6

THEORIES OF ELASTIC FAILURE

14.0 INTRODUCTION
A structural material may be subjected to one type of loading , say direct stress at a
time, in which case it is not difficult to determine the limiting load causing failure.
When a structural member is subjected to a complex loading system, it is not clear
how failure occurs. To perform an experiment to evaluate the mode of failure could both
be time wasting and uneconomical, and thus a suitable simple approach would be
invaluable.
In the case of complex two dimensional stress system comprising of direct and
shear stresses, a simpler approach represents direct stresses only by the principal stresses.
An extension of this procedure for a complex loading system would result at most with
three stresses 1, 2, and 3 as shown in Fig 6.1.
2
3
1

3 1

2

Fig 14.1: Volumetric Stresses and Strains

14.1 Ductile Materials

Two theories are commonly adopted for ductile materials, and are discussed in this
chapter.
(i) Maximum shear stress theory
This theory is usually linked with the names of Tresca and Guest, and is more
widely associated with the former. The theory proposes that:

“Failure (i.e. yielding) will occur when the maximum shear stress in the
material is equal to the maximum shear stress at failure in simple tension”.

For a general three dimensional stress system, or in the two dimensional case with
one of the stresses tensile, one compressive and the third zero, the maximum shear stress
σ -σ
is τ max = 1 2 (based on principal stresses).
2
σ -σ σx - σy
Or τ max = max min {compare : τ max = } …(6.1)
2 2
where σ max and σ min are the algebraic maximum and minimum principal stresses. At
failure in simple tension, the yield stress σY is in fact a principal stress and since
 2

there can be no direct stress perpendicular to the axis of loading, the maximum shear
stress is,
σ
τ max = Y …(6.2)
2

Note: Eq. (6.1) and (6.2) are so since maximum shear stress is equal to half the
difference between maximum and minimum principle stresses; and since
maximum shear in simple tension is equal to half the tensile stresses.

Thus, the theory proposes that failure in a complex system will occur when,
σ max  σ min σ Y

2 2
Or σ max - σ min = σ Y …(6.3)
Let us now examine stress systems having different relative values of σ1 , σ 2 , and σ3 .
 First: Suppose that σ1 > σ 2 > σ3 > 0 . From Eq.(6.3), failure occurs when,
σ1 - σ3 = σ Y …(6.4)
 Second: Suppose that σ1 > σ 2 > 0, but σ 3  0. In this case the three stress
dimensional system of Fig 6.1 reduces to a two dimensional stress system, but is still
acting on a three dimensional element. Thus Eq. (6.3) becomes,
σ1 - 0 = σ Y
Or σ1 = σ Y …(6.5)
Third: Suppose that σ1 > 0, σ 2 < 0, and σ 3  0. Again we have a two dimensional stress
system acting on a three dimensional element, but now σ 2 is a compressive stress and
algebraically less than σ 3 . Thus Eq. (6.3) becomes,
σ1 - σ 2 = σ Y …(6.6)

(ii) Shear Strain Energy Theory (or Strain Energy Theory)

This theory of elastic failure was established independently by von Mises, Maxwell
and Hencky but is now generally referred to as the von Mises criterion. The theory
proposes that:

“Failure will occur when the shear or distortion strain energy in the
material reaches the equivalent value at yielding in simple tension”.

In 1904, Huber proposed that the total strain energy, Ut of an element of material
could be regarded as comprising two separate parts, that due to change in volume and
that due to change in shape. The former is termed volumetric strain energy, Uv, the latter
the ‘distortion’ or shear strain energy Us. Thus,
U t = U v + Us …(6.7)
Since it is relatively simple to determine Ut and Uv, Us can be obtained by transposing
Eq. (6.7); i.e.
Us = U t - U v …(6.8)
 3

in which, Us= shear strain energy, Uv= volumetric strain energy, and Ut=total strain
energy.
Strain energy U of a member (bar) subjected to a direct tensile stress  is given as,
1 σ2
U = × × volume {see Appendix 1, page 16} 1 PL
2 E P S.E, U= P, where  
2 AE
1  σ A 1 PL A 1 P P AL
= × σ × ε × volume  ε = strain = 
 P     
2 AE A 2 A A E
2  E 1
 
Volume 1  Volume
  
2

2 E 2 E E
Or Strain energy per unit volume in one direction O B Δ
U 1 σε
= = × σε = .
volume 2 2
Thus for a three dimensional element subjected to a stress σ on each of its six faces,
the strain energy in one direction is given by,
1
σε
2
where ε is the average strain due to average stress σ on each of the three directions. The
total volumetric strain energy per unit volume, Uv, of the element is then given by,
1 
U v = 3  σε 
2 
From Fig 6.1, an expression for shear strain can be derived as follows:
For the bar subjected to tensile stresses as shown, longitudinal strains will be;
σ σ σ σ σ + σ3
ε1 = 1 - 2 - 3 = 1 - 2
E mE mE E mE
σ 2 σ3 σ1 σ 2 σ 3 + σ1
ε2 = - - = -
E mE mE E mE
σ 3 σ1 σ 2 σ 3 σ1 + σ 2
ε3 = - - = -
E mE mE E mE
where =strain, E= Young’s modulus of elasticity, 1/m= the Poisson’s ratio.
Adding the three expressions gives the volumetric strain, ε v , given by,
σ σ  σ3 σ 2 σ1  σ3 σ3 σ1  σ 2
ε v = ε1 + ε 2 + ε3 = 1  2     .
E mE E mE E mE
1  σ  σ 3  σ1  σ 3  σ1  σ 2  
= σ1  σ 2  σ 3   2 
E  m 
σ1  σ 2  σ 3  2
= 1  
E  m
1  m-2
 ε v =  σ1  σ 2  σ3   
E  m 
The total volumetric strain energy per unit volume, U v is given by,
1  σ σ σ σ 2 σ + σ 2 + σ3
U v = 3  σε  , where ε = - - =  1   , and σ = 1
2  E mE mE E  m  3
 4

 1  σ + σ 2 + σ3   σ1 + σ 2 + σ3   2  
 Uv = 3   1 ×  1-  
2  3   3E   m 
1   m - 2 
=  σ1 + σ 2 + σ3  σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3   
6E   m 
m-2 2
=
6mE
σ1 + σ 22 + σ 32 + 2  σ1σ 2 + σ 2 σ 3 + σ3σ1 
m-2
= X + 2Y …(6.9)
6mE
 
where, X  σ 21 + σ 22 + σ 32 , and Y   σ1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ3σ1 
Similarly, total strain energy per unit volume, Ut, of an element subjected to
stresses σ1 , σ 2 and σ 3 is given by,
U t  12 σ1ε1 + 12 σ 2 ε 2 + 12 σ 3ε 3 ; where σ1, σ 2 and σ3 are of the same sign.
σ1  σ1 σ 2  σ3  σ 2  σ 2 σ3  σ1  σ3  σ 3 σ1  σ 2 
=         
2E mE  2  E mE  2  E mE 
1  2 2 2 2σ1σ 2 + 2σ 2 σ 3 + 2σ 3σ1 
=  σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3 - 
2E  m 
1  2 
Or U t = X - Y …(6.10)
2E  m 
where X = σ1 + σ 22 + σ 32 and Y = σ1σ 2 + σ 2 σ 3 + σ 3σ1 , as before.
2

Substituting values in Eq. (6.8);

Us = U t - U v
1  2  m-2
= X - Y-  X + 2Y 
2E  m  6mE
X 2Y mX 2mY 2X 4Y
=     
2E 2mE 6mE 6mE 6mE 6mE
X Y X Y X 2Y
=     
2E mE 6E 3E 3mE 3mE
1  6Y 2X 4Y 
=  3X - - X - 2Y + + 
6E  m m m 
1  2X 2Y 
=  2X + - 2Y - 
6E  m m 
1  X Y
= X + - Y - 
3E  m m
1   1   1 
= X  Y 
3E   1  m   1  m 
1   m 1   m  1 
= X  Y 
3E   m   m 
 5

m +1
= X  Y …(6.11)
3mE
m +1 2
Or U s =
3mE
σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 -  σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1 
Generates a factor of 2
=
m +1
6mE
 2 2

 σ1 - σ 2  +  σ 2 - σ3  +  σ3 - σ1  per unit volume.
2
…(6.12)
1 1
But = ν, or m = , where  is the Poisson’s ratio, and
m ν
E  2G 1  ν  where G is the Rigidity Modulus.
Substituting these values in Eq. (6.12);
1
+1
Us =
1
ν   2 2 2

σ1 - σ 2  +  σ 2 - σ 3  +  σ3 - σ1  per unit volume.
6× × 2G 1+ ν 
ν
1+ ν  / ν σ - σ 2 + σ - σ 2 + σ - σ 2 per unit volume.
=
12G 1+ ν  / ν
 1 2   2 3  3 1 
 Us =
1
12G
 2 2

 σ1 - σ 2  +  σ 2 - σ3  +  σ3 - σ1  per unit volume.
2
…(6.13)
The shear or distortion strain energy per unit volume at failure in simple tension
corresponds to σ1 = σ Y , σ 2 = σ 3 = 0. Hence from Eq. (6.13),
1 σ 2Y
Us (at failure in simple tension) =
12G
 Y Y  6G .
σ 2
 σ 2


σ2
 Us (at failure in simple tension)  Y . …(6.14)
6G
According to von Mises criterion, failure occurs when U s given by Eq. (6.13) reaches the
value of U s given by Eq.( 6.14), i.e. when,
σ 2Y
=
6G 12G
1
 σ1 - σ 2  +  σ 2 - σ3  +  σ3 - σ1 
2 2 2

2σ 2Y =  σ1 - σ 2  +  σ 2 - σ 3  +  σ 3 - σ1 
2 2 2
…(6.15)
For a two dimensional stress system in which σ3 = 0, Eq.( 6.15) becomes,
σ12 + σ 22 - σ1σ 2 = σ 2Y (for two dimensional case where σ 3 = 0 ) …(6.16)

Design Application:
Codes of practice for the use of structural steel in building use the von Mises
criterion for a two-dimensional stress system Eq. (6.16) in determining an equivalent
allowable stress for members subjected to bending and shear. Thus, if σ x and  xy are the
direct and shear stresses respectively at a point in a member subjected to bending and
shear, then the principal stresses (based on principal stresses) at the point are;
 6

σx 1 2
σ1 = + σ x + 4τ 2xy
2 2
σx 1 2
σ2 = - σ x + 4τ 2xy
2 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (6.16) and simplifying, we obtain
σ Y = σ x2 + 3τ 2xy …(6.17)
In codes of practice, σ Y is termed an equivalent stress and ‘allowable’ values are
given for series of different structural members.

Yield Loci:
Eqns. (6.3) [Tresca’s theory], and (6.15) [von Mises theory] may be plotted
graphically for two dimensional stress system in which σ3 = 0 and in which it is assumed
that the yield stress σY is the same in tension and compression.
Fig 6.2 shows the yield locus for the maximum shear stress or Tresca theory of
elastic failure. In the first and third quadrants when σ1 and σ 2 have the same sign, failure
occurs when either σ1  σ Y , or σ 2  σ Y (see Eq. 6.5), depending on which principal
stress attains the value of σY first. In the second and fourth quadrants where σ1 and σ 2
have opposite signs, failure occurs when σ1 - σ 2 = σ Y , or σ 2 - σ1 = σ Y (see Eq. 6.6). Both
these equations [(6.5) and (6.6)] represent straight lines each having a slope of 45 0 and an
intercept on the σ 2 axis of σY . Clearly all combinations of σ1 and σ 2 which lie inside the
locus will not cause failure, while all combinations of σ1 and σ 2 on or outside the locus
will. Thus, the inside of the locus represents elastic conditions while the outside
represents plastic conditions.

2
2=Y
1<0, 2>0 Y 1>0, 2>0
2-1=Y
1=Y

1
Y Y
1=Y 1-2=Y
1<0, 2<0 1>0, 2<0
Y

2=Y
Fig 6.2: Yield Loci (based on Tresca theory)

The shear strain energy (von Mises) theory for a two-dimensional stress system is
represented by Eq.(6.16). This equation may be shown to be that of an ellipse whose
 7

major and minor axes are inclined at 450 to the axes of σ1 and σ 2 as shown in Fig 6.3. It
may also be shown that the ellipse passes through the six corners of the Tresca locus so
that at these points the two theories give identical results. However, for other
combinations of σ1 and σ 2 , the Tresca theory predicts failure where the von Mises theory
does not, so that the Tresca theory is more conservative of the two.
2

Y

Y 450 1
Y

Tresca yield locus

Y

Fig 6.3: von Mises Theory

The value of the yield loci lies in their use in experimental work on the validation of
the different theories. Structural members fabricated from different materials may be
subjected to a complete range of combinations of σ1 and σ 2 each producing failure. The
results are then plotted on the yield loci and the accuracy of each theory is determined for
different materials.

Example 6.1: The state of stress at a point in a structural member is defined by a two-
dimensional stress system as follows: x= +140 N/mm2, y=-70 N/mm2 and xy=+60
N/mm2. If the material of the member has a yield stress in simple tension of 225 N/mm 2,
determine whether or not yielding has occurred according to the Tresca and von Mises
theories of elastic failure.
σy
Solution τxy
(a) Checking for failure by Tresca theory:
Determination of principal stresses; τxy
 σx  σy  1
σx σx
 σ x  σ y  + 4τxy
2
σ=  2
θ τxy
2 2
Maximum principal stress, τxy
σy
140 - 70  + 1 140 - 70 2 + 4× 602 = 155.9N/mm 2 , and
σ1 =  
2 2
Minimum principal stress,
140 - 70  - 1 140 - 70 2 + 4× 602 = -85.9N/mm 2
σ2 =  
2 2
Since 2 is algebraically less than 3  = 0  , Eq (6.16) applies.
 8

Thus, σ1 - σ 2 = 155.9 -  -85.9  = 241.8 N/mm 2 .

The above value is greater than σ y  = 225N/mm 2  so that according to Tresca’s
theory, failure has in fact occurred.

(b) Checking for failure by von Mises theory:

For a two dimensional stress system, σ12 + σ 22 - σ1σ 2 = σ 2Y …(6.16)
Substitute values of σ1 and σ 2 in Eq. (6.16);
155.9  +  -85.9  - 155.9  -85.9  = 45075.4
2 2

The square root of this expression is 212.3N/mm2, so that according to von Mises
theory, the material has not yet failed.

Example 6.2: Fig 6.4 shows a rectangular cross-section of a thin-walled box girder
subjected to a bending moment of 250kNm and a torque of 200kNm. If the allowable
equivalent stress for the material of the box girder is 185 N/mm 2, determine whether or
not the design is satisfactory using the requirements of Eq. (6.17).

Solution
Maximum shear stress in the cross-section occurs in the vertical walls of the section,
and is given by,
T 200×106
τ max = max = = 80N/mm 2
2At min 2×500× 250×10
The maximum stress due to bending occurs at the
top and bottom of each vertical wall and is given by, 12mm
M
σ = y,
I 10 10
3 3
500 476
where I = 250   230  = 537.04 106 mm 4 , 500
12 12
and y =250mm. 12mm
6
250×10 × 250
 σ= 6
= 116.38N/mm 2
537.04×10 250mm
Substitute values in Eq.(xvii):
Fig 6.4
 σ Y = σ x2 + 3τ 2xy = 116.382 + 3×802 = 180.95N/mm 2
This equivalent stress of 180.95N/mm 2 is less than the allowable value of 185N/mm2
so that the box girder section is satisfactory.

6.2 Brittle Materials

When subjected to tensile stresses, brittle materials such as cast iron, concrete and
ceramics fracture at a value of stress very close to the elastic limit with little or no
permanent yielding on the planes of maximum shear stress. The failure plane is generally
flat and perpendicular to the axis of loading unlike ductile materials which have failure
planes inclined approximately 450 to the axis of loading with failure occurring on planes
of maximum shear stress. This suggests that shear stresses have no effect on the failure of
 9

brittle materials and that a direct relationship exists between the principle stresses at
a point in a brittle material subjected to a complex loading system and the failure
stress in simple tension or compression. This forms the basis for the most widely
accepted theory of failure for brittle materials.

Maximum normal stress theory (or Maximum principal stress theory)

This theory frequently attributed to Rankine, states that:

“Failure occurs when one of the principal stresses reaches

the value of yield stress in simple tension or compression”.

For most brittle materials, the yield stress in tension is very much less than the yield
stress in compression, for example for concrete σY (compression) is approximately
20σY (tension). Thus, it is essential in any particular problem to know which of the yield
stresses is achieved first.
Suppose that a brittle material is subjected to a complex loading system which
produces principal stresses σ1 ,σ 2 and σ 3 as shown in Fig 6.1. Thus for σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3  0,
failure occurs when,
σ1 = σ Y (tension) …(6.18)
Alternatively, for σ1 > σ 2 > 0, σ3 < 0 and σ1 < σ Y (tension), failure occurs when,
σ 3 = σ Y (compresion), …(6.19)
and so on.

A yield locus may be drawn for the two

dimensional case as for the Tresca and von 2
Mises theories of failure for ductile materials 2=Y(T) 2=Y(T)
and is shown in Fig 6.5. Note that since Y(T)
1=Y(C) 1=Y(T)
failure stress in tension, σ Y  T  , is generally 1<0,2>0 1>0,2>0
less than the failure stress in compression, 1
Y(C) Y(T)
σ Y  C  , the yield locus is not symmetrically
1=Y(C) 1=Y(T)
arranged about the σ1 and σ 2 axes. Again, 1<0,2<0 1>0,2<0
combinations of stress corresponding to points
Y(C)
inside the locus will not cause failure whereas 2=Y(C) 2=Y(C)
combinations of σ1 and σ 2 on or outside the
locus will. Fig 6.5

Example 6.3: A concrete beam has a rectangular cross-section 250mm 500mm and is
simply supported over a span of 4m. Determine the maximum mid-span concentrated
load the beam can carry if failure stress in simple tension of concrete is 1.5N/mm 2.
 10

Solution
Consider the beam loaded as shown in Fig 6.6.
Maximum bending moment occurs at mid-span,
W W
= × 2 = W Nm
2
A C B
Maximum direct tensile stresses due to bending occur 2m 2m
at soffit of the beam.
M W × 250
 σ= y= 3
= 9.6×10-5 W N/mm 2 Fig 6.6
I 500
250×
12
At this point, the maximum principal stress is,
σ1 = W ×9.6×10-5 N/mm 2
From Eq.(6.18), the maximum value of W is given by,
σ1 = σ Y (tension)
Or σ1 = W ×9.6×10-5 = Y (tension) = 1.5 N/mm 2
from which, W = 15.6 kN.
The maximum shear stress occurs at the horizontal axis of symmetry of the beam
section over each support and is,
3 W/2
max = = W  0.6 10-5 N/mm 2
2 250  500
From principal stresses, maximum principal stress is,
σ1 = W ×9.6×10-5 N/mm 2 = σ Y  tension  = 1.5N/mm 2
from which, W = 250 kN.
Thus, the maximum allowable value of W = 15.6 kN.

OTHER THEORIES OF FAILURE:

(a) Maximum Principal Strain Theory:
This theory is credited to Saint Venant. According to this theory, a ductile material
begins to yield when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain at which yielding
occurs in simple tension, or when the maximum principal strain (i.e. the compressive
strain) equals the yield point strain in simple compression. In a three dimensional stress
system, the strains are as follows:
σ 1
1 = 1   σ 2 + σ3 
E mE
σ 1
2 = 2   σ3 + σ1 
E mE
σ 1
3 = 3   σ1 + σ 2 
E mE
As the material yields σ Y is the yield point stress in simple tension and σ Y is the
yield point stress in simple compression.
 11

y
If  y =yield point strain (tensile) 
E
 y
and  y =yield point strain (compressive) 
E
then, 1   y
1
or σ1   σ 2 + σ3   σ Y …(.a)
m
and 3   y
1
or σ3   σ1 + σ 2   σ Y …(.b)
m
In a two dimensional stress system, having σ1 and σ 2 as the major and minor principal
stresses, Eq.(a) reduces to
σ
σ1  2  σ Y …(.c)
m
Thus the stress which, acting alone will produce the same maximum strain 1 is equal
 σ 
to  σ1  2  . The design criterion according to this theory, will be
 m
 σ2 
 σ1 -  ≤ σ …(1)
 m
where σ is the working stress for the material.
There are many cases in which the above theory may be shown to be invalid. For
example, if σ1  σ 2 (i.e. equal tension in two perpendicular directions), from Eq. (c)
σ
σ1  1  σ Y
m
 m -1 
or   σ1  σ Y
 m 
This gives σ1 > σ Y
Thus this theory indicates that the tensile stress at yielding will be higher than the
stress in simple tension. This conclusion is not supported by experiments.

(b) Maximum Strain Energy Theory:

This theory, originally put forward by Beltrami, is generally known as Haigh’s
Theory. According to this theory, if a body is brought to a particular state by various
methods, then the work done by passing from the initial to final state will be independent
of the method applied. Hence, when a material is caused to take permanent set by stress
which increase gradually from zero, then the initial strain energy is independent of the
nature of the stresses and is almost constant in value.

The theory states that ‘inelastic action at any point in a body due to any state of stress
begins only when the energy per unit volume absorbed at the point is equal to the energy
 12

absorbed per nit volume of the material when subjected to the elastic limit under a
uniaxial state of stress, as occurs in simple tensile test’.

Now, consider a more general case in which the principal stresses σ1 , σ 2 and σ 3 at any
point in a strained material. The three principal strains will be;
σ 1
1 = 1   σ 2 + σ3 
E mE
σ 1
2 = 2   σ3 + σ1 
E mE
σ 1
3 = 3   σ1 + σ 2 
E mE
Total strain per unit volume will be;
1 1 1
U  σ11 + σ 2  2 + σ 33
2 2 2
σ1  σ1 σ 2  σ3  σ 2  σ 2 σ3  σ1  σ3  σ 3 σ1  σ 3 
         
2E mE  2  E mE  2  E mE 
1  2 2σ1σ 2  2σ 2σ 3 + 2σ 3σ1 
  σ1  σ 2  σ 3 
2 2

2E  m 
where σ1 , σ 2 and σ 3 are of the same sign.
Hence the yield criterion can be represented as
2σ σ  2σ 2σ 3 + 2σ 3σ1
σ12  σ 22  σ 32  1 2   Y2 …(2)
m
For a two dimensional case  σ 3  0  , the above criterion reduces to;
2σ1σ 2
σ12  σ 22   2Y …(3)
m

If σ is the working stress in the material, the design criterion may be stated as:
 2 2σ1σ 2 
 σ1  σ 2    Y
2 2
…(4)
 m 
The above equation is elliptical with centre as the origin and axes at 45 0 as shown in
Fig 6.7. The ellipse is inscribed by the parallelogram given by maximum strain theory.
The material reaches its elastic limit when the point  σ1 , σ 2  passes outside the ellipse.

2

II I

O 450 1

III IV

Fig 6.7
 13

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

1. A steel shaft is subjected to an end thrust of producing a stress of 90 N/mm 2 and the
minimum shearing stress on the surface arising from torsion is 60 N/mm2. The yield
point of the material in simple tension was found to be 300 N/mm 2. Determine the
factor of safety of the shaft according to the following theories:
(a) Maximum shear stress theory,
(b) Maximum distortion energy theory.

Solution
Given: σ1=?, σ2=0, σ3=-90 N/mm2, τmax=60 N/mm2, σet=300 N/mm2
Factor of safety:
(a) Maximum shear stress theory
σ -σ
max  1 3  60
2
σ1 -  -90  =120, or σ1 =30N/mm 2
Also, σ1 - σ 3 = σ t
30 -  -90  = σ t
Or σ t  120N / mm 2
σ et 300
 F.O.S.   2.5
σ t 120
(b) Maximum distortion energy theory.
σ 2t  σ12  σ 32  σ 3σ1
 302   -90    -90  30   11700
2

Or σ t = 108.17N/mm 2
σ et 300
 F.O.S.   2.77
σ t 108.17

2. In a material the principal stresses are 60 N/mm2, 48 N/mm2 and -36 N/mm2.
Determine:
(a) Total strain energy,
(b) Volumetric strain energy,
(c) Shear strain energy,
(d) Factor of safety on total strain energy criterion if the material yields at 120
N/mm2. Take E=200kN/mm2, and 1/m=0.3.
 14

Solution
Given:
σ1  60N / mm 2 ;σ 2  48N / mm 2 ; σ3  36N / mm 2 ; Yierld stress, σ e  120N / mm 2
(a) Total strain energy,
Total strain energy per unit volume is
1  2 2 
=  σ1 + σ 22 + σ32 -  σ1σ 2 + σ 2 σ 3 + σ3σ1  
2E  m 
1 60 2 + 482 +  -36 2 - 2  0.3  60  48 - 48  36 - 36  60 
= 3 
2  200  10 

= 19.51kNm/m 3
(b) Volumetric strain energy
Volumetric strain energy per unit volume is
1 2 2 2

6E
 σ1 + σ 22 + σ32  1  
 m
1
 60 + 48 - 36  1  2  0.3
2

6E
= 1.728kNm/m 3
(c) Shear strain energy
Shear strain energy per unit volume is
1 
 σ1  σ 2    σ 2  σ3    σ3  σ1  
2 2 2
Us 
12G 
E 200  103
But G    76.923kN / mm 2
 1  2 1  0.3
2  1+ 
 m
1
3 
 Us   60  48 2   48  36 2   36  60 2   17.78kNm / m 3
12  76.923 10 

(d) Factor of safety (F.O.S.)

Strain energy per unit volume under uniaxial loading is
120   36kNm / m3
2
e2

2E 2  200 103
36
 FOS F.O.S.   1.845
19.51
 15

3. In a metallic body the principal stresses are =35 N/mm2 and -95 N/mm2, the third
principal stress being zero. The elastic limit stress in simple tension as well as in simple
compression is 220 N/mm2. Determine the F.O.S. based on the elastic limit if the criterion
of failure for the material is the maximum principal stress theory.

Solution:
Given:
Principal stresses are: σ1  35N / mm 2 ; σ 2  0; σ 3  95N / mm 2 ; σ e  σ et  220N / mm 2
where σ et =elastic limit stress (tension), and
σ ec =elastic limit stress (compression).
Now, σ1 =σ t (working stress in tension).
σ
Or σ1 = et (F.O.S. means factor of safety).
F.O.S.
σ 220
Or F.O.S.= e  =6.28
σ1 35
Also, σ3 =σ c  workingstres sin compression 
σ ec
Or σ3 =
F.O.S.
σ ec
-95 =
F.O.S.
220
 F.O.S.=  2.3
95
Hence the material according to the maximum principal stress theory will fail due to the
compressive principal stress.
 F.O.S. = 2.3
 16

APPENDIX 1:
Strain energy (S.E.)
Q: Determine the strain energy stored within an elastic bar subjected to an axial tensile
force P.

A: Consider an elastic bar subjected to an axial tensile force as shown in Fig. (a). The
force elongation diagram will be linear as shown in Fig. (b).
P B
P P
L Δ
O A Δ

(a) Bar subjected to an (b) Force elongation diagram

axial tensile force
Fig. 1

For a force corresponding to point B on the force-elongation diagram, the force will have
done positive work indicated by the shaded area OBA.
1
Shaded area of triangle OBA = P , where  is the elongation.
2
From Young’s modulus of elasticity, E:
Stress P/A PL
E=  
Strain /L A
PL
Or 
AE
Work done by the external force is stored within the bar in the form of internal S.E. and is
denoted by U,
1 1 PL P 2 L A P 2 AL
U = P  P    
2 2 AE 2AE A 2A 2 E
1 P P V
    , where V=AL (where V is the volume).
2 A A E
Essentially the elastic bar acts as a spring to store this energy.