12  f

2τ o
, …(v)
TURBULENT FLOW ρV 2
12.1 Introduction where f is the frictional coefficient.
Turbulent flow is said to occur when fluid particles move in irregular motions resulting
in complete mixing of fluid particles, and Reynolds number exceeds 4 000. Fluid masses are 12.3 Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow
interchanged between adjacent layers. This results in momentum transfer since adjacent This is due to both viscous flow and turbulent flow and is given by:
layers have different velocities. Loss of pressure head in turbulent flow is approximately τ  τv  τt
proportional to the square of velocity, and velocity distribution is logarithmic.
du du
μ η …(vi)
12.2 Coefficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress dy dy
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe as shown in Fig 12.1. where τ v = viscous shear stress, as given by Newton's law of viscosity
Let p1, V1, and A1 be the pressure, the velocity and area at section 1-1. The τ t = turbulent shear stress, as expressed by J. Boussinesq (1877).
corresponding values at section 2-2 are p2, V2, and A2 respectively.
μ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity
1 2
F1 u = average velocity, distance y from boundary
η (Gk, eta) = eddy viscosity
Flow p1 p2 In equation (vi), η = 0 for laminar flow. In other cases, η may be several thousand
times the value of μ . Also η would be difficult to predict.
F1
12.4 Reynolds Expression For Turbulent Shear Stress
1 2 Turbulent shear stress between two layers of fluid at a small distance apart is given as:
Fig 12.1: Forces on Control Volume in Pipe Flow τ  ρu v  …(vii)
where u , v = fluctuating component of velocity in x and y direction due to turbulence.
As the flow occurs, intensity of pressure will be reduced in the direction of flow by
frictional resistance F1. Since u and v  are varying, τ will also vary. To find shear stress, time average on
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are: both sides of equation (vii) are taken, and the equation becomes;
(i) Pressure force at section 1-1, = p1  A1 τ  ρu v  ρu v  …(viii)
(ii) Pressure force at section 2-2, = p2  A 2 Turbulent shear stress given by equation (viii) is known as Reynolds stress (1886).
(iii) Frictional force F1, due to shear stress τ o
12.5 Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory For Turbulent Shear Stress
Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, and taking A1= A2 = A; In equation (viii), turbulent shear stress can only be calculated if the value of u v  is
p1  A  p2  A  F1  0 …(i)
known, but it is very difficult to measure u v  . This difficulty was overcome when Prandtl
 (p1  p2 )A  F1 = force due due to shear stress τ o presented a mixing length theory, which allows turbulent shear stress to be expressed in
= shear stress × surface area measurable quantities.
= τ o × πDL According to Prandtl (1925), the mixing length (l) is defined as the average lateral
where D = diameter of the pipe distance through which a small mass of fluid particles moves from one layer to another
L = length of pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2 adjacent layer before acquiring the velocity of the new layer.
π   2 Consider two layers at a distance l (mixing length) apart, having velocities u and u +
 (p1  p 2 )   D 2  τ o  πDL  area, A  4  D  u as shown in Fig 12.2.
4  
4  τo  L
or p1  p 2  …(ii) v
D u+ u u+ u
Also the head loss between sections 1-1 and 2-2 may be taken as, ul v v
p  p 2 4fL V 2
l
hf  1   u area, da
w D 2g
4fL V 2
or p1  p 2   w …(iii)
D 2g
Equating equations (ii) and (iii); Fig 12.2: Prandtl’s Mixing Length
4  τ  L 4fL V 2
o   w
D D 2g
fV 2  w fV 2 fρV 2
τo    ρg  …(iv)
2g 2g 2
Prandtl assumed that the velocity fluctuation in the x- direction, u is related to the
mixing length l as,
1 pmk 2 pmk
 du du For a given case of turbulent flow, u* is constant.
u = l , where is the velocity gradient normal to direction of flow, Integrating above equation:
dy dy
He also assumed that v  is the fluctuation of component of velocity in y direction and u*
u= log e y  C …(xiii)
is of the same order of magnitude as u  . k
du The constant of integration C is obtained from the boundary condition: u = umax at
i.e. v = l y = R (radius of pipe).
dy
u*
Now, u  v  becomes as,  umax = log e R  C
2 k
 du   du   du  u*
u v  =          2   or C = umax  log e R
 dy   dy   dy  k
Substitute values of u  v  in equation (viii); Equation (xiii) then becomes:
Thus shear stress in turbulent flow, due to Prandtl is given by, u*  u* 
2 u= log e y  u max  log e R 
 du  k  k 
τ  ρ 2   …(ix)
 dy  u*
= u max  log e y  log e R 
Total shear stress at any point in turbulent flow is the sum of shear stresses due to k
viscous shear and turbulent shear, written as; u* y
2 or u  u max  log e   …(xiv)
du  du  0.4 R
τμ  ρ 2   …(x)
dy  dy  Equation (xiv) is known as Prandtl Universal Velocity Distribution Equation for
Assuming viscous shear stress is negligible near the boundary. Equation (ix) is used for turbulent flow in pipes, and is applicable to smooth as well as rough pipe
determining shear stress in turbulent flow. boundaries.
Equation (xiv) may also be written as:
12.6 Prandtl’s Universal Velocity Distribution Equation y R
u max - u  2.5u * log e    2.5u * log e  
From equation (ix), velocity distribution can be obtained if the relationship between R y
 (mixing length) and y is known. Dividing by u*, we get
Prandtl assumed that the mixing length  is a linear function of the distance y from the u max - u R R
pipe wall, i.e.  = ky, where k is a constant, known as Karman constant=0.4  2.5log e    2.5  2.3log10  
u*  y y
Substituting the value of  in equation (ix),
2 2 u max - u R
 du   du  or  5.75log 10   …(xv)
τ or τ  ρ  ky      ρk 2 y 2  
2
u* y
 dy   dy 
2
The difference between maximum velocity umax, local velocity u at any point i.e. (umax-
 du  τ u) is known as Velocity Defect (or velocity defect law).
or    2 2
 dy  ρk y
 du   τ  1 τ
     2 2   …(xi)
 dy   ρk y  ky ρ
For small values of y close to boundary of pipe, Prandtl assumed shear stress τ to
be constant and approximately equal to τ o (shear stress at pipe boundary).
Substituting τ = τ o in equation (xi), 12.7 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries
du 1 τo Consider the following boundaries shown in Fig 12.3:
 …(xii)
dy ky ρ Turbulent boundary layer
Lamina sub-layer
τo
In equation (xii), has the dimensions, k
ρ  k
 
ML1T 2 L2 L
 
ML3 T2 T Smooth boundary Rough boundary
L τo Fig 12.3: Smooth and Rough boundaries
But = velocity, hence has the dimensions of velocity, known as shear
T ρ
Let: k = average height of irregularities
velocity and is denoted by u *
 = laminar sub-layer (where viscosity predominates)
Equation (xii) then becomes;
du 1
 u*
dy ky
3 pmk 4 pmk
 It should be observed that if Reynolds number is increased,  becomes smaller than u u*y
  5.75log 10  5.55 …(xvii)
average height of k and and an otherwise smooth boundary starts acting as a rough boundary. u* υ
u*k
In terms of roughness, Reynolds number R e  .
υ (a) Rough pipes
The classification of boundaries based on Nikuradses’ experiments or Reynolds In the case of rough pipes, thickness of laminar sub-layer is very small, and surface
number is as shown in table 12.1. irregularities are above laminar sub-layer, hence laminar sub-layer is completely
destroyed. Thus y can be considered proportional to the height of protrusion k.
Table 12.1: Smooth and Rough Boundaries Nikuradse’s experiment shows the value of y for pipes coated with uniform sand
Type of boundary Based on Nikuradse’s experiments Based on Reynold’s experiments (rough pipes) as,
Smooth k u*k k
 0.25 4 y 
δ υ 30
Rough k u*k Substituting the value of y in equation (xvi), we get
 6.0  100
δ υ u  y 
 5.75 log10  
Transition k u*k u*  k / 30 
0.25   6.0 4  100
δ υ y 
= 5.75 log10   30 
k 
 y
12.7.1 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Pipes  5.75 log10    5.75 log10 30 
(a) Smooth pipes k
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth or rough pipes is given by Eq. (xiii) u y
as,   5.75log 10    8.5 …(xviii)
u* k 
u*
u= log e y  C …(xiii)
k
At y = 0, velocity at wall is -  (means u is +ve at some distance away from wall and - 12.7.2 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity
 at the wall). Consider an elementary circular ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig 12.4.
At some finite distance from the wall, velocity u = 0 dr
The constant C is determined from boundary i.e u = 0 at y = y y
The above equation upon substituting the values(Eq. xiii) then becomes: R
r r
u* r
0 log e y   C Flow
k
u*
or C log e y 
k
u* u* u* y Fig 12.4: AverageVelocity for Turbulent Flow
 u log e y  log e y  log e  
k k k  y  Distance of ring from pipe wall, y = (R-r) where R= radius of pipe
u* y y Discharge through pipe,
 log e    2.5u * log e   dQ = velocity × area of ring
0.4  y   y   u  2 πrdr
u y R
or  2.5  2.3 log10    Q   dQ   u  2 πrdr …(xix)
u*  y  0
u y total disch arg e (Q)
  5.75 log10   …(xvi) Average velocity U 
u*  y  area of pipe (a)
For smooth boundary, there exist a laminar sub-layer and velocity distribution is (a) Smooth Pipes
parabolic , hence logarithmic distribution does not hold good. Thus it can be assumed Velocity distribution for smooth pipes is given by Eq. (xvii) as,
that y is proportional to , where  is the thickness of laminar sub-layer. From u u*y
δ 11.6 υ  5.75 log10  5.55
Nikuradse’s experiment, y   , with δ   , where  = kinematic viscosity of u* υ
107 u*  u*y 
fluid. or u  5.75 log10  5.55  u *
 υ 
11.6 υ 1 0.108υ
 y    But y =R-r
u * 107 u* u * (R  r )
 
Substituting the value of y in equation (xvi);  u  5.75 log10  5.55  u *
 υ 
u  y  u*y 
 5.75 log10    5.75 log10   9.259  Substituting the value of u in equation (xix);
u*  0.108υ / u *   υ 
5 pmk 6 pmk
 R
 u * (R  r )  uU y
Q   5.75 log10  5.55 u *  2πrdr or  5.75log 10    3.75 …(xxii)
0 
υ  u* R
Q Q (b) Rough pipes
Average velocity, U   Velocity at any point for a rough pipe is given by Eq (xvii) as:
area πR 2
u  y
1 
R
u * (R  r )   5.75 log10    8.5 …(xviii)
πR 2 0 
or U 5.75 log10  5.55 u *  2 πrdr u* k
υ  and average velocity is given by Eq. (xxi) as,
Integration and simplification of above equation gives average velocity for turbulent
U R
flow in smooth pipes as,  5.75 log10    4.75
u* k
U u*R
 5.75log 10  1.75 …(xx) Difference of velocity u and U for rough pipe is given by;
u* υ
(b) Rough pipes u U   y   R 
  5.75 log10    8.5  5.75 log10    4.75
Velocity distribution for rough pipes at any point in turbulent flow is given by: u * u *  k   k 
u  y  y   R 
u*
 5.75 log10    8.5 …(xviii)  5.75 log10       8.8  4.75
k  k   k 
But y =R-r
uU y
u Rr   5.75log10    3.75 …(xxiii)
  5.75 log10    8.5 u* R
u*  k 
Eq. (xxii) and (xxiii) are the same i.e. difference of velocity at any point and the
 Rr  average velocity will be the same in case of smooth as well as rough pipes.
or u  5.75 log10    8.5 u *
  k  
Substituting the value of u in equation (xix); 12.8 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by the Power Law.
R
 (R  r )  Velocity distribution for turbulent flow as given by Eq. (xv), (xvii) and (xviii) are
Q   u * 5.75 log10  8.5 2 πrdr logarithmic in nature and not convenient to use.
0  k  Nikuradse carried out experiments for different Reynolds’ numbers to determine the
R
 (R  r )  velocity distribution law in smooth pipes. He expressed the velocity distribution in
Q
 u * 5.75 log
10
k
 8.5 2πrdr

exponential form as;
Average velocity, U  = 0 1/ n
area πR 2 u y
  …(xxiv)
Integration and simplification of the above equation leads to; u max R
U R 1
 5.75log 10  4.75 …(xxi) where the exponent depends on Reynolds number.
u* k n
1 1
12.7.3 Difference Between Velocity at Any Point and Average Velocity For R e  4  10 3 , 
n 6
(a) Smooth pipes 1 1
Velocity at any point for smooth pipes is given by Eq.(xvii) as; R e  1.1  10 5 , 
n 7
u u * R  r 
 5.75 log10  5.55 (∵ y =R-r) 1 1
u* υ R e  2  10 6 , 
n 10
and average velocity is given by Eq. (xx) as,
1 1
U u*R Thus if  , velocity distribution law becomes,
 5.75 log10  1.75 n 7
u* υ 1/7
u y
 Difference of velocity u and U for smooth pipe is obtained as:   …(xxv)
u max R
u U  u * R  r    u*R  Eq. (xxv) is known as
1
th power law of velocity distribution for smooth pipes.
  5.75 log10  5.55  5.75 log10  1.75
u * u * 
7
υ   υ 
Examples
uU  u * R  r  u*R
 5.75log10  log10  5.55  1.75
u*  υ υ  Example 12.1: A pipeline conveying water has average height of irregularities projecting
 u * R  r    u * R  from the surface of the boundary of the pipe of 0.16mm. If the shear stress developed is
 5.75 log10     3.75 5.2N/m2 and kinematic viscosity  = 0.012×10-4m2/s, determine the type of boundary.
 υ   υ 
Solution
 5.75 log10
R  r   3.75 Average height of irregularities, k= 0.16×10-3m
R
7 pmk 8 pmk
 Shear stress developed, τ o = 5.2N/m2 πD 2 π  0.075 2
Area of pipe, A=   4.418  10 3
Kinematic viscosity  = 0.012×10-4m2/s, 4 4
Density of water, ρ= 103 kg/m3 Q 0.007
Mean velocity, V    1.584m / s
τo 5.2 area 4.418  10 3
Shear velocity, u*    0.072m / s
ρ 10 3 VD 1 . 591  0 . 075
R e    7 . 955  10 4
u * k 0.072  0.16  10 3 υ 0 . 015  10  4
Reynolds’ roughness number =   9.6 As Re is >2500, the flow is turbulent and f is given as,
υ 0.012  10  4 0.0791 0.0791
u*k f    0.00471
Since
υ
lies between 4 and 100, the pipe surface behaves as a transition. Re 
1/ 4

7.955  10 4
1/ 4

(a) Head lost,

Example 12.2: A rough pipe is of diameter 100mm. The velocity at a point 40mm from the 4fLV 2 4  0.00471  750  1.584 2
hf    24.093m
wall is 40% more than the velocity at a point 10mm from pipe wall. Determine the average 2gD 2  9.81  0.075
height of roughness. (b) Wall shearing stress,
Solution
fρV 2 0.00471  10 3  1.584 2
Diameter of rough pipe, D =100mm τo    5.909N/m 2
Let velocity at 10mm from pipe wall= u 2 2
Then velocity at 40mm from pipe wall= 1.4u (c) Centre line velocity:
Velocity distribution for rough pipe is given by; umax for smooth pipe is given by:
u  y u u*y
 5.75 log10    8.5 , where k = height of roughness  5.75log10  5.55 , where u* is the shear velocity given by,
u* u* υ
k
For a point 10mm from pipe wall, τo 5.909
u*    0.0769m / s
u  0.01  ρ 10 3
 5.75 log10    8.5 …(i)
u*  k  Maximum velocity occurs at y= d/2=0.075/2=0.0375m
For a point 40mm from pipe wall, velocity is 1.4u In the above equation, y=0.0375m, u = umax
1.4u  0.04  u 0.0769  0.0375
  5.75 log10    8.5 …(ii)  max  5.75log10  5.55  24.432
u*  k  0.0769 0.015  10 - 4
Divide (ii) by (i): u max  0.0769  24.432  1.879m/s
 0.04  (d) Shear stress τ at any point is given by;
5.75 log10    8.5
1.4 
 k  p r
 0.01  τ    , where r= distance from centerline of pipe, and hence
5.75 log10    8.5 x 2
 k  shear stress at pipe wall where r=R is
  0.01    0.04  p R
1.4 5.75 log10    8.5   5.75 log10  k   8.5 τo   
  k     x 2
16.1  8.05 log10 k  11.9  8.04  5.75 log10 k  8.5 Dividing, we get
log10 k  8.05  5.75   8.5  11.9  11.6  8.04  4.66 τ r

log10 k 
4.66
 2.026 τo R
2.3
r
k = 9.42×10-3m = 9.42mm  Shear stress τ = τ o 
R
At 20mm from pipe wall, r = 37.5-20 =17.5mm
Example 12.3: A smooth pipe of diameter 75mm and 750m long conveys water at a rate of
0.0175 0.0175
0.4m3/minute. Determine: (at) the loss head (b) the wall shearing stress (c) the centerline  τ at (r=0.0175m) = τ o   5.909   2.758 N / m 2
velocity (d) the velocity and shear stress at 20mm from pipe wall (e) the thickness of laminar 0.0375 0.0375
sub-layer. Take kinematic viscosity of water as 0.015×10-4m2/s, and assume the value of the Velocity at appoint 40mm from pipe wall means y = 0.04m, and is given by;
 0.0791  u u*y
 5.75log10  5.55 , where u*= 0.0769 and y=0.04m
coefficient of friction ‘f’ is given by the relationship, f   , where Re = Reynolds u* υ
 R 1/4 
 e  u 0.0769  0.04
number.   5.75log10  5.55  24.593
0.0769 0.015  10 -4
Solution
or u = 0.0769×24.593 = 1.891m/s
Given: Diameter of pipe, D =75mm=0.75m
(e) Thickness of laminar sub-layer is given by;
Length of pipe, L= 750m
Discharge , Q= 0.42/60=0.007m3/s 11.6υ 11.6  0.015  10 4
δ    2.263  10  4 m  0.2263mm
Kinematic viscosity =0.015×10-4m2/s, u* 0.0769
Density of water, ρ =103kg/m3
9 pmk 10 pmk