REVIEW TOPICS

• The ENGINE: An Introduction

• Types of Engine

• Piston Engine Operation

• Engine Types and Classification

• Basic Engine Systems

ENGINE - a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy.
- a device that converts the heat from the combustion of fuel
in air into mechanical energy or useful work.

HEAT WORK
 HEAT WORK

Heat : energy transferred from one body or system to

another due to a difference in temperature, cal or
joule

Work : the amount of energy transferred by a force

TYPES OF ENGINE

• Internal Combustion Engine

• External Combustion Engine

TYPES OF ENGINE

Internal Combustion Engine

Exhaust Gas Air & Fuel

Combustion
Gases

Engine
Cylinder
TYPES OF ENGINE

External Combustion Engine

TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE

1. PISTON (Reciprocating)ENGINE 2. WANKEL (Rotary) ENGINE

TYPES OF PISTON ENGINE
1. SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE
2. COMPRESSION- IGNITION ENGINE

Differences between Spark-ignition and

Compression-ignition Engine:
1. The type of fuel used
2. The way fuel gets into the cylinder
3. The way fuel is ignited
ENGINE OPERATION

INTAKE COMPRESSION POWER EXHAUST

STROKE STROKE STROKE STROKE
CLASSIFICATION BY CYCLE
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
CLASSIFICATION BY CYCLE
TWO-STROKE CYCLE
WANKEL ENGINE
Cylinder head

Cylinder head gasket

 CYLINDER HEAD
- the part of the engine that covers and encloses the cylinder.

(1) Exhaust camshaft (2) Intake camshaft

(3)
(4)
(10) Timing chain (5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(11) Chain tensioner slipper (9) Valve

(12)Chain
vibration
damper

(13) Timing chain tensioner

(14) Crankshaft timing sprocket
 CYLINDER HEAD
(1) Exhaust camshaft (2) Intake camshaft
Valve mechanism etc.
(1) Exhaust camshaft
(2) Intake camshaft
(3)
(3) Valve lifter (4)
(10) Timing chain (5)
(4) Keeper (6)
(5) Valve spring retainer (7)
(8)
(6) Valve spring (11) Chain tensioner slipper (9) Valve
(7) Valve stem oil seal
(8) Spring seat
(9) Valve (12)Chain
vibration
(10) Timing chain damper
(11) Chain tensioner slipper
(12) Chain vibration damper
(13) Timing chain tensioner (13) Timing chain tensioner(14) Crankshaft timing sprocket
(14) Crankshaft timing sprocket
1.Valve opening and closing system

Valve Mechanism
The valve mechanism opens or closes the intake valve and
exhaust valve at the proper timing in order to draw the air-fuel
mixture into the cylinder and discharge the combustion gas into the
outside.
1.Valve opening and closing system

1. Valve opening and closing system

The rotation of the crankshaft is transferred to the camshaft via the
timing chain (timing belt), rotating the cam.
The number of teeth on the camshaft sprocket (pulley) is double
that of the crankshaft so that the camshaft rotates once for every
two rotations of the crankshaft.
As the camshaft rotates, the cam forces the valve to open or close.
CAMSHAFT – the shaft in the four-cycle engine which has a series
of cams for operating the valves.

cam
2.Valve

INTAKE VALVE – the valve that opens during the intake stroke to allow the
air or air-fuel mixture to enter the cylinder.

EXHAUST VALVE – the valve that opens during the exhaust stroke to allow
burn gases to flow from the cylinder.
 Double spring

Uneven pitch spring Uneven pitch spring

(symmetrical) (asymmetrical)

Top

a
d

b Inner Outer

e
c

a=c<d d>e

VALVE SPRING - the coil spring in each valve assembly which has the
job of closing the valve.
L-HEAD
OVERHEAD VALVE (OHV)
 Rocker arm
Adjusting screw

Valve lifer
SINGLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (SOHC)
DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT (DOHC)
 Automobile Variable valve Timing Technology

variable valve timing (VVT) is the process of altering the

timing of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve
performance, fuel economy or emissions.
Manufacturers use many different names to describe their implementation of the
various types of variable valve timing systems.

AVCS (Subaru) VCT (Ford, Yamaha)

AVLS (Subaru) VTEC (Honda, Acura)
CPS (Proton) VVC (MG Rover)
CVTCS (Nissan, Infiniti) VVL (Nissan)
CVVT (Alfa Romeo, Citroën, Geely, Hyundai, Iran Valvelift (Audi)
Khodro, Kia, Peugeot, Renault, Volvo) VVEL (Nissan, Infiniti)
DCVCP - dual continuous variable cam phasing VVT (Chrysler, General Motors, Proton, Suzuki,
(General Motors) Volkswagen Group)
DVVT (Daihatsu) (Perodua) VVT-i (Toyota, Lexus)
MIVEC (Mitsubishi) VTVT (Hyundai, Kia)
MultiAir (Fiat)
N-VCT (Nissan)
S-VT (Mazda)
Ti-VCT (Ford)
VANOS (BMW)
VarioCam (Porsche)

Source: wikipedia
Engine
Model: 1GD-FTV
Type: 4-Cylinder In-Line DOHC 16
Valve
Displacement: 2,755 cc
Maximum Output: 174hp/3,400rpm
Maximum Torque: 450Nm / 1,600 ~
2, 400rpm
Emission Standard: Euro 4
Transmission: 6 Speed Automatic
with Sequential Control and Paddle
Shifters
Fuel System: Fuel Injection Common
Rail
Engine
Model: 2TR-FE
Type: 4-Cylinder In-Line Dual VVT-I,
DOHC 16 Valve
Displacement: 2,694 cc
Maximum Output: 163hp /
5,200rpm
Maximum Torque: 245Nm /
4,000rpm
Emission Standard: Euro 4
Transmission: 6 Speed Automatic
with Sequential Control and Paddle
Shifters
Fuel System: EFI
 Cylinder block

CYLINDER BLOCK – the basic framework of the engine in which the other
engine parts are attached. It is usually cast in one piece from gray iron
(cast iron) or iron alloyed with other metals, such as chromium and tin.
 Cylinder block

CYLINDER – in an engine, the circular bore in the block in which the piston
moves up and down.
 Piston

Connecting rod

Crankshaft

Bearing cap
 Connecting rod

Crankshaft

Bearing cap Bearing cap

CONNECTING ROD – the rod that connects the crank on the crankshaft
with the piston.
 Crankshaft
bearing
Thrust
washer
Connecting
rod bearing

Crankshaft

Bearing cap

BEARING– a part that transmits a load to a support and in so doing

absorbs most of the friction and wear of the moving parts.
 Piston pin Piston

Crankshaft

Piston
rings

Bearing cap

PISTON– in the engine, the round plug that slides up and down in the
cylinder and which, through the connecting rod, forces the crankshaft to
rotate.
 Compression ring No.1

Compression ring No.2

Crankshaft

Oil ring side rail (upper)

Oil rings Oil ring expander

Oil ring side rail (lower)

PISTON RING- is designed to prevent the pressure from leaking out of

the gap between the piston and the cylinder.
 Crankshaft

Bearing cap Crankcase

CRANKSHAFT – the main rotating member, or shaft, of the engine

with the cranks to which the connecting rods are attached.
- converts up and down motion into circular motion.
 Crank pin

Crank journal Balance weight

Crankshaft

Oil hole

BALANCE WEIGHT – reduce vibration and bearing loads due to the

inertia of moving parts
Manual Transaxle
Clutch fluid reservoir

Clutch pedal

Engine Clutch Manual transaxle

FLYWHEEL – a heavy metal wheel attached to the crankshaft which rotates

with it. It helps smooth out the power surges from the power strokes.
FLYWHEEL
Automatic Transaxle

sensors
(Various signals) Engine & ECT
Vehicle speed Counter gear ECU
sensor speed sensor
Oil pump Planetary
Torque converter gear unit

Input turbine
speed sensor

Solenoid valves

Shift lever
Hydraulic control unit
 Oil Pan

OIL PAN – the detachable lower part of the engine which encloses the
crankcase and acts as an oil reservoir.
ENGINE CLASSIFICATION:

1. Number of Cylinder
2. Arrangement of Cylinders
3. Arrangement of Valves
4. Types of Cooling
5. Number of Strokes per cycle
6. Type of fuel used
7. Method of Ignition
8. Firing Order
9. Reciprocating or Rotary
NUMBER OF CYLINDER
TYPICAL CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS
ARRANGEMENT
OF VALVES
• CAM-IN-BLOCK
ARRANGEMENT
OF VALVES
• OVERHEAD CAM

• SINGLE OVERHEAD CAM

(SOHC)
ARRANGEMENT
OF VALVES
• OVERHEAD CAM

• DUAL OVERHEAD CAM

(DOHC)
TYPES OF COOLING
• WATER COOLED
TYPES OF COOLING
• AIR-COOLED
NUMBER OF STROKE PER CYCLE

Four-stroke Operation Two-stroke Operation

TYPES OF FUEL USED:
• SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE
- Gasoline
- Gasohol
- Liquified petroleum gas (LPG)
- Compressed natural gas (CNG)

• COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINE
- Light oil (diesel)
- Biodiesel
METHOD OF IGNITION:
 FIRING ORDER

IN-LINE IN-LINE
FOUR •1-3-4-2 SIX-
CYLINDER CYLINDER 1-5-3-6-2-4
ENGINE •1-2-4-3 ENGINE
FIRING ORDER

1-2-4-5-3-6
V6 1-4-2-5-3-6
ENGINE
1-4-2-3-5-6
FIRING ORDER

1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
V8 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
ENGINE
1-3-7-2-65-4-8
RECIPROCATING OR ROTARY
References:
• https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/688769336750235017/
• https://www.familyhandyman.com/article/camshaft-vs-crankshaft/
• https://everythingaboutboats.org/over-head-cam-ohc/
• https://stateofspeed.com/2020/07/07/the-wankel-rotary-a-
revolution-in-internal-cumbustion-2/
ENGINE MESUREMENTS
and
PERFORMANCE
BORE and STROKE

• The size of an Engine cylinder is

given by its bore and stroke.

BORE – is the diameter of the

cylinder.

STROKE – is the distance the

piston travels from BDC to TDC.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
• Piston displacement is sometime called as “Swept volume”. This is the
volume that the piston displace or sweeps out as it moves from BDC
to TDC.
V = π x D2 x L
4

The larger the displacement, the larger the engine. Engine size in North American vehicles
used to be described in CID, or cubic inch diameter. In late-model vehicles, volume is
described in liters or cubic centimeters.
COMPRESSION RATIO

• The compression ratio is the

measure of how much the air-
fuel mixture is compressed
during the compression stroke.
Compression ratio is found by
dividing the volume of the
cylinder and the combustion
chamber when the piston is at
BDC by the volume when the
piston is at TDC.
• PROBLEM

One Engine has a cylinder volume of 42.35 cubic inches at BDC. It

has a clearance volume of 4.45 cubic inches. What is the compression
ratio of the engine?
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

• Volumetric Efficiency (VE) – is the measure of how completely the cylinder

fills with air and fuel mixture during the intake stroke.
ENGINE TORQUE

• Engine torque results from combustion pressure pushing down on the

pistons. When the piston is moving down on the power stroke, it applies
torque through the connecting rod to the engine crankshaft.
ENGINE POWER

• Engine power is the power available in the crankshaft to do work.

INDICATED POWER
• Indicated Power is the power developed inside the combustion
chamber during combustion. It is determined by measuring the
pressure in the cylinder.
For 4-stroke Engine
FRICTION POWER

• Friction power is the power required to overcome the friction of the

internal moving parts.
BRAKE POWER

• Brake Power is the power

available from the engine
crankshaft to do work.
BRAKE POWER

• Relating BP, IP, and FP

BP = IP - FP
ENGINE EFFICIENCY

• MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

• Mechanical Efficiency = BP / IP

• THERMAL EFFICIENCY
• Engine Thermal Efficiency is the relation between the power
produced and the energy in the fuel burned to produce power.
• PROBLEM No. 1

A six cylinder, 4-stroke Diesel engine with 3 x 3.5 inch cylinder ,

when tested in the laboratory was running at 2,000 rpm. The brake
torque is 0.153 KN-m when all the cylinders are firing. The indicated
power is 38.2 KW. Determine the brake power, the mechanical
efficiency of the engine and the mean effective pressure.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
 BASIC ENGINE SYSTEMS

1. FUEL SYSTEM
2. LUBRICATING SYSTEM
3. COOLING SYSTEM
4. IGNITION SYSTEM
5. STARTING SYSTEM
6. CHARGING SYSTEM
Purpose of Fuel System

• To supply the engine with combustible

mixture of air and fuel, whether it is
carbureted or fuel injected.
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• FUEL TANK
- the storage tank for engine fuel on the
vehicle
- it is normally located near the rear of the
vehicle and attached to the frame or
body.
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• FUEL LINE
- the pipe or tubes through which fuel
flows from the fuel tank to the
carburetor or fuel- injection system
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• FUEL PUMP
- the electrical or mechanical device in fuel
system which forces fuel from the
fuel tank to carburetor or fuel-
injection system
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• FUEL FILTER
- a device located in the fuel line that
removes dirt and contaminants from
fuel passing through
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• CHARCOAL CANISTER
- the container in the evaporative control
system that contains activated charcoal to
traps the vapors from the fuel system
while the engine is off. Also called as
“carbon canister”
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• AIR CLEANER

- a device mounted on
or connected to the
engine air intake for
filtering dirt and dust
out of the air entering
the engine.
 CARBURETED-FUEL SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• CARBURETOR
- the device in the spark-
ignition engine fuel system
which mixes gasoline with
air in correct proportions
and delivers this mixture
to the intake manifold
Systems of the Carburetor
• Float System
Idle and low speed system
High speed system
Vacuum power jet system
Accelerator pump
Choke valve operation
 FUEL SYSTEM

The EFI system uses various sensors to detect the engine condition and
vehicle running condition. And the engine ECU calculates at the optimum
fuel injection volume, and causes the injectors to inject the fuel.

Manifold
Throttle position sensor
pressure
sensor

Air flow meter Injector

Engine ECU Camshaft position sensor

Oxygen
sensor Oxygen Water temp. sensor
sensor

Crankshaft position sensor

Types of EFI
There are two types of EFI system classified by the amount of the intake air detection method.

1. L-EFI (Air-flow control type)

This type uses an air flow meter to detect the amount of the air flowing in the intake manifold.
There are two types of detection methods: One directly measures the intake air mass, and one
makes corrections based on the air volume.

2. D-EFI (Manifold pressure control type)

This type measures the pressure in the intake manifold to detect the amount of the intake air
using the intake air density.

Air Air

Air flow meter

Intake manifold Intake manifold

Detection of Manifold pressure

Injection sensor Injection
intake air
mass Engine Injector Engine Injector
Detection of
intake
Engine speed Fuel manifold Engine speed Fuel
pressure

Engine ECU Engine ECU

Injection volume Injection volume
control control
Main Components

Pressure regulator

Fuel pump

Fuel pump filter

Fuel filter

Delivery pipe

Pulsation
damper Fuel tank
Injector
Pressure regulator

Fuel tank
Delivery pipe

Pulsation Fuel filter

damper Fuel pump Fuel pump
assembly
Fuel pump filter
Fuel Pump

Check valve

Relife valve

Motor Inlet port

Outlet port

Pump impeller Casing Blade

Fuel pump filter

Fuel Impeller

The fuel pump is installed in the fuel tank and is integrated with the fuel filter, pressure regulator, fuel
sender gauge, etc.
The pump impeller is turned by the motor to compress the fuel.
The check valve closes when the fuel pump is stopped to maintain the pressure in the fuel line and make it
easier to restart the engine.
If there is no residual pressure, vapor lock can easily occur at high temperatures, making restarting difficult.
The relief valve opens when the pressure on the outlet side becomes too high in order to prevent the fuel
pressure from becoming too high.
Pressure
Regulator
to Injector

Valve

to Fuel tank

Pressure regulator

Fuel filter

from Fuel pump

The pressure regulator controls the fuel pressure to the injector at 324 kPa (3.3 kgf/cm2). (Values may
differ depending on engine models)
In addition, the pressure regulator maintains the residual pressure in the fuel line in the same way as
the fuel pump check valve.
PULSATION
DAMPER
Pulsation Damper

The pulsation damper uses a diaphragm to absorb a slight amount of fuel pressure
pulsation generated by the fuel injection and the compression of the fuel pump.
INJECTOR

Injector

Injector

O-ring

Coil
Valve
Grommet

Plunger

The injector injects fuel into the intake ports of the cylinders in accordance with the signal
from the engine ECU.
The signals from the engine ECU cause current to flow in the solenoid coil, which causes the
plunger to be pulled, opening the valve to inject the fuel.
Because the plunger stroke does not change, the amount of the fuel injection is controlled at
the time the current is flowed to the solenoid.
Fuel Filter/Fuel Pump Filter

Fuel pump filter

Fuel filter

1. Fuel filter
The fuel filter removes dirt and impurities from the fuel that is compressed by the fuel
pump.
2. Fuel pump filter
The fuel pump filter removes dirt and impurities from the fuel before entering the fuel
pump.
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM

Fuel Injection
filter pump

Injection
nozzle

Fuel
tank
EFI-diesel

The EFI-diesel system electronically controls the fuel injection volume

and injection timing to reach an optimal level. In doing so, the following
merits are realized:

1. High engine output

2. Low fuel consumption
3. Low exhaust emissions
4. Low noise
5. Reduced discharge of white and black smoke
6. Improved startability
Types of EFI-diesel

1. Conventional EFI-diesel
Fuel injection volume and timing is controlled electronically.
The control mechanism used for the pumping, distribution, and injection processes
is based on the mechanism used in the mechanical type diesel system.

Injection volume control: SPV

Injection timing control: TCV

Pump

Fuel filter SPV

TCV ECU

Fuel tank Nozzle

Fuel System of Conventional EFI-diesel

The fuel that is drawn up by the feed pump travels from the fuel tank
through the fuel filter, and is introduced into the pump where it
becomes pressurized and then pumped by the plunger inside of the
injection pump. This process is the same as in an ordinary diesel
pump. The fuel in the pump chamber becomes pressurized by the
feed pump so that it is between 1.5 and 2.0 MPa. Furthermore, in
accordance with the signals from the ECU, the SPV controls the
injection volume (injection duration) and the TCV controls the fuel
injection timing (injection starting timing).
Types of EFI-diesel

2. Common-rail EFI-diesel
Instead of having the pump itself distribute fuel to the cylinders, the fuel is stored in
the rail at a pressure that is necessary for injection.
As with the EFI system of a gasoline engine, the injectors open and close in
accordance with the injection signals from the ECU to realize optimal fuel injection.

Injection volume control: injector opening duration

Injection timing control: injector starting timing

Pressure sensor
Common-rail

Fuel filter Pump

SCV ECU

Injector
Fuel tank
Fuel System of Common-rail EFI-diesel

The fuel that has been drawn up from the feed pump located inside
the supply pump is pressurized to the required pressure.
The plunger in the pump generates the required injection pressure.
The pressure varies by engine speed and load conditions from 20
MPa at idle, to 135 MPa under high-load, high-speed operating
conditions. (In the conventional EFI-diesel, the pressure is between 10
to 80 MPa.)

The ECU commands the SCV (Suction Control Valve) to adjust the
fuel pressure, regulating the volume of fuel that enters the supply
pump.

The ECU constantly detects the fuel pressure in the common-rail by

means of the fuel pressure sensor, and effects feedback control.
 LUBRICATING SYSTEM
The lubrication system supplies engine oil to each engine part, creating a film of engine oil, which reduces the
effects of friction and wear by allowing engine parts to slide smoothly and perform optimally.
There are many rotating and sliding parts in an engine. As the engine operates at high engine speed, if these
parts were not lubricated, a great amount of friction would occur, resulting in wear and seizure. To keep the
engine rotating smoothly, the friction on each part needs to be minimized.

Camshaft timing oil control valve

Main oil gallery

Oil return hole

Oil pressure switch

Oil filter
Oil strainer

Oil pump
Oil Pump
The oil pump draws the engine oil from the oil pan and pumps it to each part of the engine.
The driven rotor rotates along with the drive rotor, however because the driven rotor is
eccentricity, the spacing between both rotors changes with rotation. This change of spacing is
used to draw and pump the oil.
There is a relief valve built into the oil pump, which releases at the specified pressure controlling
the maximum oil pressure

Drive roter

Driven roter

Relief valve
Oil Filter

All of the oil pumped up by the oil pump passes through the oil filter where metallic particles from
wear and carbon sludge are filtered out.
The oil pushes open the check valve and enters the outer circumference of the element, where
is filtered, and then is discharged from the center of the element.
The check valve at the opening of the oil filter is designed to prevent contaminants, which have
collected in the outer circumference of the element, from flowing back into the engine when the
engine stops.

Check valve

Element
Relief valve

Oil flow (in)

Oil flow (out)
Oil flow if the relief valve open
Oil Pan

The oil pan, normally made of thin sheet metal or aluminum, bolts to the bottom of the engine
block. It holds a supply of oil for the lubrication system.

OIL STRAINER

A wire-mesh screen placed at the inlet end of the engine oil pump pick-up tube to prevent dirt
and other large particles from entering the oil pump.

Camshaft timing oil control valve

Main oil gallery

Oil return hole

Oil pressure switch

Oil filter
Oil strainer

Oil pump
 COOLING SYSTEM
In the engine, the system that removes heat by the circulation of liquid
coolant or of air to prevent engine overheating.

Types of cooling system:

1. Air-cooled
2. Liquid cooled
Components:

WATER JACKETS – the spaces between the inner and outer shells of the
cylinder block or head, through which coolant circulates.

WATER PUMP – the device that circulates coolant between engine water
jackets and the radiator. It can circulate up to 28,390 L of coolant per hour.

RADIATOR – is the heat exchanger that removes heat from the coolant
passing through it.
Components:

RADIATOR PRESSURE CAP – a radiator cap with valves which cause

the liquid cooling system to operate under pressure at a higher and
more efficient temperature.

THERMOSTAT – a device for the automatic regulation of temperature.

Its purpose is to close off the passage when the engine is cold.

FAN – the bladed device that rotates in the back of radiator to draw
cooling air through the radiator.
 IGNITION SYSTEM
The system that furnishes high voltage sparks to the engine cylinders to fire
the compressed air-fuel mixture.

TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEM

1. Breaker Points Type
2. Transistorized Type
3. Transistorized type with ESA (Electronic Spark Advance)
4. DIS (Direct Ignition System)
1.Breaker points type

High-tension cord
High-tension cord

Ignition switch
ST Distributor
IG
Governor
advancer

Capasitor Spark
Ignition plug
coil

Cam Breaker
points
Resistor Vacuum advancer

This type of ignition system has the most basic construction.

With this type, the primary current and ignition timing are mechanically controlled.
The primary current of the ignition coil is controlled to flow intermittently through the breaker points.
The governor advancer and the vacuum advancer control the ignition timing.
The distributor distributes the high voltage that is generated by the secondary coil to the spark
plugs.
2. Transistorized type

High-tension cord
High-tension cord

Ignition switch
Distributor
Governor
advancer Igniter Transistor

Spark
Ignition coil plug

Signal
generator
Vacuum advancer

In this type, the transistor controls the primary current so that it flows intermittently in accordance
with the electric signals that are generated by the signal generator.
Timing advance is controlled mechanically in the same way as in the breaker points type system.
3. Transistorized type with ESA (Electronic Spark Advance)

High-tension cord
High-tension cord

Ignition switch
Distributor

Igniter
Transistor

ECU
Spark
Ignition plug
coil

Sensors

The use of the mechanical vacuum advancer and the governor advancer has been discontinued in
this type. Instead, the ESA function of the engine ECU controls the ignition timing.
4. DIS (Direct Ignition System)

Type1 Type2
Sensors Sensors

ECU ECU

IGT1 IGT2 IGT4 IGT1 IGT2

IGT3
Igniter
Igniter

Ignition
High-tension coil

Ignition coil code

(with igniter)

Spark Spark
plug plug

Ignition coil

Instead of a distributor, this type employs multiple ignition coils to supply high voltage directly to the
spark plugs. The ignition timing is controlled by the ESA function of the engine ECU. This system is
predominant in recent gasoline engines.
 STARTING SYSTEM
Since the engine cannot be started by itself, external power is required to generate the first
combustion to start it. To start the engine, the starter rotates the crankshaft via the ring gear.
The starter is required to generate extremely large torque from the limited power from the
battery and should be compact and light as well. For this reason, a DC (direct current)
series motor* is used for the starter.
To start the engine, the crankshaft has to rotate faster than the minimum cranking speed.
The minimum cranking speed required to start the engine differs depending on the engine’s
construction and operating conditions, but it is generally 40 to 60 rpm for a gasoline engine
and 80 to 100 rpm for a diesel engine.

Ring gear

Starter
The starter consists of the following
components.

1. Magnetic switch
2. Armature
3. Yoke sub-assembly
4. Brush and brush holder
5. Reduction gear
6. Overrunning clutch
7. Pinion gear and helical spline
. Magnetic switch

The magnetic switch operates as a main switch of the current flowing to the motor
and controls the pinion gear by pushing and pulling it.
The pull-in coil is wound up with thicker wire than the hold-in coil, and its
magnetomotive force of the pull-in coil is also greater than that of the hold-in coil.

1. Magnetic switch
Main contact

Plunger

Return spring

Drive spring
Plunger shaft

Hold-in coil
Pull-in coil
Armature and ball bearing

The armature generates a motor’s revolving force, and the ball bearing
supports the high speed revolution of the armature.

2. Armature and ball bearing Ball bearing

Armature coil

Ball bearing

Commutator

Armature core
Yoke sub-assembly

The yoke sub-assembly produces the magnetic field required for the
motor to operate. It also works as an outer case of the field coil, the pole
core and a passage of the lines of magnetic force. The field coil is
connected to the armature coil in series.
3. Yoke sub-assembly

Yoke
Brush

Pole core

Field coil
Brush and brush holder

The brushes are pressed against the armature commutator by the brush springs,
allowing the current to flow from the coil to the armature in fixed direction. The
brushes are made of copper-carbon, which has excellent conductivity and
abrasion resistance characteristics.
The brush springs repress the excessive revolution of the armature and stop the
armature revolution just after the starter stops by pressing the brush.

4. Brush and brush holder

Brush holder

Body ground

Brush
Brush spring
Reduction gear

The reduction gear transmits the revolving force of the motor to the pinion
gear and increases torque by slowing the motor speed as well.
The reduction gear reduces the revolution of the motor at a reduction
ratio of 1/3-1/4, and it has an overrunning clutch built-in.

5. Reduction gear

Drive gear

Reduction gear Idle gear

Ball bearing
Clutch gear

Ball bearing
Overrunning clutch

• The overrunning clutch transmits the motor rotation to the engine via
the pinion gear.
• In order to prevent the starter breakage by its high-speed revolution
arising from engine start, the overrunning clutch is a one-way type with
rollers.

6. Overrunning clutch

Clutch roller

Spline shaft

Return spring
Pinion gear
Clutch gear

Pinion shaft
Pinion gear and helical spline

The pinion gear and the ring gear transmit the revolving force of the
starter to the engine by securely engaging with each other. The pinion
gear is chamfered for excellent engagement. The helical spline converts
the revolving force of the motor to the driving force of the pinion and
supports the engagement and the disengagement of the pinion gear as
well.
7. Pinion gear and helical spline

Spline shaft

Pinion gear

Helical spline

Pinion shaft

Ring gear
Type of starter
(1) Reduction type

• The reduction type starter uses a compact high-speed motor.

• The reduction type starter increases torque by reducing the rotational speed of
the armature with the reduction gear.
• The plunger of the magnetic switch directly pushes the pinion gear located on
the same axis and causes it to engage with the ring gear.

(1) Reduction type Yoke

Armature

Drive gear

Magnetic switch

Pinion gear
(2) Conventional type

• The pinion gear is located on the same axis as the armature

and rotates at the same speed.
• The drive lever connected to the magnetic switch plunger
pushes the pinion gear and causes it to engage with the ring
gear.

(2) Conventional type

Magnetic switch

Drive lever

Pinion gear
Yoke

Armature
(3) Planetary type

• The planetary type starter uses a planetary gear to reduce

the rotational speed of the armature.
• The pinion gear engages with the ring gear via the drive lever,
as with the conventional type.

(3) Planetary type

Magnetic switch

Drive lever

Armature

Yoke

Planetary gear
Pinion gear
(4) Planetary reduction-segment conductor motor (PS) type

• The Planetary reduction-segment conductor motor (PS) type

starter uses the permanent magnets in the field coil.
• The engagement/disengagement mechanism works in the
same way as the planetary type.

(4) Planetary reduction-segment

conductor motor (PS) type

Magnetic switch

Armature
Pinion gear

Parmanent
magnet

Planetary
gear
CHARGING SYSTEM
Function of charging system
Vehicle is equipped with many electrical devices to drive safely and
comfortably.

The vehicle requires electricity not only while driving but also while it
stops.

Therefore, the vehicle has a battery for a power supply and a charging
system to generate electricity by the engine running.

The charging system supplies electricity to all the electrical devices

and charges the battery.
Construction of charging system

Charging system mainly consists of the following devices.

• Alternator
• Regulator (built in the alternator)
• Battery
• Charge warning light
• Ignition switch
Alternator

While the engine is running, this generates a nearly equal amount of

electricity to operate the electric devices used for the vehicle and to
charge the battery.
Regulator (built in the alternator)

This is a device to regulate the generated voltage in order to make it constant

even when the alternator speed changes or current volume that flows into the
electric devices fluctuates.
Battery

This is a power source when the engine stops and it supplies electricity to the
electric devices to start the engine or when the alternator does not generate
electricity. However, electricity generated by the alternator is charged to the
battery once the engine starts running.
Charge warning light

This informs of the malfunction in the charging system.

Ignition switch

This starts the engine, causing the alternator to generate electricity.

• are substances primarily composed of hydrocarbon which upon
combustion release heat energy.
• A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances
so that it releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work.
• PRIMARY FUELS

• Primary fuels are fuels that are found in nature and can be extracted,
captured, cleaned, or graded without any sort of energy conversion or
transformation process.

• SECONDARY FUELS

• Secondary fuels are fuels that are derived from some primary fuel or
fuels through chemical or physical processes. These are fuels that are
not found as a natural resource
 PRIMARY FUEL

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

Wood Crude Oil Natural Gas

Peat
Lignite
Coal
Dung
 SECONDARY FUEL

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

Coke Tar Coal Gas

Charcoal Kerosene Oil Gas
Coal Diesel Biogas
Briquette Petrol Blast furnace gas
Fuel Oil LPG
PROPERTIES OF FUELS
1. DENSITY - the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a
reference temperature of 15°C.

2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY – the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight
of the same volume of a standard substance at a given temperature.

SG = density of liquid fuel

density of water

SG = density of gaseous fuel

density of air
PROPERTIES OF FUELS
Correction factor as applied to specific gravity at a certain temperature expressed in
degrees Celcius .

SG = SG15.6 °C [1 – 0.0007 (t-15.6)] SI/metric

SG = SG60 °F [1 – 0.0004 (t- 60)] English

* SG of the fuel normally measured at 15.6 °C affects the spray penetration as the
fuel injected into the cylinder aside from being a measure of a fuel’s heat
content.
PROPERTIES OF FUELS
American Petroleum Institute Gravity Unit, °API

the accepted standard by the petroleum and oil industry, it was drawn up to
correct the values measures by incorrectly calibrated hydrometers

°API = (14.5 / SG15.6 ) – 131.5

PROPERTIES OF FUELS
3. VISCOSITY- is a measure of a fluid of its internal resistance to flow.

4. FLASH POINT – is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that
the vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it.

5. FIRE POINT – is the temperature at which the vapor will continue to burn after
being ignited.

6. CLOUD POINT – is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon components of

liquid fuel become insoluble.

7. POUR POINT – is the lowest temperature at which certain amount will become
insoluble to prevent the flow specified condition.
PROPERTIES OF FUELS
8. SPECIFIC HEAT – is the amount of kcals needed to raise the temperature 1 kg of oil
by 1°C. the unit of specific heat is kcal/kg °C. the specific heat determines how
much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature.

9. CALORIFIC VALUE – is the measurement of heat energy produced, and its measure
either as gross calorific value or net calorific value.

GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV) – assumes all vapor produced during the
combustion process is fully condensed.

NET CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV) – assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed.
PROPERTIES OF FUELS
10. SULFUR - the amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of
the crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining process.

11. ASH CONTENT– is related to the inorganic materials in the fuel oil.

12. CARBON RESIDUE– indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface such as burner or injection nozzle.

13. VOLATILITY – is the ability of liquid fuel to change into vapor which is manifested
in the temperature range at which various portion of the fuel are vaporized.
PETROLEUM (LIQUID FOSSIL FUEL)
• Petroleum is the naturally occurring liquid fuel and it accounts for the
bulk of the liquid fuels.
• Petroleum can be defined as a mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid
hydrocarbons or hydrocarbon derivatives that occur naturally within
the geological traps.
• Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural
gas, petroleum was formed from the remains of ancient marine
organisms, such as plants, algae, and bacteria. Over millions of years
of intense heat and pressure, these organic remains (fossils)
transformed into carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials
for fuel and a wide variety of products.
Distillation

Crude oil is converted to

saleable products by
combination of physical
and chemical processes,
collectively known as
refining of petroleum.

Petroleum refining starts

with crude oil distillation
which is a physical
separation process,
followed by some chemical
treatment steps, such as
cracking, reforming,
hydrotreating etc. to
produce a wide range of
petroleum products of
specific standard.
Crude oil distillation is done at atmospheric pressure as well as under vacuum.

Flow diagram of atmospheric distillation unit Fuel-type vacuum distillation unit

SECONDARY PROCESSING

CRACKING

Cracking is a secondary process in the refinery where change in composition

of the petroleum fractions is done by the action of heat alone (thermal
cracking) or heat in presence of a catalyst (catalytic cracking).
1. THERMAL CRACKING
• Thermal cracking was first commercialized in 1912 to increase the yield of middle distillate fractions (which
boil in the range of 150-3500C) from crude oil
VISBREAKING
• Visbreaking is a mild thermal
cracking process utilized in
the refinery to reduce the
viscosity and/or improve the
pour point of a heavy oil,
mainly residues,
Hydrocracking
• Hydrocracking is an operation in
which low-value gas oil with a high
percentage of polynuclear
aromatics is simultaneously
cracked and hydrogenated to
produce low-boiling and mid-
boiling distillates which are of high
value. The primary advantage of
hydrocracking is that, it selectively
produces gasoline, diesel fuel or jet
fuel by cracking and hydrogenation
of polyaromatics, without
producing any unwanted low
molecular weight gases.
COKING
• Coking is a refinery operation that upgrades low-valued bottoms like atmospheric or vacuum residue into
higher-value petroleum coke. Petroleum coke is a high carbon coal like material. The process is actually a
severe thermal cracking which completely converts the petroleum residues into coke and lighter products.

Fluid coking unit Delayed coker unit

2. CATALYTIC CRACKING
• Catalytic cracking is the process where low-valued high boiling feedstocks are cracked into value-added
products by using a catalyst. Previously there were two types of catalytic cracking practiced in the refinery,
moving bed catalytic cracking and fluid bed catalytic cracking. coke and lighter products.

Fluidized catalytic cracking unit

• ALCOHOLS
• VEGETABLE OILS and BIODIESELS
• GASEOUS FUELS
• ETHERS
• ELECTRIC /FUEL CELL / HYBRID VEHICLES
• FUTURE FUELS
References:
• https://www.worldenergydata.org/world-final-energy/
• https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Secondary_fuel
• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/petroleum
Electric Vehicles
ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

• The ELECTRIC VEHICLE

consists of all the parts similar
to conventional automobiles,
however the internal
combustion engine power
train is replaced by motor and
battery.
ELECTRIC
VEHICLES (EVs)

• A typical configuration of
modern EVs include
energy source, electric
motor propulsion, and
control system
MOTOR

• The electrical energy available in the

battery is in the form of direct current.
Direct current (DC) motors are used to
convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy at the driving wheels.

Constructional details of DC Motor

Advantage of using an Electric Motor as
propeller:

• quieter and a more efficient propulsor,

• easier to install the regenerative braking
system,
• more efficient transmission through the
possibility of direct connection to the
wheels,
• fewer moving parts,
• and lower operating/maintenance costs.
TYPES OF DC MOTORS

• DC series motor
• DC shunt motor
• DC compound motor
• Separately excited DC motor
 BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (BEV)

TYPES OF
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ELECTRIC
• HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV)
VEHICLES • PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (PHEV)

FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLE (FCEV)

BATTERY
ELECTRIC
VEHICLE (BEV)

• When the energy source

is solely batteries and the
propulsion device is only
an electric motor, they are
termed the Battery EV
(BEV) or sometimes
loosely called the EV.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF BEV
• BATTERY
• ELECTRIC MOTOR
• CONTROLLER
• DRIVE TRAIN
BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (BEV)

Mitsubishi i-MiEV
BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (BEV)
Battery Storage
Systems

• Batteries are energy storage systems that

are used to store electrical energy.
Electrochemical batteries, more
commonly known as batteries that
convert electrical energy into chemical
energy during charging, and converts
chemical energy into electrical energy
during discharging. The battery is as
important as the combustion engine of a
conventional vehicle and considered as
the essential power plant of EVs.
Classification of Batteries

• Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy into electrical

energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be
readily restored to the battery by electrical means.
• The primary batteries supply energy immediately; however these batteries
have to be discarded once the energy is completely used. Typical primary
batteries (disposable batteries) are alkaline batteries and zinc–carbon
batteries.
• The primary batteries have higher energy densities than secondary
batteries

• Secondary batteries are known as rechargeable batteries. The chemical

reactions can be reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell and it
can be restored to its initial position. Battery chargers are used to recharge
the battery by supplying electricity. Rechargeable batteries are used in EVs.
 A stable voltage output over a good depth of discharge

High energy capacity for the given battery weight and size

High peak power output per unit mass and volume

High energy efficiency

Able to function with wide ranges of operating temperatures

Requirement Good charge retention on open-circuit stand

Ability to accept fast recharge

for Evs Ability to withstand overcharge and over discharge

Batteries Reliable in operation

Maintenance free

Rugged and resistant to abuse

Safe both in use and accident conditions

Made of readily available and inexpensive materials with environmental friendliness

Efficient reclamation of materials at the end of service life

TYPES OF BATTERIES for Automotive Application:
1.Lead–acid batteries

2. Nickel-based batteries
a. Nickel–iron battery
b. Nickel–zinc battery
c. Nickel–cadmium battery
d. Nickel-metal hydride battery

3. Lithium-based batteries
a. Lithium-solid polymer battery
b. Lithium-ion battery
TYPES OF BATTERIES for Automotive Application:

4. Other types
a. Sodium–sulfur battery
b. Sodium–nickel chloride battery
c. Aluminum–air battery
d. Zinc–air battery
LEAD-ACID
BATTERIES

• The lead–acid battery has

been a successful
commercial product for
over a century and is still
widely used as electrical
energy storage devices in
the automotive field and
other applications.
NICKEL - BASED
BATTERIES

• Nickel is a lighter metal than

lead and has very good
electrochemical properties
desirable for battery
applications. The different
types of nickel-based battery
technologies include nickel–
iron, nickel–zinc, nickel–
cadmium, and nickel-metal
hydride.
• Nickel–Iron

This battery uses nickel as the positive electrode and iron as the negative. Usually potassium
hydroxide is used as an electrolyte. The self discharge of these batteries are high and
eventually this problem is reduced by adding sulfur to the electrode, or lithium sulfide ions
to the electrolyte. With recent advancements, the battery can perform satisfactorily down to –
20°C. The power density of these batteries is around 100 W/kg, which makes it adequate for
vehicle acceleration. The battery has a long lifetime with up to 2000 deep discharge cycles.
• Nickel–Zinc

These batteries have an energy density of 70 Wh/kg and a power density of 150 W/kg. The
fundamental problem lies with the dendrite growth, which is common to all zinc-based
batteries as it limits the maximum number of deep discharge cycles to 300. Though a number
of attempts have been made in the past to increase the lifetime, the research and
development on zinc-based batteries slowed down significantly in recent years.
• Nickel–Cadmium

A nickel–cadmium battery uses the same positive electrodes and electrolyte as the nickel–
iron battery, in combination with metallic cadmium negative electrodes. This technology has
seen enormous technical improvement, due to high specific power over 220 W/kg, long cycle
life in the order of 2000 cycles, and low-discharge rate. The disadvantages are the high initial
cost, relative low-cell voltage,
• Nickel-Metal hydride

These batteries have been in use since 1992. The characteristics are similar to those of the
nickel–cadmium batteries. The principle difference between them is the use of hydrogen,
absorbed in a metal hydride, for the active negative electrode material in place of cadmium.

The nickel-metal hydride batteries have distinct advantages over nickel–cadmium batteries
such as superior specific energy, environmental friendliness, and quick recharging.
LITHIUM- BASED
BATTERIES
• Lithium is the lightest of all
metals and presents very
interesting characteristics
from an electrochemical
point of view. It allows very
high thermodynamic voltage
that results in high specific
energy and specific power.
The two major types of
lithium-based batteries are
lithium-polymer and lithium-
ion.
• Lithium-Polymer Battery

These batteries use lithium metal as the negative electrode and transition metal intercalation
oxide as the positive electrode. A thin solid polymer is used as an electrolyte that offers
improved safety and design flexibility. On discharge, lithium ions formed as the negative
electrode migrates through the solid polymer electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal
structure at the positive electrode. On charging, the process is reversed. The major advantage
of these batteries is the very low self-discharge rate and the drawback is the relatively weak
low-temperature performance due to the temperature dependence of ionic conductivity.
• Lithium-Ion Battery

Lithium-ion batteries use a lithiated intercalation material for the negative electrode instead
of metallic lithium, a lithiated transition metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode,
and a liquid organic solution or a solid polymer as the electrolyte. On discharge lithium ions
are released from the negative electrode, migrate via the electrolyte and are taken up by the
positive electrode. On charging the process is reversed. Lithium-ion batteries are considered
to be the most promising rechargeable batteries of the future. Though this technology is at
the developmental stage, it has gained wide applications in EVs.
MOTOR CONTROLLER

• Motor controller is a device or group of devices that serves

in some predetermined manner the performance of an
electric motor in an EV. It includes manual or automatic
means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting
forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the
speed, regulating or limiting the torque, and protecting
against overloads and faults. Motor controller can be DC
or AC current operated therefore it is called DC or AC
controller based on the current it operates. Generally
electric motors used in EVs are DC operated as it is simple
to use and control. DC
Charging of Electric Vehicle Batteries

• The charging system is a critical part of the

energy cycle in an EV. The system should be
able to charge or recharge the traction
batteries as quick as possible so as to enable
the batteries to supply the necessary power for
traction. Electric vehicle batteries have to be
charged in a most convenient way either at
home using a domestic power supply or at a
charging station depending on the journey
SOLAR ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

• A solar vehicle is an EV
powered by solar energy
obtained from solar panels on
the surface of the vehicle.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert
the sun’s energy directly into
electrical energy. PVCs are the
components in solar paneling
that convert the sun’s energy to
electricity. A solar array is the
combination of various PV
cells.
 • Efficient PV cells
SOLAR • Good aerodynamic structure
• Use efficient long running durable batteries
VEHICLE • High performance motor

DESIGN • Light weight (200–350 kg)

• Reliable chassis
FUEL CELLS

• A fuel-cell vehicle (FCV) uses a fuel cell

stack as the source of electric power to
drive an electric-traction motor.
TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

• alkaline fuel cells

• phosphoric acid fuel cells
• polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs)
• molten carbonate fuel cells
• solid oxide fuel cells.

* Among these, PEFCs are seen to be most

attractive for automotive applications due to their
quick start-up and low-temperature operation
 • A Hybrid vehicle is a vehicle using two
HYBRID different forms of power, such as
an electric motor and
an internal combustion engine, or an
VEHICLES electric motor with a battery and fuel cells
for energy storage.
HYBRID VEHICLE CONFIGURATIONS
• SERIES HYBRID
• PARALLEL HYBRID
HYBRID VEHICLE CONFIGURATIONS
HYBRID VEHICLE CONFIGURATIONS
HYBRID VEHICLE • HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
CLASSIFICATION • PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE
• Hybrid electric vehicles are
powered by an internal combustion
engine and one or more electric
motors, which uses energy stored
in batteries. A hybrid electric
vehicle cannot be plugged in to
charge the battery. Instead, the
battery is charged through
regenerative braking and by the
internal combustion engine.
PLUG-IN HYBRID
VEHICLES
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) use
batteries to power an electric motor and
another fuel, such as gasoline, to power an
internal combustion engine (ICE). PHEV
batteries can be charged using a wall outlet
or charging equipment, by the ICE, or
through regenerative braking. The vehicle
typically runs on electric power until the
battery is nearly depleted, and then the car
automatically switches over to use the ICE
Benefits of Electric Vehicles

• Electric vehicles do not emit greenhouse emissions and toxic exhaust gases. The EVs are zero
emission vehicles if the energy required to operate the vehicle (i.e., charging of battery) is produced
from renewable energy sources or onboard hydrogen fuel cells.
• Electric motor is much more efficient than conventional internal combustion engines.
• Electric vehicles are noiseless.
• Electric vehicles reduce the dependency of fossil fuels if they run on alternative fuels.
Chalenges of Electric Vehicles

• The cost of EVs is high as compared to contemporary gasoline and diesel cars. Recharging time of
the batteries is high and research is going on to reduce the recharge time. It takes hours to recharge
the batteries, which is more than the refueling time of gasoline and diesel vehicles.
• Driving range of the EVs depending on the power of the batteries. To date the driving range is
limited and is around 100 miles in one recharging.
• Limited seating space availability as increase in the space will increase load of the passengers
affecting the driving range as increased load puts stress on the battery performance and life.
• Less customer acceptance and satisfaction. This is a marketing challenge as it will be a difficult task
to change customer perception with so many limitations of EVs and when other options that are far
better than EVs are available in the market.
• https://e-amrit.niti.gov.in/types-of-electric-vehicles
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359120589_ELECTRIC_AN
D_HYBRID_ELECTRIC_VEHICLES
• https://www.evgo.com/ev-drivers/types-of-evs/
• https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/how-do-hybrid-electric-cars-work
ENGINE EMISSIONS
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ENGINE EXHAUST GAS

• Engine exhaust gas is a mixture of solids, liquids, and gases,

including a large amount of water vapor.
• As engine operating conditions change, the exhaust gas
chemical composition may change rapidly and drastically.
• The range of gas temperature increases from ambient level at
the intake manifold up to nearly 700°C in the engine exhaust
manifold.
 HYDROGEN (H2)

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

MAJOR
COMPONENTS CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
OF ENGINE NITROGEN (N2)
EXHAUST GAS
WATER (H2O)

OXYGEN (O2)
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS IN ENGINE EXHAUST

• CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

• HYDROCARBONS (HC)
• NITROGEN OXIDE (NOx)
• PATICULATE MATTER (PM)
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
- also called carbonous oxide, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly
lighter than air. It is highly toxic to humans and animals in higher quantities, although it is
also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is generally produced during rich operating conditions (l
< 1) with respect to the theoretical air-to-fuel ratio. This can also be calculated
from the theoretical combustion formula. However, in actual engine operating
conditions, a very small amount of CO is produced in lean conditions (l > 1) as
well. This is possibly due to incomplete combustion caused by small amounts of
rich air-fuel mixtures remaining in the engine cylinder.
Health Effects Associated with Carbon Monoxide
LOW CONCENTRATIONS
• fatigue in healthy people
• chest pain in people with heart disease.

MODERATE CONCENTRATIONS
• angina
• impaired vision
• reduced brain function may result

HIGH CONCENTRATIONS
• impaired vision
• Headaches
• Dizziness
• confusion
• nausea.
HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS
• At higher concentrations, CO exposure can be fatal.
NITROGEN OXIDE (NOx)
• - Nitrogen oxides or NOx are chemical oxides that are produced during combustion at
high temperatures. The two elements, nitrogen and oxygen typically do not react with
each other at normal temperatures, but when high temperature combustion occurs, the
elements combine to form this toxic oxide. The release of these toxins into the
atmosphere is considered major contributors to air pollution, and for industries and
manufacturers of internal combustion engines
NITROGEN OXIDE (NOx)
• Nitrogen is oxidized by high combustion temperature and pressure inside the engine
cylinder, producing nitrogen oxides (NOx)—primarily nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). NOx is regulated as the sum of NO + NO2 by emission regulations. The
density (or molecular mass) of NO2 is used for NOx emission calculation.
• This NOx density is based upon the assumption that NO will be oxidized to NO2 in
ambient air. NO2 is highly soluble in water. Therefore, during direct measurement of
diesel exhaust that may contain large amounts of NO2, the sampling line is heated to
avoid water condensation, thereby preserving the NO2.
 Effects Associated with Nitrogen Oxide
• Besides being a single toxin, NOx combines with other substances and creates smog
when it is exposed to sunlight. This creates a major health hazard for people that live in
affected areas. NOx penetrates into the lung tissue and can cause permanent damage to
lung tissue. Children, the elderly, people with asthma and other breathing difficulties,
and people that work outside are especially susceptible to the negative health effects of
NOx.

Nitrogen oxides also combine with water which produces nitric acid. When released from
the atmosphere it is called acid rain, and results in significant long term damage to any
structure that is repeatedly exposed to it.
AMMONIA
• A very small amount of ammonia (NH3) is produced when the NOx from
combustion is reduced by three-way emission control catalysts. Furthermore,
NH3 may be produced when a large amount of urea is injected into a Selective
Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system that requires urea as a reducing agent for NOx.
This phenomenon is known as an ammonia slip.
AMMONIA
• Exposure to high concentrations of ammonia in air causes immediate burning
of the eyes, nose, throat and respiratory tract and can result in blindness,
lung damage or death. Inhalation of lower concentrations can cause coughing,
and nose and throat irritation.
HYDROCARBONS
• A hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and
carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are
generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or
exemplified by the odors of gasoline and lighter fluid

• Hydrocarbons are compounds comprised exclusively of carbon and

hydrogen and they are by far the dominant components of crude oil, processed
petroleum hydrocarbons (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, fuel oil, and lubricating oil),
coal tar, creosote, dyestuff, and pyrolysis waste products.
HYDROCARBONS
• Hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline and diesel engines are derived from unburned fuel
as an organic compound or produced from combustion. HC in engine emissions consists
of many hydrocarbon compounds such as methane (CH4) and Non-Methane
Hydrocarbons (NMHC), and its properties vary depending on the fuel burned. For
example, HC exhaust gases from a diesel engine using diesel fuel include a large amount
of high-boiling-point HCs compared to those from a gasoline engine. To prevent the
absorption of such components during diesel engine exhaust measurement, the line from
the sampling point to the analyzer detector is heated up to 191°C.
HYDROCARBONS

• Health effects associated with a single exposure to hydrocarbons

are asphyxiation, narcosis (ie depression of the central nervous system;
anaesthesia), cardiac arrest and aspiration.
Engine Exhaust Particulates
• In addition to the previously mentioned gaseous substances, diesel engines
contain particulate matter generated inside the engine. Typical engine exhaust
particles are chain- or grape-like agglomerates of carbon particles no longer than
1 mm. The mass of these PM substances is regulated as an air pollutant derived
from exhaust emissions.
• PM in this definition contains not only the atomic carbon known as “soot” but
also organic compounds, sulfate, nitrate such as unburned fuel and lubrication
oil, as well as ash. In recent years, extremely small particles (below the diameter
of 0.1 mm) have raised health-effect concerns, and Particulate Number (PN) is
drawing attention as an indicator to reflect the amount of PM emission.
Engine Exhaust Particulates
• PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)

• PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term for a mixture of solid
particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke,
are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be
detected using an electron microscope.

• Particle pollution includes:

• PM10 : inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller;
and
• PM2.5 : fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and
smaller.
Engine Exhaust Particulates
• The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small particles less than 10
micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even
get into your bloodstream.

Exposure to such particles can affect both your lungs and your heart. Numerous scientific studies have linked particle
pollution exposure to a variety of problems, including:
• premature death in people with heart or lung disease
• nonfatal heart attacks
• irregular heartbeat
• aggravated asthma
• decreased lung function
• increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing.
• People with heart or lung diseases, children, and older adults are the most likely to be affected by particle pollution
exposure.
Engine Exhaust Particulates
Environmental Effect:

• Particles can be carried over long distances by wind and then settle on ground or
water. Depending on their chemical composition, the effects of this settling may include:
• making lakes and streams acidic
• changing the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins
• depleting the nutrients in soil
• damaging sensitive forests and farm crops
• affecting the diversity of ecosystems
• contributing to acid rain effects.
Greenhouse Gases in Exhaust Emissions

• Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from engines have been raising concerns. The
main greenhouse gases contained in engine exhaust are CO2, CH4, and nitrous
oxide (N2O). CO2 is the major component of GHG in engine exhaust.
 - a heavy colorless gas CO2 that does not support
combustion, dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid
CARBON - is formed especially in animal respiration and in
the decay or combustion of animal and vegetable
DIOXIDE matter
- is absorbed from the air by plants in
(CO2) photosynthesis.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), the major cause of Global Warming

• Global warming is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases . 72% of the totally
emitted greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2), 18% Methane and 9% Nitrous oxide
(NOx). Carbon dioxide emissions therefore are the most important cause of global
warming.