introduction
Naomi Golan is the creator of the Golan Model of Crisis Intervention, and a pioneer of
crisis theory and crisis intervention. She is Professor Emeritus at the University of Haifa
in Israel, where she retired in 1984. (Dorfman, 2013)

Golan’s 1978 book Treatment in Crisis Situations provided a review of her three phase

model of crisis intervention. While this work has been integrated into the work of
modern day crisis intervention and even regular social work practice it was quite
innovative in its day.
Golan Model of Crisis
The model that Golan proposes involves three stages or phases, and is designed to be
completed in 5-6 sessions. The three phases are Assessment, Implementation and
Termination. These are reviewed in more detail below.

Assessment

Introduction
Naomi Golan is the creator of the Golan Model of Crisis Intervention, and a pioneer of
crisis theory and crisis intervention. She is Professor Emeritus at the University of Haifa
in Israel, where she retired in 1984. (Dorfman, 2013)

Golan’s 1978 book Treatment in Crisis Situations provided a review of her three phase

model of crisis intervention. While this work has been integrated into the work of
modern day crisis intervention and even regular social work practice it was quite
innovative in its day.

Golan Model of Crisis

The model that Golan proposes involves three stages or phases, and is designed to be
completed in 5-6 sessions. The three phases are Assessment, Implementation and
Termination. These are reviewed in more detail below.

Assessment
The assessment stage happens in the first session. The goals of the assessment stage are
very similar to Boiling Down the Problem in the ABC Model and the Step 1 (Defining the
Problem) in the Six Step Model of Crisis Intervention.

First, you must identify what the traumatic event or precipitating event that caused the
crisis. Second, you must understand the client’s reaction or response to crisis. Third,
what context did the crisis event happen in – what else is going on in the client’s life?
The term “hazardous event” is sometimes used to describe the nature of the stressor.
Fourth, you must identify how the client has been affected by the crisis, and finally what
is the client’s primary concern as a result of the crisis?

Golan (1969) identifies four elements that can be used to determine if a client is in crisis:

 a hazardous event
  a vulnerable state
 a precipitating factor
 a state of active crisis or disequilibrium

A comprehensive assessment will be the road-map you rely on to ensure you have
accurately understood the nature of the client’s crisis.

Implementation
Once you have identified the goals for treatment (collaboratively with the client), you
will proceed to the Implementation phase. During implementation, you will collect
information on the client’s pre-crisis functioning, coping strategies, strengths and
weaknesses, and support systems available to them.

Once you have this information, you can begin to set some concrete goals with the
client. For example, a recently divorced client who is completely overwhelmed with what
to do next might set a goal to make an appointment with a career counsellor or resume
writing service – or even something as simple as a checklist to ensure they shower and
brush their teeth each morning.

The Implementation stage will run from the first session to approximately the fourth
session.

Termination
Termination is the final sessions, which might be the 5th or 6th session. Now that the
client has made some steps towards regaining pre-crisis functioning, the client and
therapist make a plan to wrap up services and make plans for the future.
Golan Model of Crisis
The model that Golan proposes involves three stages or phases, and is designed to be
completed in 5-6 sessions. The three phases are Assessment, Implementation and
Termination. These are reviewed in more detail below.

Assessment
The assessment stage happens in the first session. The goals of the assessment stage are
very similar to Boiling Down the Problem in the ABC Model and the Step 1 (Defining the
Problem) in the Six Step Model of Crisis Intervention.

First, you must identify what the traumatic event or precipitating event that caused the
crisis. Second, you must understand the client’s reaction or response to crisis. Third,
what context did the crisis event happen in – what else is going on in the client’s life?
The term “hazardous event” is sometimes used to describe the nature of the stressor.
Fourth, you must identify how the client has been affected by the crisis, and finally what
is the client’s primary concern as a result of the crisis?

Golan Model of Crisis

The model that Golan proposes involves three stages or phases, and is designed to be
completed in 5-6 sessions. The three phases are Assessment, Implementation and
Termination. These are reviewed in more detail below.

Assessment
The assessment stage happens in the first session. The goals of the assessment stage are
very similar to Boiling Down the Problem in the ABC Model and the Step 1 (Defining the
Problem) in the Six Step Model of Crisis Intervention.

First, you must identify what the traumatic event or precipitating event that caused the
crisis. Second, you must understand the client’s reaction or response to crisis. Third,
what context did the crisis event happen in – what else is going on in the client’s life?
The term “hazardous event” is sometimes used to describe the nature of the stressor.
Fourth, you must identify how the client has been affected by the crisis, and finally what
is the client’s primary concern as a result of the crisis?

The Implementation stage will run from the first session to approximately the fourth
session.
 Termination
Termination is the final sessions, which might be the 5th or 6th session. Now that the
client has made some steps towards regaining pre-crisis functioning, the client and
therapist make a plan to wrap up services and make plans for the future.

REFERENCES:
Baldwin, B.A. Crisis intervention in professional practice: Implications for clinical training . American
Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1977, 47, 659-670.

Appelbaum, S.A. Parkinson's law in psychotherapy . International Journal of Psychoanalytic

Psychotherapy.

Murphy S, Irving CB, Adams CE, Driver R. Crisis intervention for people with severe mental
illnesses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 May 16;(5):CD001087. 

Collins, B. G., & Collins, T. M. (2005).Crisis and trauma: Developmental-

ecologicalintervention.Boston: Lahaska Press.
 Dorfman, R.A. (2013)  Clinical Social Work:  Definition, Practice And Vision. London,
England:  Routledge.
Cite this article as: MacDonald, D.K., (2018), "Golan Model of Crisis Intervention," retrieved on
September 26, 2022 from  https://dustinkmacdonald.com/golan-model-crisis-intervention/ .