Calculus 1 Notes

Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
What is a limit
A limit tells you how a function behaves as it approaches a certain value. It is usually written
as such:
1) The limit as 4) is equal to 7
lim (𝑥 + 3) = 7
→

2) x tends to 4 3) of x+3

For most limits you simply just substitute the values that are there for the value stated in
section 2 i.e.(4 + 3 = 7).
Again limits tell the value which a function approaches it does not tell you the value at the
point. This knowledge will come in hand later.

Left and Right Limits

Limits can be taken from the left and right hand side. For example, look at the function
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = on a graph.
y

3
𝑥 = −1

1 1
𝑦=
𝑥+1

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

-1

Limit from the left (Negative side) Limit from the right (positive side)
1 -2 1
lim lim
→ 𝑥+1 → 𝑥+1
-3

-4

Page 1 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Notice the −𝑣𝑒 and +𝑣𝑒 signs below the limits beside the number where the power would
be. These signs indicate direction you are taking the limit from as the function approaches
the value. If there is no sign, then the limit is taken from both sides at once.

1 Limit from the left (−𝑣𝑒 side,−∞)

lim
→ 𝑥+1
1
lim
→ 𝑥+1
Limit from the right (+𝑣𝑒 side,+∞)

Look at the function (the curve) from right to left, when it gets close to -1 the graph shoots
upwards to infinity while if we approach it from left to right, it shoots downwards to negative
infinity but the graph never touches the line 𝑥 = −1. A line where a graph “shoots off” along
it but never touches it is called an asymptote. 𝑥 = −1 is an asymptote for the line 𝑦 = .

Also notice that the limit from the left and right are different for the graph:

1
lim = −∞
→ 𝑥+1
1
lim = +∞
→ 𝑥+1
When the limits from the left and right differ it is an indicator of discontinuity.
Continuity
Some functions are discontinuous. There are 3 particular cases where a function is
discontinuous. These are:
1) If there is a hole in the function. Consider the graph below:
7

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1

-2

-3

Page 2 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Notice the gap (exaggerated as a circle) at the point 𝑥 = 1. Since there is no value
when 𝑥 = 1 the graph is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑓(1) = "𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑"
2) If the left and right hand limits are not the same. Consider the graph:
y

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

-1

-2

-3

Note here that there is no empty 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 in the function. There does exist a value for 𝑥 =
2 but when the limit is taken from either side, it approaches 7 from the left but 1 from the
right. The limits from the left and right are not equal.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 7
→

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
→

Page 3 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell

3) The left and right limit can coincide but the value at the point does not. Consider the
graph:
7

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

-1

-2

-3

Notice the dot above 𝑥 = 2. The point 𝑓(2) is defined and the limits are equal from the left
and right but 𝑓(2) has a different value from the limits.
The three conditions can be summarized as one formula:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
→ →

Where 𝑎 is the number which 𝑥 is approaching.

“The limit from the left is equal to the limit from the right which is equal to the value at that
point.”
Finally let us look at some functions that are continuous. Consider the two graphs below:
The piecewise function:
−𝑥 + 3, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥 ) =
0.1𝑥 + 0.6, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≥ 2
Is graphed below

Page 4 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
y
9

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-1

-2

This graph IS CONTINUOUS because

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2)
→ →

which is 1.
Below is the graph
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
8

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-1

-2

This graph IS CONTINUOUS because

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0)
→ →

which is 0.

Page 5 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Piecewise Functions and Limits
Piecewise functions are functions which are made up of multiple functions stitched together.
The previous 2 graphs are examples of piecewise functions.
Piecewise functions tend to be discontinuous at the points where they are combined together.
(Unless the functions which make the piecewise function is discontinuous elsewhere)
Look at the piecewise functions:
𝑥 ,𝑥 ≥ 2
1) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 2

The function is continuous because:

lim 𝑓(2) = lim 𝑓(2) = 𝑓(2)

→ →
Coming from the left you are going to use the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2
From the right you will use 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥
Also because 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 contains the point 𝑥 = 2, because (𝑥 ≥ 2), 𝑓(2) = 𝑥 = 2

All cases produce the values 4.

𝑥 ,𝑥 > 1
2) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5, 𝑥 = 1
𝑥, 𝑥 < 1

This function is not continuous because at 𝑓(1), the point itself, is 5. Symbolically

lim 𝑓(1) = lim 𝑓(1) ≠ 𝑓(1)

→ →

𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 > 2
3) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 ,𝑥 ≤ 2

This function is not continuous because at 𝑓(2),

lim 𝑓(2) ≠ lim 𝑓(2)
→ →
𝑥 , 𝑥<1
4) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥, 𝑥>3
This function is not continuous because at 𝑓(3) the limits are not equal.

Page 6 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Rules of Limits
1)
lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
→
The limit of a constant is the constant itself

2)
lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
→ →
3)
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
→ → →
4)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
→ → →
5)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )
lim = →
→ 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
→
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
→
6)
( ) ( )
lim 𝑘 =𝑘 →
→

Unique Values/Limits
1)
𝑘
=0
∞
2)
𝑘
=∞
0
3)
∞∙𝑘 =∞
4)
∞±𝑘 =∞
5)
∞
= "𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑"
∞
6)
0
= "𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑"
0
7)
∞
= "𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑"
0
8)
sin(𝑎𝑥)
lim =1
→ 𝑎𝑥

Page 7 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Finding the Value of a Limit
1) lim 𝑥
→
4) Lim = but this is undefined
→
=2
Divide every term in this case by the
=4 highest power of 𝑥

2) lim Lim =
→ →

= 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Lim =
→
Never settle with an undefined value.
Here factorize the expression
Lim =
→
( )( )
Lim = lim
→ →

=
Lim 𝑥 − 2
→

= −1 =

Here a limit was undefined but it 0

became defined by factorization.

3) lim again another case

→

Make the denominator the same as the

angle in sine.

Lim 3 ∙ =
→

3 ∙ Lim =
→

3 ∙ (1) = 3

( )
“Unique values (5)” lim =1
→

Page 8 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Differentiation

Symbols

The differential of a function can be written in many ways. A few ways include:

1)
The function we are differentiating
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
“D y by D x” The variable we are differentiating with
respect to

2)
𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 (𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. ) 𝑥
“y prime with respect to x”

3)
𝑓′(𝑥)
“F prime of x”
Rules of Differentiation
Note that from here on out, all the terms used above will be used haphazardly to get you used
to all the notations.
1)
𝑦=𝑥

-1
𝑦=𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑛𝑥
i.e.
𝑦=𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2)
𝑦=𝑐
𝑦 =0

3)
𝑑[𝑎𝑥 ]
=
𝑑𝑥

𝑎 ∙ 𝑛𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The constant can be “ignored” and multiplied by the term after differentiating

Page 9 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
i.e.
𝑦 = 4𝑥
𝑦 = 4(2𝑥 )
𝑦 = 8𝑥

4) Sum Rule
𝑑[𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )]
= 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
The differential of a sum is the sum of the differentials
i.e.
.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0.5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥
.
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 − 0.5𝑥
0.5
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2 −
𝑥 .
5) Product Rule
𝑦 =𝑢∙𝑣
where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑣 + 𝑣′𝑢
i.e.
𝑦 = 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 5)
𝑢=𝑥 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑢 = 2𝑥, 𝑣 = 4𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥(2𝑥 + 5) + 𝑥 (4𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
= 8𝑥 + 10𝑥

6) Quotient Rule
𝑢
𝑦=
𝑣
𝑣𝑢 − 𝑢𝑣
𝑦 =
𝑣
i.e.
3𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥 +2
𝑢 = 3𝑥 , 𝑣 =𝑥 +2
𝑢 = 6𝑥, 𝑣′ = 2𝑥

Page 10 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) − 3𝑥 (2𝑥 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)
6𝑥 + 12𝑥 − 6𝑥
=
(𝑥 + 2)
12𝑥
=
(𝑥 + 2)
7) Chain Rule
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
It appears as if the du’s cancel like a fraction.

The best way to remember this is the differential of the inside function times the
differential of the outside function
i.e.
a)
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 5)
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5
The two functions become
𝑦=𝑢 , 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑢, = 4𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑢 ∙ 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 2(2𝑥 + 5) ∙ 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= 8𝑥(2𝑥 + 5)
b)
𝑦 = sin(2𝑥 + 5)
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑦 = sin 𝑢 , 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑦 = sin(2𝑥 + 5) ∙ 2
= 2 sin(2𝑥 + 5)

Page 11 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Table of Common Differentials
𝒅𝒚
Common functions (𝒚) Derivative 𝒅𝒙
Integrals (∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙)
𝑐
0 𝑐𝑥 + k
“a constant”
𝑐𝑥 𝑐 +k
𝑥 𝑛𝑥 +k
𝑎 ∙ 𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ( )
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) +k
"application of chain rule" ( )

𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 +k
𝑒 𝑎𝑒 +k
1
ln(𝑥) 𝑥 ln |𝑥| − 1 + k
𝑥
sin(𝑥) cos(𝑥) −cos(𝑥) + k
cos(𝑥) −sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥) + k
− ln | cos(𝑥) | + k or
tan(𝑥) sec (𝑥)
ln | sec(𝑥)| + 𝑘
−1
sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥) cos(𝑎𝑥) + 𝑘
𝑎
1
cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) −𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥) sin(𝑎𝑥) + 𝑘
𝑎
− ln | cos(𝑎𝑥) | + k or
tan(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎 sec (𝑎𝑥)
ln | sec(𝑎𝑥)| + 𝑘
𝑢±𝑣
“where u and v are functions of
𝑢 ± 𝑣′ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
x”
“known as sum rule”
𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢′𝑣
n/a
“known as product rule” "note that order doesn't matter"
𝑢
𝑣𝑢 − 𝑢𝑣′
𝑣 n/a
"known as quotient rule" 𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
"chain rule" = ∙ n/a
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥
n/a
“repeat until no
"integration by parts"
integral is left”
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 n/a
“Definite Integral”
𝑑𝑥 = 1𝑑𝑥 n/a 𝑥+𝑘

𝑑𝑦 𝑦+𝑘
𝑑𝑥 n/a “differentiation is the opposite of
𝑑𝑥 integration”

Page 12 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Applications of Differentiation
Remember these things and let all of these words be interchangeable (to some extent) to you.
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Consider the equation of a straight line, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚 is the gradient of the line. 𝑚 can be
expressed in many ways:
1)
𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
2)
𝑑[𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐]
𝑚=
𝑑𝑥
The differential of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

3)
𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥
However, suppose the function given was not a straight line but in fact a curve. Consider the
curve:
𝑦 =5−𝑥

Notice that the gradient of the curve is not constant like that of a line. So in order to get any
meaningful information about the rate of change of the function we would use the gradient
of the tangent line at different points of the function. Look at the illustration below:

Page 13 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell

𝑦=5
5

(0,5)
4

-2.5 -2.25 -2 -1.75 -1.5 -1.25 -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75

Above is the image of the same graph. Tangent lines are drawn to the graph at specific points.
Let’s differentiate 𝑦 = 5 − 𝑥 :
𝑦 = −2𝑥
Note that the differential of the function is the gradient of the tangent lines at different
points on the curve, for example:
What is 𝑦′ when 𝑥 = −1
𝑦 = −2𝑥
𝑦 = −2(−1) = 2
Note this is the same gradient as the tangent line formed at 𝑥 = −1, (𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 6).
When 𝑥 = 0
The tangent line is 𝑦 = 0𝑥 + 5
When 𝑥 = 1
The tangent line is 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 6
So in general the tangent line to a curve at a given point is:
𝑦 = (𝑦 )𝑥 + 𝑐

DIFFERENTIAL = GRADIENT

Page 14 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Maximum and Minimum Value/ Critical Points

𝑑𝑦
=0
5
𝑑𝑥

-2.5 -2.25 -2 -1.75 -1.5 -1.25 -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75

Notice how the how the gradient/differential changes as the curve progresses from right to
left. First it was positive, then zero, then negative. This is due to the graph having what is
known as a maximum point. If the graph had a minimum point the differential will be
reversed, negative, zero, then positive. This is true for all local maximum and minimum
points. Notice that the exact point where the gradient is zero is the maximum (minimum)
point of the graph. We can therefore conclude then that the critical points occurs when:
𝑑𝑦
max/min occurs when: =0
𝑑𝑥

A curve can have many maximum/minimum (critical) points. Consider the curve
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 24𝑥 − 12

Page 15 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
30

25

20

15

10 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 8𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 24𝑥 − 12
5

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

Notice how the graph has 3 critical points (it has 3 bends). The critical points occur when:
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 12𝑥 − 24𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 24 = 0
Factorizing the equation by recognition:
12(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1
Look at the graph and notice the bends occur at 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1.
As a rule of thumb the amount of critical points is equal to the highest power of 𝑥 minus 1.
𝑦=𝑥
Then there are 𝑛 − 1 critical points.
The Second Derivative
Remember when we said that the gradient represents the rate of change or the change in 𝑦
with respect to 𝑥. The second derivative is simply differentiating a function twice. It has the
symbols:
𝑑 𝑦
or 𝑦 or 𝑓′′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
“𝐷 y by D 𝑥 ” or “y double prime” or “f double prime of 𝑥”

Page 16 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
i.e.
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 4𝑥
𝑦 = 12𝑥 + 4
Notice that though not popularly written this way:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
“The second derivative is the change in the derivative with respect to 𝒙”. This is a very
powerful statement.
Recall how the gradient change for maximum and minimum points respectively.
For a maximum point it moved from positive to zero to negative. Therefore the gradient is
said to be decreasing.
For a minimum point, by the same logic, the gradient is increasing.

So for a maximum point = −𝑣𝑒 or in other words the gradient is decreasing as 𝑥

increases.
Consider the same graph used before:
𝑦 =5−𝑥
𝑦 = −2𝑥
𝑦 = −2
𝑦 < 0 (negative)
Therefore it is a maximum point.
Let us look at a popular function, the standard equation of a quadratic function:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦 = 2𝑎
Answer these three things:
1) What is the 𝑥 value of the maximum/minimum point in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏?
𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑏
𝑥=−
2𝑎

Page 17 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
2) How can you determine if the point is a maximum/minimum point?
𝑦 = 2𝑎

When 𝑎 is positive, the graph has a minimum point (the gradient is increasing)
When 𝑎 is negative we have a maximum point (the gradient is decreasing)

Do those values look familiar?

Approximating Small Changes

Remember gradients are used to estimate changes. It can therefore be said that:

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
≈
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥

“The differential (gradient) is approximately equal the change in y over the change in x”

For straight lines it is exactly equal but for curves it is only useful as small changes in 𝑥.

Consider the equation:

𝑦 = √𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥

i.e.

What if we want to find the √10,024?

We know that √10,000 = 100. So what if we used 𝑥 = 10,000 as a base value. Then ∆𝑥, the
change in 𝑥 would be:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

10,024 − 10,000 = 24

24 is a small change when compared to 10,000 the original value.

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
≈
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 ≈ ∙ ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
∆𝑦 ≈ ∙ ∆𝑥
2√ 𝑥

Page 18 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell

1
∆𝑦 ≈ ∙ 24
2√10,000

1
∆𝑦 ≈ ∙ 24
2(100)

24 12
∆𝑦 ≈ ≈
200 100

That means my change in 𝑦 ,(∆𝑦) , is 0.12.

Therefore √10,024 is approximately:

√𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦

10,024 ≈ 100 + 0.12

10,024 ≈ 100.12

This can be used for many other things such as areas of circles, volumes of cubes, velocity,
and acceleration among many other things. This concept is a powerful tool in everyday
science and life.

Rate of Change

Now a rate of change is simply an application of chain rule. Consider the example:

A circular piece of cotton candy is being formed in the cotton candy machine. Its radius is
increasing as time goes on. It is found that the radius of the cotton candy increases at a rate of
0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. How much will the area of the cotton candy increase in 10𝑠 in terms of 𝑟.

Page 19 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
The area of a circle is:

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

However we want to , the increase in the area as time increases.

From chain rule:

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

We just found = 2𝜋𝑟 but what about ?

Remember that is the rate of change of the radius with respect to time. In other words it is
the previously mentioned 0.5𝑚𝑠 .

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 0.5𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑡

= 𝜋𝑟 metres square per second

Therefore we expect the area to increase by:

(10 𝑠)(𝜋𝑟 𝑚 ⁄𝑠) = 10𝜋𝑟 𝑚

That’s all the major topics for differentiation.

Page 20 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Integration

Note that integration is the opposite of differentiation. In other words it is called the anti-
derivative.

Consider the function:

𝑦 = 4𝑥
The function being integrated, integrand
4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The variable you are
integrating with respect
“The integral of 4𝑥 with respect to 𝑥”
to.

4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

4𝑥
+𝑐
4

=𝑥 +𝑐

Notice that when you differentiate 𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a constant, you get back 4𝑥 . This is
true for all functions and you can use this fact to check your answers.

𝑐 is an arbitrary constant due to the fact that when a function is differentiated the constant
term goes to 0. For example:

𝑦 =𝑥 +1

𝑦 =𝑥 +5

𝑦 =𝑥 +𝜋

𝑦=𝑥

All of these functions give the same differential

𝑦 = 4𝑥

This is why 𝑐, the constant of integration, is added to each integral.

So in general, integration is the reverse process of differentiation. See the table of differential
on page 12 to see some common integrals.

Page 21 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Integral and Area

Before talking about definite integral, firstly I want to talk about the integral means
graphically. The integral represents AREA UNDER THE CURVE but above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Graphically it looks like:

The integral of the curve above is the same as the area under the curve but above the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 as shown above. However the integral we have found earlier is known as the
indefinite integral because we are unable to get a finite value. The definite integral however is
written as such:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Where:

𝑎 − lower limit

𝑏 − upper limit

𝑓 (𝑥 ) − is the function you want to integrate

So the diagram written above can be represented as:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Page 22 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Because the area is taken between 0 and 3.

Now the definite integral is calculated as such:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑏 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎

Take this example:

Let

𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 5

1) Find the area under the curve between 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10.

This is the same as ∫ 3𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥.

The integral of 3𝑥 + 5 is

𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 𝑐

When and only when you are calculating definite integrals you may ignore the c value.

This means
3𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 + 5𝑥]
𝐹(10) − 𝐹(3) where
𝐹(𝑥) is the function
within the bracket.

= [(10) + 5(10)] − [(3) + 5(3)]

= 1050 − 42

= 1008 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

So the area under the graph between 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = 10 is 1008 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 .

Note that areas above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 are positive and areas below the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 are considered
negative. Knowing this what do you think ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is?

Substitution and Integration by Parts

There is no rule for product and quotients when integrating. This is why reverse processes
such as substitution method and integration by parts is best used in these instances.

Page 23 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Integration by substitution involves replacing a variable with another one so that it makes
integration easier. Note that all aspects of the integral must change with respect to the new
variable. This method is best used when the function and its differential are being
multiplied by each other.

i.e.

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Its is known that the differential of sin 𝑥 is cos 𝑥. So:

𝑑𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡: 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

But remember we must replace the 𝑑𝑥 as well. Transposing like a fraction:

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑢∙ =
cos 𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑢 =

Now this looks familiar. However, note that I have temporarily neglected the upper and lower
limit. I will reintroduce them when the function is in terms of 𝑥 again or we can substitute
them now for values of 𝑢.

𝑢 𝑑𝑢 =

𝑢
2

But 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

sin 𝑥
2

Differentiate it and see if its true.

Now remember the limits:

sin 𝑥
=
2

Page 24 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell

(0 − 0) = 0 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Another example:

3𝑥 (𝑥 + 10) 𝑑𝑥

Again the differential of the term on the right is 3𝑥 . So substitution is a good candidate.

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 10, 𝑢 = 3𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 =
3𝑥

So we have:

3𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 ∙
3𝑥

𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑢
+𝑐
3

But 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 10

(𝑥 + 10)
+𝑐
3

Integration By Parts

From product rule from differentiation:

𝑑 (𝑢𝑣)
= 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢′𝑣
𝑑𝑥

Since integration reverses the process of differentiation, it is the anti-derivative, when we

integrate both sides:

𝑑(𝑢𝑣)
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢′𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

Page 25 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Finally the last stage:

𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

That last equation above is known as integration by parts. It is best used when you have terms
being multiplied, a term that differentiates to 0 and you can integrate the other term. For
examples:

𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

Since 𝑥 differentiates to 0 and 𝑒 is easy to integrate then let:

𝑢=𝑥 , 𝑣 =𝑒

Differentiate your 𝑢 term until you get 0 and at the same time integrate your 𝑣′ term.

𝑢=𝑥 , 𝑣 =𝑒
𝑢 = 3𝑥 , 𝑣=𝑒

Substitute values back into the formula:

𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 3𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

Notice that to the far right we still have an integral term. However, we can apply integration
by parts again to it.

𝑢 = 3𝑥 , 𝑣 =𝑒
𝑢 = 6𝑥, 𝑣=𝑒

3𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 𝑒 − 6𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

Again the term on the right:

𝑢 = 6𝑥, 𝑣 =𝑒
𝑢 = 6, 𝑣=𝑒

6𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑒 − 6𝑒 𝑑𝑥

This times the term on the right is easy to integrate:

6𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑒

Page 26 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Finally putting everything together, watch your signs carefully:

𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 3𝑥 𝑒 + 6𝑥𝑒 − 6𝑒

Simplifying we get:

𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 (𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 6) + 𝐶

Do not forget your constant of integration when everything is through.

Particular Solution to an Indefinite Integral

Remember the constant on integration that we usually get at the end of an indefinite integral?
If we are given certain pieces of information we can find the value of that indefinite integral;
in particular a point on the original curve.

i.e.

What is the equation of the curve with differential = 3𝑥 + 5 and passes through the point
(1,5)?

Remember that:

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Because integration is the opposite of differentiation. It is the anti-derivative. That means our
curve 𝑦 is:

𝑦= 𝑥 + 5 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 𝑐

The question also says it passes through the point (1,6) so:

5 = (1) + 5(1) + 𝑐

𝑐 =5−6

𝑐 = −1

That means the specific equation is:

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 1

Page 27 of 28
 Calculus 1 Notes
Grade: 12 /
Topics: Limits, Differentiation and Integration
By: Andrè St.F. Maxwell
Volume of Revolution

The volume of revolution about the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 of a curve is given by:

𝑉= 𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Where 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥. Notice how the formula resembles the area of a circle. This is of
no coincidence and you will get the full appreciation of it in Unit 2. For now consider the
example:

𝑦 =𝑥 +5

What is the volume of revolution between the points 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5?

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 10𝑥 + 25

The volume of revolution is therefore:

𝜋 𝑥 + 10𝑥 + 25 𝑑𝑥 =

𝑥 10
𝜋 + 𝑥 + 25𝑥 =
5 3

1250
𝜋 625 + + 125 − 0 =
3
2
1166 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

Page 28 of 28