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RETAINING WALLS
3.0 Introduction
Retaining walls are constructed in concrete and masonry. They may be classified
according to their shape and mode of resisting the pressure as gravity, cantilever (L and
T-shaped), counterfort, and buttressed walls (in which counterforts are provided on both
sides) as shown in Fig 3.1. The material retained may be water, granular material (i.e.
sand e.t.c.), or even offer resistance to wind pressure.
Ground surface
Surcharge Counterfort

Free side

Toe Heel Backfill

(a) Gravity (b) T-Shaped (c) L-Shaped (d) Counterfort

Fig 3.1: Retaining Walls

3.1 Failure Criteria

A careful study of the modes of failure in retaining walls has established that the
failure may be due to overturning, tension failure of joints, sliding along the base,
rotational slip and sinking when the applied pressure exceeds the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil. A brief description of these modes of failure now follows.

3.1.1 Overturning
A wall will be in equilibrium if the overturning moment due to the horizontal thrust
exerted at the back of the wall is less than that due to the stabilizing moment of the self
weight (Fig 3.2). As soon as the overturning moment exceeds the stabilising moment,
the wall overturns about some point near the toe.

Rs =angle of wall
friction
P P Pa

W W
Toe Heel Toe Heel 
V
Rs=W
V
Fig 3.2 Fig 3.3 Fig 3.4

3.1.2 Tension in the joints

A wall may be considered as a vertical cantilever, with the heel face in tension and
the toe face in compression due to the bending stress. In the case of masonry walls, the
tension has the effect of opening out the joints, and this may provide crevices for entry of
moisture, leading to subsequent deterioration of the fabric and failure of the wall (Fig
3.3).

3.1.3 Sliding along the base

If the wall rests on a relatively smooth base, it will slide along the base if the
horizontal thrust P exceeds the frictional resistance Rs developed between the wall base
and the ground surface. Generally however, the ground may develop adequate frictional
resistance depending on the self weight of the wall, and in the case of gravity walls, the
wall will be prevented from sliding.
It has been found that the value of Rs increases uniformly with the vertical ground
reaction V (equal to total weight of the wall acting downwards), so that if the values of Rs
are plotted against the corresponding values of V, a straight line graph is obtained (Fig
3.4. The slope of the graph  is defined as the angle of wall friction. The value of  varies
with the type of soil and with the material and texture of the wall base, and may assume a
value between 0.75 to 1.00. The coefficient of friction =tan , and is also taken as
P
  a . To avoid sliding, a factor of safety as given by F.O.S.=Rs/Pa is calculated and
V
should not be less than 1.5.

W1 W2 Shearing resistance
=f  length of arc

Fig 3.5 Fig 3.6

3.1.4 Bearing on the ground

The combined effect due to the bending stress and direct stress will set up bearing
pressure within the base of the wall and the soil upon which it acts. Failure occurs if the
applied pressure exceeds the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil (Fig 3.5). In practice,
this should not be allowed and is taken care of by applying a factor of safety of at least
three to the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.

3.1.5 Rotational slip

The wall together with a large retained material may fail by rotating about some point
O if the moment due to the weight of the wall W1, and the soil mass W2 exceeds the
moment of resistance developed along the circular arc (Fig 3.6).
3.2 Lateral Pressure and Thrust
This may result from wind pressure, pressure due to retained liquid or pressure due to
retained granular material, such as sand.

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3.2.1 Wind Pressure
The intensity of pressure against the face of a structure may depend upon a number of
factors such as wind velocity, degree of exposure, amount and frequency of gusting,
amount of shelter provided by adjacent buildings, height and shape of structure etc. A
complex analysis is required to evaluate the actual wind pressure on a structure. For the
present case, assume uniform wind pressure acting normal to the exposed surface of the
structure, as shown in Fig 3.7.
p Liquid surface

h gh
P
H H gh gh
H/2 P
H/3 gh

P=gH

Fig 3.7: Wind pressure Fig 3.8: Water pressure

If p is the uniform intensity of wind pressure per unit area (area=H1=H), then the
resultant thrust per unit length of wall, P=intensityarea=pH.

3.2.2 Liquid Pressure

Dams and other liquid retaining structures have to sustain a lateral thrust exerted by
the retained liquid. In order to analyse liquid pressure, two basic principles of
hydrostatics apply here:
(i) At a given point in a liquid, the pressure acts uniformly in all directions, and is of
equal intensity.
(ii) At a depth H below the liquid surface, pressure intensity, p= gH, where = density
of liquid (1000kg/m3 for water), g=gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2).

For the retained liquid shown in Fig 3.8, the pressure varies from zero at the liquid
surface to gH at the bottom of the wall, and the thrust due to the retained liquid is also
evaluated.
Pressure at depth H, p=gH, hence average intensity=  12  gH.
Area of wall (per metre run)  H  1  H m 2
 Magnitude of resultant thrust on the wall (per metre run of wall)
H H2
P  g  H  g
2 2

3.2.3 Pressure Due to Retained Granular Material

Granular materials possess the property of internal friction (friction between adjacent
grains), whilst not possessing the property of internal cohesion. Granular materials
include sand and gravelly soils, coal, coke and certain ores. Non- granular materials such

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as clays which are cohesive, and which involve more complex methods of analysis are
omitted from this work.
It should also be realised that soils, unlike liquids are not usually uniform, nor do their
properties normally remain constant over time.
Lateral pressure on a retaining wall may be determined using several useful theories,
some relatively simple while others are quite complex. In all these theories, some degree
of approximation is present. In this topic, two simpler theories are going to be considered,
namely, Rankine’s theory of lateral earth pressure and Coulomb’s wedge theory of lateral
earth pressure.

Rankine’s Theory of Lateral Earth Pressure

The following assumptions are made in Rankine’s theory:
(i) the retained material is incompressible
(ii) the retained material is homogeneous
(iii) the retained material is granular and cohesionless
(iv) the retained material possesses internal frictional resistance to movement
between the grains
(v) the retaining wall face is smooth
(vi) the wall is vertical
(vii) the wall yields about the base
It should be realised that a granular material
when tipped onto a flat surface flows out to form a
conical heap (Fig 3.9). The material within the pa Conical heap
cone supports itself due to the internal friction =angle of repose
pv
between the grains. The cone makes an angle with

the horizontal surface known as the angle of
repose. Fig 3.9

A more reliable measure of the internal friction of the soil is obtained by laboratory
testing of the soil, establishing the value of the ‘angle of shearing resistance ()’ of the
soil. For a perfectly dry soil, =. However,  is the essential property upon which
Rankines theory is based.
In granular frictional materials such as sand, the active lateral earth pressure ( pa)
exerted is somewhat less than the vertical pressure (pv). In Rankines theory, the ratio
pa
 ka (coefficient of lateral earth pressure) is evaluated in terms of the angle of
pv
shearing resistance .
Consider the retained granular material as shown in Fig 9.10.
pa
ka  , or pa  ka s gH (at bottom of the wall)
gH
When evaluated in terms of angle of shearing resistance ,
1 - sin
ka 
1  sin

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  1 - sin 
At depth H, pa    gH
 1  sin 
The pressure varies from zero at B to pa at the base of the wall, and is thus triangular
in shape.
Hence lateral active thrust
P  12 pa  H
 12 ka s gH 2 , acting at a height H/3 above A.

Soil surface
B
h sgh
H
kasgh kasgh
P
H/3 sgh Note: s=density of soil
A
pa=kasgH

Fig 3.10: Soil Pressure

***Coulombs Theory of Lateral Earth Pressure –Refer Soil mechanics books

3.3. Pressure on Inclined Wall Face

Since the pressure acts normal to the surface,
in the case of an inclined wall surface, the pressure P
will act in a direction other than horizontal as l/3
H Ws
shown in Fig 9.11.
l  PaH
P  12 pa  l , where l= sloping height of
inclined wall surface. pa  kaρ s gl
 2 ka s gl
1 2

The resultant thrust may be treated as simple Fig 3.11

force acting at an angle  to the horizontal.
Alternatively,
Alternatively, the horizontal and vertical components paH and Ws respectively may be
considered, both acting at the point of application of P, as shown in Fig 3.11.

3.4 Pressure Due to Surcharge

When a surcharge is superimposed on the surface of a granular material, the active
lateral pressure is increased by a proportional amount. Pressure distribution will be as
shown in Fig 3.12, with the rectangular portion representing lateral pressure due to
surcharge acting at half the depth. The total overturning moment acting on the wall is the
sum of the moments of Pa and Ps.

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 Surcharge=q kN/m2

Soil: Density s

H Ps
Pa
H/2
H/3

k aq kasgh

Fig 3.12

3.5 Stability Calculations

A retaining wall (or other similar structure) will be stable if the limiting conditions
discussed earlier are not exceeded. It is necessary to perform a number of basic
calculations in order to examine the stability criteria for a retaining wall. For special
cases, additional work will be required, but the most usual cases will involve:
(i) calculation of weights and lateral thrusts
(ii) determination of the position of ground reaction
(iii) determination of ground bearing pressure
(iv) determination of the factor of safety against sliding.

Determination of the Position of Ground Reaction

A retaining wall will be under equilibrium as the weights will be balanced by an
upward reaction (V) from the ground upon which it rests. This reaction is given by the
sum of the vertical forces acting downwards, i.e.
V  W1  W2  ...Wn
Consider the cantilever retaining wall as shown in Fig 3.13.

Prism of soil resting on step

a1
as

H W1 WS P

H/3
a2

A B
W2 x
V
V is readily determined, i.e. V  W1  W2  Ws
Fig 3.13
The ground reaction

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 The position at which the ground reaction V intersects the base AB can be
determined by taking moments of all the forces about B.
H
Vx  P   W1  a1  W2  a2  Ws  as , for which x may be readily determined.
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Determination of Ground Bearing Pressure
The combination of downward acting forces (weights) and the overturning moments
will give rise to the ground reaction pressure at the base of the retaining wall. In order to
assess the factor of safety against foundation soil failure, the distribution of ground
bearing pressure and its maximum value have to be assessed (Fig 3.14). From the theory
of combined stresses, the ground bearing pressure consists of a direct stress component
and a bending stress component.
Direct load= V
Bending moment about centerline of the base = Ve B
Direct stress, d=V/A
Bending stress, b=Ve/z W P
Ground bearing pressures (stresses) at A and B are e
obtained from algebraic summation of direct (d)
and bending stresses (b), A B
V Centreline of base
V Ve
A = 
A Z Compression fd=V/A
V Ve
B = -
A Z
where V= resultant ground reaction equal to total Compression Fb=Ve/Z
downward weights
e= eccentricity of V about centerline of base Tension
A= area of base
=1B (per unit length of wall)
Z=section modulus of the base about its centreline B=Combined
V/A pressure diag.
2
1 B A
 (per unit length of wall) Ve/Z
6
Ve/Z

Fig 3.14

I D  B3 DB3 2 DB2 1  B2
B
Note: Z    
  (per unit length of wall)
Y 12 12 B2 6 6
The factor of safety against failure of the foundation soil is given by
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
F.O.S. 
Maximum allowable ground bearing pressure
A factor of safety of at least 3 is recommended.

Middle Third Rule

* This has already been dealt with (***) and it was demonstrated that as long as the
ground reaction V acts within the middle third part of the base, (i.e. e  d ), no tension
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will occur in the base. In the case of masonry and brickwork, occurrence of tension
results in cracks and subsequent deterioration of the wall. For reinforced concrete walls,

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however, some degree of tension may be permitted, and a modification is necessary for
the calculation of the maximum ground pressure (Fig 3.15).
B

A B A B A B
⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓ ⅓
V e e<B/6 V e e=B/6 V e e>B/6

Tension

Compression Compression Compression

V inside middle third V at middle third V outside middle third

Fig 3.15
Since tension cannot exist between the base of the wall (limited to 410-3N/mm2) and
the soil beneath, pressure distribution will be as shown in Fig 3.16. The area of pressure
distribution will be equal to the value of the ground reaction V, and must act in the same
line. If V acts at distance ‘a’ from the toe of the wall, then the pressure triangle will be as
shown, with its centre of gravity positioned vertically below the point of application of V.

B
 V  1  σ A  (3a  1) (per unit length of wall)
2
Or σ A  2V
3a
But a  B  x
 V  1  A  3  B x  ⅓ ⅓ ⅓
2
Toe Heel
Or 2V   A  3( B  x ) e e>B/6
2V V x
Or  A 
3( B  x )
Alternatively: a
B=0
x  e  B / 2 , or x  B  e =0
2 A G

 A  2V = 2V
3a
 B
3 B  (  e)  3  B  e
 2  2 
A  2V Fig 3.16
WorkedHence
examples
3 B
2
e  

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Examples
(a) Wind Pressure:
Example 3.1: A vertical wall of height 4m is subjected to a uniform horizontal wind
pressure of intensity 1.6kN/m2 as shown in Fig 3.17. Determine the magnitude and
position of the resultant thrust per metre run of the wall.

Solution
Wind pressure, P:
Resultant thrust, P = pH = 1.6  (4  1) = 6.4kN (per metre run of wall)
P acts at a height of H/2 = 4/2 = 2m, (above the base of wall).
p

P
H H P
H/2
H/3

Fig 3.17: Wind pressure Fig 3.18: Water pressure

(b) Water Pressure:

Example 3.2: A masonry dam of height 4m retains water on its vertical face as shown in
Fig 3.18. Determine the resultant hydrostatic thrust per metre run of the wall when:
(i) water is level with the top of the dam,
(ii) water level is 2m below the top of dam.
Take density of water as 1000kg/m3.
Solution
(i) Hydrostatic thrust ‘P’ when water is level with top of dam:
Hydrostatic thrust, P = 12 ρgH 2 = 12 ×103 ×9.81× 42 = 78.48 kN
P acts at a height of H/3 = 4/3 = 1.333m (above base of wall).
(ii) Hydrostatic thrust ‘P’ when water level is 2m below top of dam;H=2m
Hydrostatic thrust, P = 12 ρgH 2 = 12 ×103 ×9.81× 22 = 19.62 kN
P acts at a height of H/3 = 2/3 = 0.667m (above base of wall).

(c) Soil Pressure:

Example 3.3: A masonry wall with vertical back 4.5m high retains earth having a density
of 2000 kg/m3 and an angle of shearing resistance  of 300 as shown in Fig 3.19. Using
Rankine’s theory, determine the active lateral thrust acting on the wall per metre run.
Solution
Active lateral thrust ‘P’:
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure,
1- sin  1- sin 300 1
ka = = =
1+ sin 1+ sin300 3

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 Thrust on wall (per metre run),
P = 12 kaρs gH 2 = 12 × 13 × 2000×9.81× 4.52 = 66.22 kN
P acts at a height of H/3 = 4.5/3 = 1.5m (above base of wall).
Surcharge, q=25kN/m2

s=2000kg/m3
=300
Pas
H Pa H Pa

H/3 H/3

Fig 3.19: Soil pressure Fig 3.20: Soil pressure and surcharge

(d) Soil Pressure and surcharge:

Example 3.4: Determine the active lateral thrust acting on the wall in Example 3.3 if
there is a surcharge of 25kN/m2 acting on the surface of the soil as shown in Fig 3.20.
Solution
Active lateral thrust ‘P’:
1
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure, k a = (from previous example).
3
Thrust on wall due to soil, Pa = 66.22kN/m (from previous example).
Pressure due to surcharge,
Pas = ka × qH = 13 × 25× 4.5 = 37.5kN/m.
Total active lateral thrust, P = 37.5 + 66.22 = 103.72kN/m run of wall.

Example 3.5:Figure 3.21 shows a retaining wall which supports a cohesionless soil
having a density of 1900 kg/m3 and an angle of shearing resistance  of 280. The density
of the wall material is 2400kg/m3. Examine the stability conditions of the wall with
regard to: (a) tension in the joints, (b) ground bearing pressure, and (c) factor of safety
against overturning, (d) factor of safety against sliding, if angle of wall friction  =0.9 .
Ground level

Soil: soil=1900kg/m3
=280
6.4

Wall: wall=2400kg/m3

Note: Dimensions in metres

A B
3.2 1.2

SOLUTION Fig 3.21

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SOLUTION
1.2 Ground level

Soil: soil=1900kg/m3
=280
6.4 a1

Wall: wall=2500kg/m3
W1 Pa
a2
H/3
A B
W2
3.2 1.2
V X

Fig 3.22

(a) Check if tension occurs in the joints:

From the Figure,
H = 6.4m
H/3 = 6.4/3 = 2.133m
a1 = 1.2/2 = 0.6m
a 2 = 1.2 +1/3  3.2 = 2.267m
1- sin 280
ka = = 0.361
1+ sin280
1 1
Pa = k a ρs gH 2 = × 0.361×1900×9.81× 6.4 2 ×10 -3 = 137.8 kN/m
2 2
Weights per metre run of wall:
W1 = 1.2× 6.4×1× 2400×9.81×10 -3 = 180.82kN
1
W2 =  3.2× 6.4×1× 2400×9.81×10 -3 = 241.09kN
2
Total vertical load V = 421.91kN
 MB = 0
421.91 x = 180.82× 0.6 + 241.09× 2.267 +137.8× 2.133
 x = 2.249m
B 4.4
Eccentricity, e = x - = 2.249 -  0.049m, within middle third , hence no tension.
2 2

(b) Ground bearing pressure:

Stresses are given by:
V Ve
= 
A Z

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 421.91 421.91× 0.049
= ± = 95.89 ± 6.41
4.4×1 1× 4.4 2 /6
Stress at A, A = 95.89 + 6.41 = 102.3 kN/m 2  max imum 
Stress at B, B = 95.89 - 6.41 = 89.48 kN/m 2 (min imum)
Allowable ground bearing pressure should be greater than 102.3kN/m 2 with an
appropriate factor of safety (at least a F.O.S. of 3 is recommended).
(c) Factor of safety against overturning:
Restoring moment
F.O.S. = (taking moments at A).
Disturbing moment
180.82×  4.4 - 0.6   +  241.09×  4.4 - 2.267  
=
137.8× 2.133
= 4.09

(d) Factor of safety against sliding:

Angle of wall friction = 0.9 angle of shearing resistance (i.e. =0.9).
Or *  = 0.9  280 = 25.20
Ultimate resistance that could be developed beneath the base of the wall,
* R s = V tan δ = 421.91 tan 25.2 0 = 198.54kN/m
Factor of safety against sliding,
Force resisting sliding
=
Force tending to cause sliding
R 198.54
= s = = 1.44  not adequate, should be > 1.5 
Pa 137.8

*Note:
(a) Coefficient of friction,  = tan δ
(b) Angle of wall friction,  = 0.9
(c) Force resisting sliding, Rs= R s  V  V tan 

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