Basics of IC Engines

and
Fuel-Air & Actual Cycles
Learning Objectives:
To learn basics of heat engines, IC and EC engines, IC engines
construction- components and materials, engine nomenclature,
applications
Engine of a car
 Basics of IC Engines
• Heat Engines
• Internal Combustion (IC) Engines
• External Combustion (EC) Engines
• Engine Construction – components and material
• Engine Nomenclature
• Applications
What is an engine?

- a machine which converts chemical energy of fuel into mechanical

energy

Types of engines:

*External combustion engine. *Internal combustion engine.

-Ex: steam engine -Ex: car engine
Type of Heat Engines

types of heat engines

steam engines
external combustion Gas turbines
Stirling engine

Otto engine
internal combustion Diesel engine
Vankel engine
Internal Combustion Engine
Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. They
have three parts:

Compressor - Compresses the incoming air to high pressure

Combustion area - Burns the fuel and produces high-pressure,
high-velocity gas
Turbine - Extracts the energy from the high-pressure, high-
velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber

CompressorCombustion area Turbine

Internal Combustion Engines-Applications

The internal combustion engine is

an engine in which the
combustion of fuel-oxidizer
mixture occurs in a confined space
applied in:
automotive
rail transportation
power generation
ships
aviation
garden appliances
 How engine works?
Exhaust
Air
Mixing Combustion

Fuel Power

Useful
Work

•Carburetor •Ignition •Valves

(Spark plug / •Piston/connecting rod
Compressed •Crankshaft
ignition) •Flywheel
•Clutch
•Gear box
•Wheels
 History of Internal Combustion Engine

History of IC engines:
1700s -Steam engines (external combustion engines)

1860 - Lenoir engine (h = 5%)

1867 - Otto-Langen engine (h = 11%, 90 RPM max.)

1876 - Otto four stroke “spark ignition” engine

(h = 14%, 160 RPM max.)

1880s - Two stroke engine

1892 - Diesel four stroke “compression ignition” engine

1957 - Wenkel “rotary” engine

11
 Classification of IC Engines
Based on No of stroke per cycle:
• Four stroke
• Two stroke

Based on thermodynamic cycle:

• Otto/Constant volume heat addition cycle
• Diesel/Constant pressure heat addition cycle
• Dual Cycle (Heat addition-At const Pressure and vol)

Based on No of cylinders:
• Single cylinder
• Multi-cylinders
 Classification of IC Engines
Based on arrangement of cylinders:
• Inline engines
• V – engines
• Radial engines
• Opposed cylinders engines
• Opposed pistons engines
Based on ignition systems:
• SI engines
• CI engines
Based on cooling system:
• Air cooled
• Liquid cooled
 Classification of IC Engines
Based on fuel used:
• Petrol engines
• Diesel engines
• Gas engines
• Bi-fuel engines
Based on fuel supply systems:
• Carburetor engines
• Solid injection engines
Based on lubrication system:
• Wet sump lubrication
• Dry sump lubrication
• Mist lubrication
Engine Components
Parts of an Engine
 Engines Components & Materials
1. Cylinder block & Crank case:
• Lasting the life of the vehicle, housing internal moving parts and fluids,
ease of service and maintenance, and withstand pressures created by
the combustion process.
• Material should possess high strength, modulus of elasticity, abrasion
resistance, and corrosion resistance.
• To hold engine components, water jackets
• Cooling jackets, oil passages, passages for push rods,
• Fitment for crank shaft, lubrication pump etc
• Grey CI, Al alloy
2.Cylinder head:
• For fitment of SP/ injectors, valve openings, comb
chamber, valves & valve operating mechanism
• CI , Al alloy
3. Oil pan:
• Oil sump
• Pressed steel sheet, Al alloy
4. Manifolds:
• Inlet & exhaust tubing for AF intake & exhaust
• CI
5. Gaskets:
• For leak proof sealing between two components
• Embossed steel, cork, special rubber
6. Cylinder liners (Replaceable):
• Pistons reciprocket in cylinders for comb space
• Steel alloyed with Si, Mn, Nickel, Chromium
• Centrifugally cast, hardened by nitriding, chromium
plating
• Dry & Wet liners
7. Piston:
• For transmission of force, light weight, high thermal k,
low thermal coeff of expansion
• Al alloy
8. Piston rings:
• For high pr leak proof sealing between piston &
cylinder, 2 to 4 + 1 to 2 oil scrapper rings
• Alloy CI with Si, Mn with chromium plating
9. Connecting rod:
• For transmitting force on piston to crankshaft
• I-section, drop forged from steel
• Axial and bending stresses
10. Piston/Gudgeon Pin:
• For connecting piston with connecting rod
• Case hardened steel
11. Crankshaft:
• For converting reciprocketing motion of piston to
rotary motion of crankshaft by connecting rod,
vibration damper and fly wheel fitted
• Main journal, crank pins, crank webs, counterweights
• Forged from spheroidal graphite iron
12. Main & Big end bearings:
• For facilitating holding & friction free rotation of
crankshaft
• Babbitt material- alloy steel
 Engines Components & Materials
13. Engine Valves:
• Inlet –for air/AF intake; Silicon-chrome steel
(C+Ni +Mn+Si)
• Exhaust- for exiting burnt gases (C+Ni+Mn+Si+Mb)
14. Camshaft:
• For operating valves (rotates at half speed of C/S)
• Forged alloy steel
15. Silencer/Muffler:
• For reducing exhaust/comb sound
• Metal sheet
Parts of
an IC
Engine

Name as many
parts as you can

CROSS SECTION OF OVERHEAD VALVE FOUR STROKE SI ENGINE

Parts of
Cylinder head
Air cleaner Breather cap

an IC Choke
Rocker arm
Valve spring

Engine Throttle
Valve guide
Pushrod

Intake manifold Sparkplug

If you scored: Exhaust manifold Combustion chamber

25 – 32- Excellent Tappet

Piston rings Dipstick
15 – 24- Good Piston Cam
10 – 14- OK Wrist pin
Cylinder block
Camshaft
<10- Change your Connecting rod Water jacket
Oil gallery to piston Wet liner
lub oil Oil gallery to head
Connecting rod bearing
Crankcase
Crankpin
Crankshaft Main bearing

Oil pan or sump

Learning Objectives:
• To understand working of 2-stroke & 4-stroke SI and CI engines
• To learn about engine valve timings
 The four-stroke engine

Spark plug

Exhaust valve

Inlet valve Cylinder

Piston
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
opens

INDUCTION STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
open

INDUCTION STROKE
Piston down
 The four-stroke engine
Air/Fuel Mixture In

Inlet valve
open

INDUCTION STROKE

Piston down
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closes

COMPRESSION STROKE
Piston up
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Piston up
COMPRESSION STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed
BANG

POWER STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Piston down
powerfully POWER STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

POWER STROKE
Piston down
powerfully
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

POWER STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve Exhaust valve

closed open

EXHAUST STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve Exhaust valve

closed open

Exhaust gases
out

EXHAUST STROKE
Piston up
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve Exhaust valve

closed open

Exhaust gases
out

Piston up
EXHAUST STROKE
 The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve Exhaust valve

opens closed

INDUCTION STROKE
And so the
cycle
continues!!
 The four-stroke cycle

The four stroke

combustion cycle
consists of:
◦ 1. Intake
◦ 2. Compression
◦ 3. Combustion
◦ 4. Exhaust
 4 Processes Cycle
Intake Valve Exhaust Valve
Exhaust
1 Intake
2 4
Manifold
Manifold 3

Cylinder Spark
Plug
Piston

Connecting
Rod Crank
Crankcase

Intake Stroke Compression Power Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Intake valve Stroke Fuel-air mixture burns, Exhaust valve
opens, Both valves closed, increasing temp and open, exhaust
admitting fuel Fuel/air mixture is pressure, expansion of products are
and air. compressed by combustion gases displaced from
Exhaust valve rising piston. Spark drives piston down. cylinder. Intake
closed for most ignites mixture near Both valves closed, valve opens near
of stroke end of stroke. exhaust valve opens end of stroke.
near end of stroke
TWO STROKE
OPERATION
 2 Stroke Process

Compression Combustion Exhaust Scavenging

(Ports closed) (Ports closed) (Intake port and Intake
Air Taken Into closed) (Ports open)
Crankcase
Air compressed in crankcase
AIR/FUEL
INTAKE
COMPRESSION
COMBUSTION
&
EXHAUST
Working
of a
4 Stroke
SI
Engine
Working
of a
2 Stroke
SI
Engine
 Engine Terminology

TDC, BDC

Stroke/Swept /Displacement Volume (Vs)

Clearance Volume (Vc)

Compression Ratio CR (r)

Engine Terminology
More Terminology
Terminology
Bore =d
Stroke = s
 d 2 
Displacement volume =Vs = s 
 4 
Clearance volume = Vc
Compression ratio = r

r = V s + Vc
VBDC

Vc VTDC
 Engine
Intake & Exhaust
Systems
 Engine Intake System

Air Filter

Intake
Carburetor
Manifolds
Engine

A/F Mixture
 Engine Manifolds
• Manifolds are conduits, which are connected
to engine cylinder head; one per cylinder
• Inlet manifolds are used to carry air-fuel
mixture from carburetor/ air from air filter to
cylinders through intake valve(s) in SI engs;
air from air filter to cylinders in CI engines
• Exhaust manifolds carry burnt/flue gases from
cylinder through exhaust valve(s) to silencer/
muffler and ultimately to atmosphere
• Manifolds are manufactured by casting process
of cast iron/ by die-casting of aluminum alloy
 Intake Manifolds
• Intake manifolds should cause minimum
pressure loss thus ensuring max volumetric
efficiency
• Should distribute A/F mixture uniformly to
each cylinder over wide range of speeds and
loads (equal length to each cylinder)
• Should assist vaporization of fuel and mixing
with air while passing through it
• Shape and size should be to prevent
condensation of fuel without restricting air
flow
Cylinder Head

For 4 Cylinder Engine

 Exhaust System

Engine
Exhaust Silencer/
Manifolds Muffler

Exhaust/Tail Pipe
Exhaust Pipe Open to Atm
 Exhaust Manifolds
• After power stroke, flue/ burnt gases are required to
be removed from engine cylinders
• Exhaust manifolds collect the burnt gases from each
cylinder and through silencer, pass them to atm
Requirements:
• Minimum back pressure to reduce power loss
(Increase in back pressure by 0.1 bar results in
decrease in power output by about 1.5%)
• Reduction in combustion noise as exiting gases will
expand suddenly in atmosphere making lot of noise
• Transfer of minimum possible heat to system (Vehicle)
• Reduce emissions going to atmosphere
(exhaust treatment like using Catalytic Converter)
 Silencer/ Muffler
• After the power stroke, burnt gases, which
are at higher pressure, if exhausted to
atmosphere directly, make unpleasant loud
sound due to difference in exhaust pressure
and atmospheric pressure
• Muffler allows the gases to expand in it so
that pressure pulsations die down with the
result, burnt gases are discharged to
atmosphere quietly
Enhancing Knowledge
Learning Objectives:
• To understand Air Standard cycles and some important
thermodynamic aspects
 Ideal or Air Standard Cycles
Air standard cycles are defined as cycles using a perfect
gas as the working fluid/ medium.
Air is invariably used as the working fluid in IC Engines
and assumed to behave as a perfect gas

Following simplifying assumptions are made in the

analysis of air standard cycles:
• Working medium is AIR and behaves like ideal/
perfect gas throughout ( follows the Law pV=mRT )
• Working fluid is a fixed mass of air either contained
in a closed system or flowing at a constant rate
round a closed circuit
Assumptions of Ideal or Air Standard Cycles
• Physical constants of working medium are the same
as that of air at standard atmospheric conditions;
Cp=1.005, Cv=0.718 & γ=1.4
• Working medium has constant specific heats
• Heat addition & rejection processes take place in
reversible manner and if required, instantaneously
(at constant volume)
• Compression & Expansion processes are reversible
adiabatic (Isentropic); (no heat transfer)
• Kinetic & PE of the working fluid are neglected
• All dissipative effects like friction, viscosity etc, are
neglected
Useful Thermodynamic Relations (Perfect Gas)
• pV = mRT or pv = RT and p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
• Cp – Cv = R
• For Const Volume(Isochoric) process: p/T = Const
(Gay Lussac Law)
• For Const Pressure (Isobaric) process : V/T = Const
(Charle’s Law)
• For Const Temp (Isothermal) process: pV = Const
(Boyle’s Law)
• For reversible adiabatic process : pVγ = Const
• In Compression process, if p1, V1 and T1 represent
initial conditions & p2, V
n21and T2 the final conditions;
n 1
T2  V1   p2  n Where n=γ for reversible
    adiabatic (isentropic)
T1 V2   p1  process
Some Useful Standard Values for Perfect Gas/Air
Specific Heat at Const Pressure Cp=1.005 kJ/kgK
Specific Heat at Const Volume Cv=0.718 kJ/kgK
Gas Constant R=0.287 kJ/kgK
Ratio of Cp/Cv=γ=1.4 (Constant)
Pressure:
Pascal Pa=N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa =105 N/m2 =100 kPa =1.03 kg/cm2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 10 bar
Volume:
1 lit = 1000cc = 10-3m3
 Important Cycles for Piston Engines

1. Constant Volume or Otto Cycle

2. Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle

3. Dual Combustion or Limited Pressure Cycle

Idealized Otto /Const Volume Cycle
1-2 : Adiabatic Compression
2-3 : Const Volume Heat Addition
3
3-4 : Adiabatic Expansion
4-1 : Const Volume Heat Rejection
p 1
 1   1
2
r
4

0 1

V2/V3 V V1/V4
Air Standard Efficiency of Otto Cycle
Ideal Diesel /Constant Pressure Cycle

1    1 
   1   1  
r     1
Some Important Aspects of Diesel Cycle
• During heat addition at constant pressure, air
expands from volume V2 to V3 doing some work as
fuel injection commences at V2 and cuts off at V3 ,
called Cut Off Point
• In actual engine, heat addition takes place in the
form of injection of fuel, which self-ignites due to
high temp caused by high CR and burns at constant
pressure as piston moves down
• The volume ratio V3/V2 is called cut off ratio and is
denoted by ρ
• Compression Ratio and Expansion Ratio are not
equal in diesel cycle (unlike in Otto Cycle)
Air Standard Efficiencies : Otto & Diesel Cycles
1
Otto Cycle:   1   1
r
Diesel Cycle:
1    1 
  1   1  
r     1
• In Diesel Cycle, bracketed
term is always > 1, hence
η for diesel cycle will
always be lower than Otto
for same CR
• With increase in CR, η initially increases at faster rate
• Diesel engs operate at much higher CR as compared
to petrol engs, hence η for diesel eng is actually higher
• η decreases as Cut off ρ increases
Dual Combustion or Limited Pressure Cycle
1-2 : Adiabatic Compression
2-3 : Heat Addition at Const Volume
3-4 : Heat Addition at Const Pressure
3 4 4-5 : Adiabatic Expansion
5-1 : Heat Rejection at Const Volume
2
p

5
0
1

V 1 
 1   1 


 .  1  

r    1   .   1
 Theoretical/ Air Std Efficiencies
1
Otto Cycle:
 1   1
r


1   1 
  1   1  
Diesel Cycle: r     1

1 
  1   1 

 .   1  
Dual Cycle: 
r    1   .   1
Learning Objectives:
• Learning Air Standard Engine Cycles through
Numerical Problems
Q1: In an ideal Otto Cycle, the compression ratio is 8.
Initial pressure and temp of air are 1 bar and 100˚C.
Max pr in the cycle is 50 bar. For 1 kg of air flow,
calculate the values of pr, vol and temp at four salient
points of the cycle. What is the ratio of heat supplied
to heat rejected? Take R=0.287 kJ/kg; γ=1.4 for air.
Solution:
Point 1: p1=1bar; T1=373K;
V1=?
We know that p1V1=mRT1
mRT1
Hence V1 
p1
1x0.287 x10 3 x373 3
  1.0705 m
1x10 5
Solution (contd):
Point 2: (1-2 adiabatic compn) 
   V1 
 p1 V1  p 2V2  p 2  p1  
 V2 
1.4
 p 2  1x8  18.38 bar
V1
Now r 8
V2
V1 1.0705
 V2    0.1338m 3
8 8
p1V1 p 2V2

T1 T2
p 2V2 18.38 x0.1338
 T2  xT1  x373  856.8 K
p1V1 1x1.0705
Solution (contd):
Point 3:(2-3 const vol process)
3
V3  V2  0.1338m ;
p 3  50 bar ; T3  ?

For Cons tan t Volume

p 
Pr ocess   Const 
T 
p3 p2 p3
  T3  xT2
T3 T2 p2
50
Hence T3  x856.8  2330.8K
18.38
Solution (contd):
Point 4:(3-4 Adiabatic process)
 
p 3V3  p 4V4
 
 V3   V2 
 p 4  p 3    p 3  
 V4   V1 
1.4
1
 p 4  50 x   2.72 bar
8
3
V4  V1  1.0705m

From cons tan t volume process ( 4  1)

p4 p1 p4 2.72
 Hence T4  xT1  x 373  1014.6 K
T4 T1 p1 1
Solution (contd):
Heat Supplied QS  mC v T3  T2 
To find C v , we know that :
R
C p  Cv  R   1  OR
Cv
R 0.287
Cv    0.718kJ / kg
  1 1 .4  1
Hence QS  1x 0.7182330.8  856.8  1062.4kJ
Heat Re jected QR  mC v T4  T1 
QR  1x0.718 1014.6  373  460.7 kJ
Heat Supplied 1062.4
  2.3
Heat Re jected 460.7
Q2. An engine working on Otto Cycle has a clearance
volume of 17% of the total volume. Initial conditions
are 93 kPa & 30˚C. At the end of constant volume
heating, pressure is 2747 kPa. Find(i) Air std efficiency
(ii) Max temp (iii) Mean pressure (iv) Relative efficiency
if actual efficiency is 26.85%.
Take Cv=0.716 kJ/kgK
Solution:
1 V s  Vc
 air Std  1   1 ; r 
r Vc
Now Vc=0.17V1=0.17(Vs+Vc)
V1
r   5.88
0.17V1
1
  1  1.4 1
 0.5076 or 50.76%
5.88
 Solution (Contd):
Max Temp T3=?
 1
T2  V1 
From Pr ocess (1  2),   
T1  V2 
 1
 V1 
 T2  T1    303 x5.881.41  615.45K
 V2 

 V1 
 p 2  93 5.88  1110 .73kPa
  1.4
p1V1  p 2V2  p 2  p1  
 V2 
p3 p 2
For Const Vol Process (2  3) : 
T3 T2
p3 2747 x10 3 x615.45
 T3  xT2  3
 1520.36 K
p2 1110 .73x10
Solution (Contd):
Work Done / Cycle WD
Pmean  
Stroke Volume V1  V2
WD   x Q S
QS  mC v (T3  T2 )
 1x0.7161520.36  615.45
 647.9kJ / kg
WD=η x Qs
WD=647.9x0.5076=328.88kJ/kg
To find out Stroke Vol (V1-V2) ; we have V1/V2=5.88
V1 can be found out from p1V1=mRT1 taking m=1kg
Hence V1=(1x0.287x303)/93=0.935m3/kg
Therefore, V2=V1/5.88=0.935/5.88=0.159m3/kg
Solution (Contd):
Work Done / Cycle WD
Pmean  
Stroke Volume V1  V2

328.88
Pmean   423.7 kPa
0.935  0.159

Actual Efficiency
Relative Efficiency  R 
Air Std Efficiecy
26.85
  52.89%
50.76
Learning Objectives:
• Learning Air Standard Engine Cycles through
Numerical Problems
Q3. An air standard diesel cycle has a compression
ratio of 14. Pressure at the beginning of compn stroke
is 1 bar and temp 27˚C. Max temp in the cycle is
2500˚C. Determine the thermal efficiency and mean
Effective pressure.
Solution: Heat Supplied  Heat Re jected

Heat Supplied
Qs=mCp(T3-T2) & QR=mCv(T4-T1)
mC p (T3  T2 )  mC v (T4  T1 )

mC p (T3  T2 )
T4  T1
  1
 T3  T2 
Since T1 & T3 are given, T2 & T4
are required to be found out ?
Solution (Contd):
 1
 V1 
For Process (1  2); T2  T1    300 x141.41  864 K
 V2 
V3 V2
For Constant Pressure Process (2  3) : 
V T
T3 T2
3 3 2773
   3.21
V2 T2 864
 1
T4  V3 
For Adiabatic Process (3  4);   
T3  V4 
 1  1
 V3 V2   V3 V2 
T4  T3  x   T3  x 
 V2 V4   V2 V1 
1.4 1
 1
T 4  2773 3.21x   1538.5 K
 14 
Solution (Contd):
T4  T1
 1
1538.5  300
 0.5366 or 53.66%
  1
 T3  T2  1.42773  864 
Work Done / Cycle
Pmean  ;
Stroke Volume
 V2 
Stroke Vol  V1  V2  V1 1  
 V1 
To find out V1 ; we have p1V1  mRT1
RT1 0.287 x10 3 x300 3
Taking 1 kg of air , V1   5
 0. 861 m / kg
p1 1x10
 V2   1
Hence, Stroke Vol  V1 1    0.8611    0.7995m 3
 V1   14 
Solution (Contd):
Work Done / Cycle
Pmean  ;
Stroke Volume
C p T3  T2   C v (T4  T1 )

Stroke Volume

1.005 x10 2773  864  0.0.718 x10 1538.5  300 

3 3

0.7995 x10 5
 12.86 bar
Q4. An oil engine works on the ideal diesel cycle.
CR is 18 and constant pr energy addition ceases at
10% of stroke. Intake conditions are 1 bar and 20˚C.
Determine (a) Max temp and pressure in the cycle
(b) Thermal efficiency of the engine
Solution: Max pressure p =p = ? Max Temp T3=?
3 2

1    1 
Thermal Efficiency  th  1   1  
r     1
r=V1/V2=18 (given) ρ=V3/V2=?

Let Clearance Volume V2=1

Then, V1 will be 18
Hence stroke vol=V1-V2=17
Now, 10% of stroke vol
=17x0.1=1.7
Solution (Contd):
Hence, V3=1+1.7=2.7 Therefore, ρ=V3/V2=2.7/1=2.7
1    1 
Thermal Efficiency  th  1   1  
r     1
1  2.71.4  1 
 th  1  1.41    0.6 or 60%
18 1.42.7  1

From adiabatic process (1  2) :


 V1 
p 2  p1    1x181.4  57.2 bar
 V2 
 1
 V1 
T2  T1    293 x181.41  931K
 V2 
Solution (Contd):

From perfect gas law for process (2  3) :

p 2V2 p3V3

T2 T3
p3V3
 T3  T2 x  931x 2.7  2513.7 K
p2V2
Answer
Learning Objectives:
• Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycles
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycles
Cycles, which take in to account the variations of
specific heats, effects of molecular structure, effects
of composition of mixture of fuel, air & residual gases
approximating to working substance, are called Fuel-
Air Cycles
Fuel-air cycles largely take the following in to
consideration:
• Actual composition of cylinder gases i,e. fuel, air,
water vapor and residual gases
• Variation (increase) of specific heats with temp
Specific heats vary (increase) with increase in temp
(hence γ = Cp/Cv ↓with ↑T)
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
Cv = a1 + bT + cT2 + dT3; a1 > a
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
• Mixture of fuel & air (A/F ratio)
• After combustion process, mixture is in chemical
equilibrium (No dissociation )

• Intake and exhaust processes take place at

atmospheric pressure
• Compression & expansion processes are adiabatic
without friction
• In case of Otto Cycle, mixture of air & fuel is
homogenous and it burns at constant volume
• No heat exchange between gases and cylinder walls
• Change in KE is negligible
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
1. Effect of Composition of Fuel and Air (A/F Ratio):
• Leaner mixture has higher thermal efficiency
• Richer mixture will have lower efficiency as unburnt
fuel will go to exhaust
• Efficiency increases with CR

1
 otto  1   1
OR
r

1   1 
 diesel  1   1  
r     1
2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats :

3 Ideal Otto Cycle 1-2-3-4

3’
Actual Cycle 1-2’-3’-4’’

p
2
4
2’
4’
4’’
1

V
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats :

• Cp=a+bT+cT2 & Cv=a1+bT+cT2

• During adiabatic compn process 1-2, as the temp
increases, Cp & Cv increase and γ decreases
 1
 V1 
Therefore , temp T2  T1   comes down to temp T2 '
 V2 
• During process 2-3, for a
given heat supplied Qs,
Qs
temp T3 will lower down
to T3’ as per the expression
Qs=mCv(T3-T2’)
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats (Contd) :
• And, therefore, process 3-4 will now become 3’-4’
• But process 3’-4’ represents process with const γ.
Since eng is in expansion stroke, the temp of gases
decreases, Cp & Cv decrease and hence γ increases
 1  1
 V3   V2  T3 '
 Temp T4 '  T3 '    T3 '     1 decreases to T4 ' '
 V4   V1  r
• Hence, actual process
becomes 3’-4’’ from 3’-4’

• Therefore, actual cycle

becomes 1-2’-3’-4’’
although ideal Otto Cycle
was 1-2-3-4
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
3. Effect of Molecular Structure :
• Pressure of gases in comb chamber is proportional to
number of moles for given temp and volume by the
relation pV=nR˚T; where n is the no of moles
• If the no of moles before and after combustion are
different, pressure will change accordingly
• Take example of combustion :
C + O2 = CO2
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
Molecular
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Contraction
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
C8H18 + 12.5O2 = 8CO2 + 9H2O Molecular
1 mole 12.5 moles 8 moles 9 moles Expansion
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
• From the foregoing, it is clear that no of moles may
be more or less after the combustion
• This phenomenon is called molecular contraction or
molecular expansion
• Therefore, actual pressure in combustion chamber
will be different compared to theoretical cycle
• Actual pressure in combustion chamber shall be more
in case of molecular expansion and lesser in case of
molecular contraction compared to theoretical cycle
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
4. Dissociation Losses:
• Products of combustion dissociate in to its
constituents at higher temp beyond 1000˚C

• Rate of dissociation increases with increase in temp

2CO2=2CO+O2 : (Dissociation) Endothermic Reaction

2CO+O2=2CO2 : (Association) Exothermic Reaction

• Dissociation process absorbs heat energy from comb

gases being chemically endothermic reaction and
association releases energy being exothermic reaction
 Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle
• This results in lowering of temp and hence pressure
which in turn reduces power output and thermal
efficiency
• However, at the end of expansion stroke,
temperatures become low and dissociated gases
start combining releasing heat energy.

• But, it is too late as most

of this heat energy is
carried away by exhaust
gases. This loss of power
is called dissociation loss
• Dissociation losses have
been shown in Fig
 Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycles
with Air Standard Cycle
• Air std cycle has highly simplified approximations
• Therefore, estimate of engine performance is much
higher than the actual performance
• For example, actual indicated thermal efficiency of
a petrol engine for CR 7, is around 30% whereas
air std efficiency is around 55%.
• This large difference is due to non-instantaneous
burning of charge, incomplete combustion and
largely over simplifications in using values of
properties of working fluid for analysis
• In air std cycle, it was assumed that working fluid
was air, which behaves like perfect gas and had
constant specific heats
 Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycles
with Air Standard Cycle
• In actual engine , working fluid is not air but a
mixture of air, fuel and residual gases
• Also, specific heats of working fluid are not constant
but increase as the temp rises
• And, products of combustion are subjected to
dissociation at high temperatures
• Engine operation is not frictionless
 Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycles
Actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air std
efficiency due to various losses occurring in actual
engine operation. These are:
1. Losses due to variation of specific heats with temp
2. Dissociation or chemical in-equilibrium losses
3. Time losses
4. Incomplete combustion losses

5. Direct heat losses from comb gases to surroundings

6. Exhaust blow-down losses
7. Pumping losses
8. Friction losses
 Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycle
• Working substance is mixture of fuel, air & residual
gases (not air or perfect gases)
• Heat addition is not from reservoir but due to comb
of fuel, which alters composition of working fluid
• Specific heats vary (increase) with temp
(hence γ = Cp/Cv ↓with ↑T)
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
Cv = a1 + bT + cT2 + dT3; a1 > a
• Effect of molecular structure due to comb of fuel.
(Beyond 1000°C, products of comb dissociate &
absorb heat energy, thus lowering comb temp and
hence the power)
• Comb is not instantaneous (at const volume) as
piston continuously keeps moving resulting in time
losses
 Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycle
• Compression & Expansion processes are polytropic
due to direct heat transfer to surroundings
• Opening and closing of valves are not
instantaneous. All 4 strokes do not take place in
180° crank rotation. Early opening of exhaust valve
causes blow down losses

• Suction stroke takes place below atmospheric

pressure and exhaust stroke above atm pressure
(Pumping losses)
• Friction losses also take place
• Thus, work developed in actual cycle is much less
than the theoretical cycle
Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle
1. Time Losses:
• In ideal cycles, heat addition is assumed at constant
volume but actually, combustion takes some finite
time while piston continues to move (30-40˚rotation
of crank shaft)
• Due to this time lag, actual max pr in comb chamber
lowers down to point x.
• Work developed in actual
cycle is much less than
theoretical cycle as
shown in Fig (Area
enclosed by Blue Curve)
• Loss of work represents
time losses
Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

2. Heat Losses:
• Ideal Compression and Expansion processes are
assumed to be adiabatic but in actual processes,
heat transfer does take place from working fluid to
cylinder walls
• There is considerable quantity of heat loss during
combustion and expansion processes
• Due to this, lot of work is lost

• These work losses are called Heat Losses

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle
3. Exhaust Blow-down Losses:
• In ideal cycle, exhaust valve is assumed to open at
BDC, when exhaust stroke starts but in actual cycle,
it opens 30 to 40˚ before BDC in power stroke itself
• This helps in reducing pressure in the cylinder during
exhaust stroke, so that work required to push out
exhaust gases, reduces
• But due to this, lot of heat energy is carried away
by exhaust gases resulting in to loss of work
• This work losses are called Exhaust Blow-down Losses
Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle
4. Pumping Losses:
• In ideal cycle, suction and exhaust processes are
assumed to be taking place at atmospheric pressure
• But in actual cycle, suction is carried out below and
exhaust above atm pressures and for these
operations, work is required to be done on gases
which comes from actual
work developed, thus
reducing over all power
output
• These work losses are
called Pumping losses
(shown in pink in Fig)
Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle
5. Friction Losses:
• In ideal cycle, engine operation is considered
frictionless but in actual it is not so.
• Friction losses do occur between sliding or rotating
components like piston rings and cylinder walls,
bearings etc and it increases rapidly with speed of
the engine. Also, power is required to run various
auxiliary equipment like fans, pumps etc
• All this comes from power developed by the engine,
thus reducing actual power out put
• These power losses are called Friction Losses
Real/
Actual
Otto Cycle
Latest Developments
Recent Trends in Engine Development
• More Power
• Compact Size
• Fuel Economy (VCR, VVT, MPFI, Stratified Charge, HCCI)
• Reduced Emissions/ Hybrid/ Electric vehicles
• Cheaper Fuel – Low Cetane / Octane No
• Lighter engines/ better materials for eng components
• DI combustion chambers; IDI being phased out
• Two stage boosting
• Increase in specific power output-90kW/Litre