Unit I

Basics of IC Engines
and
Fuel-Air & Actual Cycles

Syllabus
UNIT-I

: BASICS OF IC ENGINES (5)

Heat Engines, IC and EC engines, IC engines
construction- components and materials, engine
nomenclature, valve diagrams,
intake and exhaust systems, engine classification,
applications
STANDARD CYCLES & FUEL-AIR CYCLES (5)
Fuel-air cycle, assumptions, comparison with air
standard cycle, effect of variables on performance,
actual engine cycle and various losses

Lecture No 1
Learning Objectives:
To learn basics of heat engines, IC and EC engines, IC
engines construction- components and materials,
engine nomenclature, applications

I. C. Engines

Engine of a car

Basics of IC Engines
Heat Engines
Internal Combustion (IC) Engines
External Combustion (EC) Engines
Engine Construction components and
material
Engine Nomenclature
Applications

What is an engine?
- a machine which converts chemical energy of fuel into mechanical
energy
Types of engines:
*External combustion engine.
-Ex: steam engine

*Internal combustion engine.

-Ex: car engine

Type of Heat Engines

types of heat engines
steam engines
external combustion

Gas turbines
Stirling engine

Otto engine
internal combustion

Diesel engine
Vankel engine

Internal Combustion Engine

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

(JA304)
Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. They
have three parts:
Compressor - Compresses the incoming air to high pressure
Combustion area - Burns the fuel and produces high-pressure,
high-velocity gas
Turbine - Extracts the energy from the high-pressure, highvelocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber

CompressorCombustion area Turbine

Internal Combustion Engines-Applications

applied in:
automotive
rail transportation
power generation
ships
aviation
garden appliances

The internal combustion

engine is an engine in which
the combustion of fueloxidizer mixture occurs in a
confined space

How engine works?

Exhaust

Air
Mixing

Combustion
Power

Fuel

Useful
Work
Carburetor

Ignition
(Spark plug /
Compressed
ignition)

Valves
Piston/connecting rod
Crankshaft
Flywheel
Clutch
Gear box
Wheels

History of Internal Combustion Engine

History of IC engines:
1700s -Steam engines (external combustion engines)
1860 - Lenoir engine (= 5%)
1867 - Otto-Langen engine ( = 11%, 90 RPM max.)
1876 - Otto four stroke spark ignition engine
( = 14%, 160 RPM max.)

1880s - Two stroke engine

1892 - Diesel four stroke compression ignition engine
1957 - Wenkel rotary engine
15

Historical IC Engines
FLYWHEEL

16

Classification of IC Engines
Based on No of stroke per cycle:
Four stroke
Two stroke
Based on thermodynamic cycle:
Otto/Constant volume heat addition cycle
Diesel/Constant pressure heat addition
cycle
Dual Cycle (Heat addition-At const Pressure
Based
on No of cylinders:
and vol)
Single cylinder
Multi-cylinders

Classification of IC Engines
Based on arrangement of cylinders:
Inline engines
V engines
Radial engines
Opposed cylinders engines
Opposed pistons engines
Based on ignition systems:
SI engines
CI engines
Based on cooling system:
Air cooled
Liquid cooled

Classification of IC Engines
Based on fuel used:
Petrol engines
Diesel engines
Gas engines
Bi-fuel engines
Based on fuel supply systems:
Carburetor engines
Solid injection engines
Based on lubrication system:
Wet sump lubrication
Dry sump lubrication
Mist lubrication

Engine Components

Parts of an Engine

Engines Components & Materials

1. Cylinder block & Crank case:
To hold engine components, water jackets
Cooling jackets, oil passages, passages for
push rods,
fitment for crank shaft, lubrication pump
etc
2.
Cylinder head:
Grey
CI, Al alloy
SP, injectors, valve openings, comb
chamber,
mounting for valve operating mechanism
3. CI
Al alloy
Oil, pan:
Oil sump
Pressed steel sheet, Al alloy

Engines Components & Materials

1. Cylinder block/ Crank case:
For holding major components like crankshaft,
cylinder head, liners, gears, pumps etc.
Cooling jackets, oil passages, passages for
push rods etc
Grey CI, Al alloy
2.Cylinder head:
For fitment of SP/ injectors, valve openings,
comb
chamber, valves & valve operating
mechanism
3. Oil pan:
CI
Al alloy
Oil, sump
Pressed steel sheet, Al alloy

Engines Components & Materials

4. Manifolds:
Inlet & exhaust tubing for AF intake &
exhaust
5. CI
Gaskets:
For leak proof sealing between two
components
Embossed steel, cork, special rubber
6. Cylinder liners (Replaceable):
Pistons reciprocket in cylinders for comb
space
Steel alloyed with Si, Mn, Nickel, Chromium
Centrifugally cast, hardened by nitriding,
chromium
plating

Engines Components & Materials

7. Piston:
For transmission of force, light weight, high
thermal k,
low thermal coeff of expansion
8.
Piston
Al
alloyrings:
For high pr leak proof sealing between piston
&
cylinder, 2 to 4 + 1 to 2 oil scrapper rings
9. Alloy
CI with rod:
Si, Mn with chromium plating
Connecting
For transmitting force on piston to
crankshaft
I-section, drop forged from steel
Axial and bending stresses

Engines Components & Materials

10. Piston/Gudgeon Pin:

For connecting piston with connecting rod
Case hardened steel
11. Crankshaft:
For converting reciprocketing motion of piston
to
rotary motion of crankshaft by connecting
rod,
vibration damper and fly wheel fitted
12.
Main
journal,
crank
pins, crank webs,
Main
& Big end
bearings:
counterweights
For facilitating holding & friction free
rotation
Forgedoffrom spheroidal graphite iron
crankshaft

Engines Components & Materials

13. Engine Valves:

Inlet for air/AF intake; Silicon-chrome steel
(C+Ni +Mn+Si)
Exhaust- for exiting burnt gases
(C+Ni+Mn+Si+Mb)
14. Camshaft:
For operating valves (rotates at half speed of
C/S)
15.
Forged
alloy steel
Silencer/Mufler:
For reducing exhaust/comb sound
Metal sheet

Parts of
an IC
Engine

Name as many
parts as you can

CROSS SECTION OF OVERHEAD VALVE FOUR STROKE SI ENGINE

Parts of
an IC
Engine

Cylinder head
Air cleaner

Choke
Throttle
Intake manifold

Exhaust manifold
If you scored:
25 32- Excellent
Piston rings
15 24- Good
Piston
Wrist pin
10 14- OK
Cylinder block
Connecting rod
<10- Change your
Oil gallery to piston
lub oil
Oil gallery to head
Crankcase

Breather cap
Rocker arm
Valve spring
Valve guide
Pushrod
Sparkplug
Combustion chamber
Tappet
Dipstick
Cam
Camshaft
Water jacket
Wet liner

Connecting rod bearing

Crankpin
Crankshaft

Main bearing
Oil pan or sump

Engine Components
Cylinder Block, Cylinder Head, Rocker Arms,
Rocker Shaft, Push Rods, Engine Valves, Inlet
&
Outlet Manifolds, Carburetor, Air Filter, Tappet
Cover
Piston, Piston Rings, Connecting Rod,
Cylinder/
Cylinder Liners, Gudgeon/Piston Pin, Crank
Shaft,
Big end Bearings, Main/Journal Bearings, Cam
Shaft,
Cam Followers, Oil Pan, Oil Pump, Oil Filter,
Water

Lecture No 2
Learning Objectives:

To understand working of 2-stroke & 4-stroke SI and CI

engines
To learn about engine valve timings

The four-stroke engine

Spark plug
Exhaust valve

Inlet valve

Cylinder
Piston

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
opens

INDUCTION STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
open

INDUCTION STROKE
Piston down

The four-stroke engine

Air/Fuel Mixture In
Inlet valve
open

INDUCTION STROKE
Piston down

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closes

COMPRESSION STROKE

Piston up

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Piston up
COMPRESSION STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed
BANG

POWER STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Piston down
powerfully

POWER STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Piston down
powerfully

POWER STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

POWER STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Exhaust valve
open

EXHAUST STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Exhaust valve
open

Exhaust gases
out

Piston up

EXHAUST STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
closed

Exhaust valve
open

Exhaust gases
out

Piston up
EXHAUST STROKE

The four-stroke engine

Inlet valve
opens

Exhaust valve
closed

INDUCTION STROKE

And so the
cycle
continues!!

engine1.swf

The four-stroke cycle

The four stroke
combustion cycle
consists of:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Intake
Compression
Combustion
Exhaust

The four-stroke cycle

The piston starts at
the top, the intake
valve opens and the
piston moves down
to let the engine
take in a full
cylinder of air and
gasoline during the
intake stroke

The piston then

moves up to
compress the
air/gasoline mixture.
This makes the
explosion more
powerful.

The four-stroke cycle

When

the piston
reaches the top, the
spark plug emits a
spark to ignite the
gasoline/air mixture.

The

gasoline/air
mixture explodes
driving the piston
down.

The

piston reaches
the bottom of its
stroke, the exhaust
valve opens and the
exhaust leaves out
of the tailpipe.

The

engine is ready
for another cycle.

4 Processes Cycle
1

Intake Valve
Intake
Manifold
Cylinder
Piston
Connecting
Rod

Exhaust Valve
Exhaust
Manifold

Spark
Plug

Crank
Crankcase

Intake Stroke
Compression
Power Stroke
Exhaust Stroke
Intake valve
Stroke
Fuel-air mixture burns, Exhaust valve
opens,
Both valves closed, increasing temp and
open, exhaust
admitting fuel
Fuel/air mixture is pressure, expansion of
products are
and air. Exhaust
compressed by
combustion gases
displaced from
valve closed for rising piston. Spark drives piston down.
cylinder. Intake
most of stroke ignites mixture near Both valves closed, valve opens near
end of stroke.
exhaust valve opens
end of stroke.
near end of stroke

TWOSTROKE
OPERATION

2 Stroke Process

Compression
(Ports closed)
Air Taken Into
Crankcase

Combustion
Exhaust
(Ports closed) (Intake port
closed)

Scavenging
and Intake
(Ports open)

Air compressed in crankcase

AIR/FUEL
INTAKE

COMPRESSION

COMBUSTION
&
EXHAUST

Working
of a
4 Stroke
SI
Engine

Working
of a
2 Stroke
SI
Engine

Valve Timings : 4 Stroke SI Engine

TDC

EVC

Ign Adv
Compression
Stroke

Exhaust
Stroke

20

IVO

Suction
Stroke

10

IVC

20 25

EVO
BDC

Power/
Expansion
Stroke

Valve Timings : 4 Stroke CI Engine

TDC

EVC
10-15

FIC 15
Compression
Stroke

Exhaust
Stroke

25FIS

IVO

Suction
Stroke

10- 25

20- 30
45

IVC

EVO
BDC

Power/
Expansion
Stroke

Lecture No 3
Learning Objectives:

To understand engine terminology

To learn about engine intake and exhaust system

Engine
Terminology

TDC, BDC

Stroke/Swept /Displacement Volume

(Vs)
Clearance Volume (Vc)
Compression Ratio CR (r)

Engine Terminology

More Terminology

Terminology
Bore

=d
Stroke = s
d 2

Displacement volume =Vs = s

4

Clearance volume = Vc
Compression ratio = r

r = V s + Vc
Vc

VBDC

VTDC

Being Human

Engine
Intake & Exhaust
Systems

Engine Intake System

Air Filter
Intake
Manifolds

Carburetor

A/F Mixture

Engine

Engine Manifolds
Manifolds are conduits, which are connected

to engine cylinder head; one per cylinder

Inlet manifolds are used to carry air-fuel

mixture from carburetor/ air from air filter to

cylinders through intake valve(s) in SI engs;
air from air filter to cylinders in CI engines

Exhaust manifolds carry burnt/flue gases from

cylinder through exhaust valve(s) to silencer/

muffler and ultimately to atmosphere

Manifolds are manufactured by casting process

of cast iron/ by die-casting of aluminum alloy

Intake Manifolds
Intake manifolds should cause minimum

pressure loss thus ensuring max volumetric

efficiency

Should distribute A/F mixture uniformly to

each cylinder over wide range of speeds and

loads (equal length to each cylinder)

Should assist vaporization of fuel and mixing

with air while passing through it

Shape and size should be to prevent

condensation of fuel without restricting air

flow

Cylinder Head

For 4 Cylinder Engine

Exhaust System
Engine
Exhaust
Manifolds

Silencer/
Muffler
Exhaust Pipe

Exhaust/Tail Pipe
Open to Atm

Exhaust Manifolds
After power stroke, flue/ burnt gases are required to
be removed from engine cylinders
Exhaust manifolds collect the burnt gases from each
cylinder and through silencer, pass them to atm

Requirements:
Minimum back pressure to reduce power loss
(Increase in back pressure by 0.1 bar results in
decrease in power output by about 1.5%)
Reduction in combustion noise as exiting gases will
expand suddenly in atmosphere making lot of noise
Transfer of minimum possible heat to system (Vehicle)
Reduce emissions going to atmosphere
(exhaust treatment like using Catalytic Converter)

Silencer/ Muffler
After the power stroke, burnt gases, which

are at higher pressure, if exhausted to

atmosphere directly, make unpleasant loud
sound due to difference in exhaust pressure
and atmospheric pressure

Muffler allows the gases to expand in it so

that pressure pulsations die down with the

result, burnt gases are discharged to
atmosphere quietly

Enhancing Knowledge

Lecture No 4
Learning Objectives:

To understand Air Standard cycles and some important

thermodynamic aspects

Ideal or Air Standard Cycles

Air standard cycles are defined as cycles using a
perfect gas as the working fluid/ medium.

Air is invariably used as the working fluid in IC

Engines
and assumed to behave as a perfect gas
ollowing simplifying assumptions are made in the
nalysis of air standard cycles:
Working medium is AIR and behaves like

ideal/
perfect gas
throughout
( follows
theeither
Law
Working
fluid
is a fixed mass
of air
pV=mRT
contained)
in a closed system or flowing at a constant
rate

Assumptions of Ideal or Air Standard Cycles

Physical constants of working medium are

the same
as that of air at standard atmospheric
conditions;
Working medium has constant specific heats
C
=1.005,
C
=0.718
&
=1.4
p
v
Heat addition & rejection processes take
place in
reversible manner and if required,
instantaneously
Compression & Expansion processes are
(at constant volume)
reversible
adiabatic
(Isentropic);
(no heat
Kinetic
& PE
of the working
fluidtransfer)
are neglected
All dissipative effects like friction, viscosity

etc, are
neglected

seful Thermodynamic Relations (Perfect Gas)

pV = mRT or pv = RT and p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2
Cp Cv = R
For Const Volume(Isochoric) process: p/T = Const
(Gay Lussac Law)
For Const Pressure (Isobaric) process : V/T = Const
(Charles Law)
For Const Temp (Isothermal) process: pV = Const
(Boyles Law)
For reversible adiabatic process : pV = Const
In Compression process, if p1, V1 and T1
represent
n 1
n 1
, V2 andn=
T2 the
for final
reversible
V1conditions

p2& pn 2Where
T2initial

adiabatic (isentropic)

conditions;
T1 V2
p1
process

Some Useful Standard Values for Perfect

Gas/Air

Specific Heat at Const Pressure Cp=1.005 kJ/kgK

Specific Heat at Const Volume Cv=0.718 kJ/kgK

Gas Constant R=0.287 kJ/kgK

Ratio of Cp/Cv==1.4 (Constant)

Pressure:
ascal Pa=N/m2
bar = 105 Pa =105 N/m2 =100 kPa =1.03 kg/cm2
MPa = 106 Pa = 10 bar
Volume:
1 lit = 1000cc = 10-3m3

Important Cycles for Piston Engines

1. Constant Volume or Otto Cycle

2. Constant Pressure or Diesel Cycle

3. Dual Combustion or Limited Pressure Cycle

Idealized Otto /Const Volume Cycle

3

1-2 : Adiabatic Compression

2-3 : Const Volume Heat Addition
3-4 : Adiabatic Expansion
4-1 : Const Volume Heat Rejection

4
0
V2/V3

V1/V4

1
r

Air Standard Efficiency of Otto Cycle

Ideal Diesel /Constant Pressure

Cycle

1 1
1 1

r 1

ome Important Aspects of Diesel Cycle

During heat addition at constant pressure, air

expands from volume V2 to V3 doing some

work as
fuel injection commences at V2 and cuts off
In actual engine, heat addition takes place in
at V3 ,
the
called Cut Off Point
form of injection of fuel, which self-ignites
due to
highvolume
temp caused
high CR and burns at
The
ratio Vby
3/V2 is called cut off ratio
constant
and is
pressure
as
piston moves down
denoted
by
Compression Ratio and Expansion Ratio are
not
equal in diesel cycle (unlike in Otto Cycle)

Air Standard Efficiencies : Otto & Diesel

1
Cycles
Otto Cycle: 1
Diesel Cycle:
1

1
r 1

r 1

In Diesel Cycle, bracketed

term is always > 1, hence

for diesel cycle will
always be lower than Otto
for same CR
With increase in CR, initially increases at
faster
rate
Diesel
engs
operate at much higher CR as compared
o petrol engs, hence for diesel eng is actually high
decreases as Cut off increases

Dual Combustion or Limited Pressure Cycle

1-2 : Adiabatic Compression

2-3 : Heat Addition at Const Volume
3-4 : Heat Addition at Const Pressure
4 4-5 : Adiabatic Expansion
5-1 : Heat Rejection at Const Volume

3
2

p
5

1
r 1

1 . 1

Theoretical/ Air Std Efficiencies

Otto Cycle:

1
r

1 1
1 1

r 1

Diesel Cycle:

Dual Cycle:

1
r 1

1 . 1

Lecture No 5
Learning Objectives:
Learning Air Standard Engine Cycles through
Numerical Problems

Q1: In an ideal Otto Cycle, the compression

ratio is 8.
Initial pressure and temp of air are 1 bar and
100C.
Max pr in the cycle is 50 bar. For 1 kg of air
flow,
calculate the values of pr, vol and temp at four
Solution:
Point
1: p1=1bar;
salient
points
of the
cycle. What is the ratio of heat
T1=373K;
V1=?
We
know that p1V1=mRT1
supplied
mRT1
to heat rejected?
Take R=0.287 kJ/kg; =1.4
Hence V1
for air.
p1
1x0.287 x10 3 x373
3

1
.
0705
m
1x10 5

Solution (contd):
Point 2: (1-2 adiabatic
V1

compn)

p1 V1 p 2V2 p 2 p1
V
p 2 1x8

1.4

18.38 bar

V1
Now
r 8
V2

V1 1.0705
V2

0.1338m 3
8
8

p1V1
p 2V2

T1
T2

p 2V2
18.38 x0.1338
T2
xT1
x373 856.8 K
p1V1
1x1.0705

Solution (contd):
Point 3:(2-3 const vol process)

V3 V2 0.1338m ;
3

p 3 50 bar ; T3 ?

For Cons tan t Volume

p

Pr ocess
Const
T

p3 p2
p3

T3
xT2
T3 T2
p2
50
Hence T3
x856.8 2330.8K
18.38

Solution (contd):
Point 4:(3-4 Adiabatic process)

p 3V3 p 4V4

V3
p 4 p 3
V4

1
p 4 50 x

V2
p 3
V1

1.4

2.72 bar

V4 V1 1.0705m

From cons tan t volume process ( 4 1)

p4 p1
p4
2.72

Hence T4 xT1
x 373 1014.6 K
T4 T1
p1
1

Solution (contd):

Heat Supplied QS mC v T3 T2
To find C v , we know that :
C p Cv R

R
1
OR
Cv

R
0.287
Cv

0.718kJ / kg
1 1 .4 1

Hence QS 1x 0.718 2330.8 856.8 1062.4kJ

Heat Re jected QR mC v T4 T1

QR 1x0.718 1014.6 373 460.7 kJ

Heat Supplied 1062.4

2.3
Heat Re jected
460.7

Q2. An engine working on Otto Cycle has a clearance

volume of 17% of the total volume. Initial conditions
are 93 kPa & 30C. At the end of constant volume
heating, pressure is 2747 kPa. Find(i) Air std efficiency
(ii) Max temp (iii) Mean pressure (iv) Relative efficiency
if actual efficiency is 26.85%.
Take Cv=0.716 kJ/kgK
Solution:

air Std

V s Vc
1 1 ; r
Vc
r
1

Now Vc=0.17V1=0.17(Vs+Vc)
r

V1
5.88
0.17V1

1
1
0.5076 or 50.76%
1.4 1
5.88

Solution (Contd):
Max Temp T3=?

T2 V1

From Pr ocess (1 2),

T1 V2
V1

T2 T1
V2

303x5.881.41 615.45K

V1
p1V1 p 2V2 p 2 p1
V2

p 2 93 5.88

1.4

1110 .73kPa

p3 p 2
For Const Vol Process (2 3) :

T3 T2
p3
2747 x10 3 x615.45
T3
xT2
1520.36 K
3
p2
1110 .73x10

Solution (Contd):
Work Done / Cycle
WD
Pmean

Stroke Volume
V1 V2
WD x Q S

QS mC v (T3 T2 )

1x0.7161520.36 615.45
647.9kJ / kg
WD= x Qs
WD=647.9x0.5076=328.88kJ/kg
To find out Stroke Vol (V1-V2) ; we have V1/V2=5.88
V1 can be found out from p1V1=mRT1 taking m=1kg
Hence V1=(1x0.287x303)/93=0.935m3/kg
Therefore, V2=V1/5.88=0.935/5.88=0.159m3/kg

Solution (Contd):
Pmean

Work Done / Cycle

WD

Stroke Volume
V1 V2

Pmean

328.88

423.7 kPa
0.935 0.159

Actual Efficiency
Relative Efficiency R
Air Std Efficiecy
26.85

52.89%
50.76

Lecture No 6
Learning Objectives:
Learning Air Standard Engine Cycles through
Numerical Problems

Q3. An air standard diesel cycle has a compression

ratio of 14. Pressure at the beginning of compn stroke
is 1 bar and temp 27C. Max temp in the cycle is
2500C. Determine the thermal efficiency and mean
Effective pressure.
Heat Supplied Heat Re jected
Solution:

Heat Supplied

Qs=mCp(T3-T2) & QR=mCv(T4-T1)

mC p (T3 T2 ) mC v (T4 T1 )

mC p (T3 T2 )
T4 T1
1
T3 T2

Since T1 & T3 are given, T2 & T4

are required to be found out ?

Solution (Contd):

V1
For Process (1 2); T2 T1
V2

300 x141.41 864 K

V3 V2
For Constant Pressure Process (2 3) :

T
T
3
2
V
T
3

V2

T2

2773

3.21
864

T4 V3

For Adiabatic Process (3 4);

T3 V4

V3 V2
T4 T3
x
V2 V4

V3 V2
T3
x
V2 V1

T 4 2773 3.21x
14

1.4 1

1538.5 K

Solution (Contd):

1538.5 300
T4 T1
1
0.5366 or 53.66%
1
1.4 2773 864
T3 T2
Pmean

Work Done / Cycle

;
Stroke Volume

Stroke Vol V1 V2 V1

V2
1
V1

To find out V1 ; we have p1V1 mRT1

RT1 0.287 x10 3 x300
3
Taking 1 kg of air , V1

0
.
861
m
/ kg
5
p1
1x10

V2
1

Hence, Stroke Vol V1 1 0.861 1 0.7995m 3

V1
14

Solution (Contd):
Work Done / Cycle
Pmean
;
Stroke Volume

C p T3 T2 C v (T4 T1 )
Stroke Volume

1.005 x10 2773 864 0.0.718 x10 1538.5 300

0.7995 x10 5
12.86 bar
3

Q4. An oil engine works on the ideal diesel cycle.

CR is 18 and constant pr energy addition ceases at
10% of stroke. Intake conditions are 1 bar and 20C.
Determine (a) Max temp and pressure in the cycle
(b) Thermal efficiency of the engine
Solution: Max pressure p3=p2 = ? Max Temp T3=?

1 1
Thermal Efficiency th 1 1

r
1
r=V1/V2=18 (given) =V3/V2=?
Let Clearance Volume V2=1
Then, V1 will be 18
Hence stroke vol=V1-V2=17
Now, 10% of stroke vol
=17x0.1=1.7

Solution (Contd):
Hence, V3=1+1.7=2.7 Therefore, =V3/V2=2.7/1=2.7

Thermal Efficiency th

1 1
1 1

r
1

1 2.71.4 1
th 1 1.41
0.6 or 60%
18
1.4 2.7 1

From adiabatic process (1 2) :

V1
p 2 p1
V2

V1
T2 T1
V2

1x181.4 57.2 bar

293 x181.41 931K

Solution (Contd):

From perfect gas law for process (2 3) :

p3V3
p 2V2

T2
T3
p3V3
T3 T2 x
931x 2.7 2513.7 K
p2V2
Answer

Importance of
Being Punctual

Lecture No 7
Learning Objectives:
Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycles

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycles

Cycles, which take in to account the variations of
specific heats, effects of molecular structure, effects
of composition of mixture of fuel, air & residual gases
approximating to working substance, are called FuelAir Cycles
Fuel-air cycles largely take the following in to
consideration:
Actual composition of cylinder gases i,e. fuel, air,
water vapor and residual gases
Variation (increase) of specific heats with temp
Specific heats vary (increase) with increase in temp
(hence = Cp/Cv with T)
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
Cv = a1 + bT + cT2 + dT3; a1 > a

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

Mixture of fuel & air (A/F ratio)
After combustion process, mixture is in chemical
equilibrium (No dissociation )

Intake and exhaust processes take place at

atmospheric pressure

Compression & expansion processes are adiabatic

without friction
In case of Otto Cycle, mixture of air & fuel is
homogenous and it burns at constant volume
No heat exchange between gases and cylinder walls
Change in KE is negligible

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

1. Effect of Composition of Fuel and Air (A/F Ratio):
Leaner mixture has higher thermal efficiency
Richer mixture will have lower efficiency as unburnt
fuel will go to exhaust
Efficiency increases with CR

otto 1
diesel

1
r

OR

1 1
1 1

r 1

2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats :

3
3

Ideal Otto Cycle 1-2-3-4

Actual Cycle 1-2-3-4

2
4
4
4

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats :
Cp=a+bT+cT2

&

Cv=a1+bT+cT2

During adiabatic compn process 1-2, as the temp

increases, Cp & Cv increase and decreases

V1
Therefore , temp T2 T1
V2

During process 2-3, for a

given heat supplied Qs,
temp T3 will lower down
to T3 as per the expression
Qs=mCv(T3-T2)

comes down to temp T2 '

Qs

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

2. Effect of Variation Specific Heats (Contd) :
And, therefore, process 3-4 will now become 3-4
But process 3-4 represents process with const .
Since eng is in expansion stroke, the temp of gases
decreases, Cp & Cv decrease and hence increases

V3
Temp T4 ' T3 '
V4

V2
T3 '
V1

Hence, actual process

becomes 3-4 from 3-4
Therefore, actual cycle
becomes 1-2-3-4
although ideal Otto Cycle
was 1-2-3-4

T3 '
1 decreases to T4 ' '
r

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

3. Effect of Molecular Structure :
Pressure of gases in comb chamber is proportional to
number of moles for given temp and volume by the
relation pV=nRT; where n is the no of moles
If the no of moles before and after combustion are
different, pressure will change accordingly
Take example of combustion :
C
+ O2
= CO2
1 mole 1 mole
1 mole
2H2
+ O2 = 2H2O
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
C8H18 + 12.5O2 = 8CO2 + 9H2O
1 mole 12.5 moles 8 moles 9 moles

Molecular
Contraction
Molecular
Expansion

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

From the foregoing, it is clear that no of moles may
be more or less after the combustion
This phenomenon is called molecular contraction or
molecular expansion
Therefore, actual pressure in combustion chamber
will be different compared to theoretical cycle
Actual pressure in combustion chamber shall be more
in case of molecular expansion and lesser in case of
molecular contraction compared to theoretical cycle

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

4. Dissociation Losses:
Products of combustion dissociate in to its
constituents at higher temp beyond 1000C
Rate of dissociation increases with increase in temp
2CO2=2CO+O2 : (Dissociation) Endothermic Reaction
2CO+O2=2CO2 : (Association) Exothermic Reaction
Dissociation process absorbs heat energy from comb
gases being chemically endothermic reaction and
association releases energy being exothermic reaction

Theoretical Fuel-Air Cycle

This results in lowering of temp and hence pressure
which in turn reduces power output and thermal
efficiency
However, at the end of expansion stroke,
temperatures become low and dissociated gases
start combining releasing heat energy.
But, it is too late as most
of this heat energy is
carried away by exhaust
gases. This loss of power
is called dissociation loss
Dissociation losses have
been shown in Fig

Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycles

with Air Standard Cycle
Air std cycle has highly simplified approximations
Therefore, estimate of engine performance is much
higher than the actual performance
For example, actual indicated thermal efficiency of
a petrol engine for CR 7, is around 30% whereas
air std efficiency is around 55%.
This large difference is due to non-instantaneous
burning of charge, incomplete combustion and
largely over simplifications in using values of
properties of working fluid for analysis
In air std cycle, it was assumed that working fluid
was air, which behaves like perfect gas and had
constant specific heats

Comparison of Fuel-Air Cycles

with Air Standard Cycle
In actual engine , working fluid is not air but a
mixture of air, fuel and residual gases
Also, specific heats of working fluid are not constant
but increase as the temp rises
And, products of combustion are subjected to
dissociation at high temperatures
Engine operation is not frictionless

Lecture No 8

earning Objectives:
To learn fuel-air cycle through numerical problems

Numerical Problems
On
Fuel-Air Cycles

Q1. A petrol engine having CR of 6 uses a fuel with

CV=42000kJ/kg. A/F ratio is 15:1. Pressure and temp
at the end of suction stroke are 1 bar and 57C
respectively. Determine max pressure in the cylinder if
n=1.3 and Cv=0.678 + 0.00013 T, where T is in K.
Compare this value with that obtained when Cv=0.71
kJ/kgK. (Ans: T2=564.8K; T3=3380K;
p3=61.45bar/77.5bar)
Solution
Line of approach: Max pr p3=?
For process 2-3 (2-3)

p3 p2

for cont pr process

T3 T2
Hence, we need T3 , T2 and p2

For p2 , from process 1 2;

n

p1v1 p2 v2

For T2 , from process 1 2;

p1v1 p2 v2

T1
T2
OR
T2 p2

T1 p1
For T3 ;

n 1
n

v1

v2

n 1

r n 1

mg Cv T3 T2 m f xCV

Q2. Combustion in a diesel engine is assumed to begin

at inner dead centre and to be at constant pressure.
A/F ratio is 287:1, CV of fuel is 42000kJ/kg and sp. heat
of products of combustion is given as Cv=0.71+20x10-5 T;
R for combustion products =0.287kJ/kgK. If the CR is
14:1 and the temp at the end of compression is 800 K,
find at what percentage of stroke, the combustion is
completed? (Ans: T3=1940K; 10.96%)

Lecture No 9

earning Objectives:
To learn fuel-air cycle through numerical problems

Q3. A diesel engine uses a compression ratio of 16 and

at the end of compression stroke, the temp of air is
1100K. Now the air is supplied heat at const pr by
burning fuel of CV of 44200kJ/kg and the fuel air ratio
is 0.04:1. Specific heat at constant volume is given as
Cv=0.762+2x10-4 T; where T is in K. Find out cut off
percentage/ratio of the engine. R for combustion
products =0.287kJ/kgK. (Ans 2.11/7.4%)

Q4. The following data relate to a petrol engine:

CR=7; CV of fuel used=44MJ/kg; A/F ratio=15:1
Temperature and pressure of charge at the end of
stroke = 65C, 1 bar, Index of compression = 1.33
Sp. heat at const volume Cv = 0.71+ 20x10-5 T kJ/kg K,
where T is in Kelvin. Determine maximum pressure in
the cylinder. Compare this value with that of constant
specific heat Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg K
[Ans. p3=65.5 bar; p3 (with const Cv )=93.5 bar]

Lecture No 10
Learning Objectives:
To learn actual fuel-air cycle

Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycles

Actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air std
efficiency due to various losses occurring in actual
engine operation. These are:
1. Losses due to variation of specific heats with temp
2. Dissociation or chemical in-equilibrium losses
3. Time losses
4. Incomplete combustion losses
5. Direct heat losses from comb gases to surroundings
6. Exhaust blow-down losses
7. Pumping losses
8. Friction losses

Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycle

Working substance is mixture of fuel, air & residual

gases (not air or perfect gases)
Heat addition is not from reservoir but due to comb
of fuel, which alters composition of working fluid
Specific heats vary (increase) with temp
(hence = Cp/Cv with T)
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
Cv = a1 + bT + cT2 + dT3; a1 > a
Effect of molecular structure due to comb of fuel.
(Beyond 1000C, products of comb dissociate &
absorb heat energy, thus lowering comb temp and
hence the power)
Comb is not instantaneous (at const volume) as
piston continuously keeps moving resulting in time
losses

Actual/Real Fuel-Air Cycle

Compression & Expansion processes are polytropic
due to direct heat transfer to surroundings
Opening and closing of valves are not
instantaneous. All 4 strokes do not take place in
180 crank rotation. Early opening of exhaust valve
causes blow down losses

Suction stroke takes place below atmospheric

pressure and exhaust stroke above atm pressure
(Pumping losses)
Friction losses also take place
Thus, work developed in actual cycle is much less
than the theoretical cycle

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

1. Time Losses:
In ideal cycles, heat addition is assumed at constant
volume but actually, combustion takes some finite
time while piston continues to move (30-40rotation
of crank shaft)
Due to this time lag, actual max pr in comb chamber
lowers down to point x.
Work developed in actual
cycle is much less than
theoretical cycle as
shown in Fig (Area
enclosed by Blue Curve)
Loss of work represents
time losses

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

2. Heat Losses:
Ideal Compression and Expansion processes are
assumed to be adiabatic but in actual processes,
heat transfer does take place from working fluid to
cylinder walls
There is considerable quantity of heat loss during
combustion and expansion processes
Due to this, lot of work is lost
These work losses are called Heat Losses

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

3. Exhaust Blow-down Losses:
In ideal cycle, exhaust valve is assumed to open at
BDC, when exhaust stroke starts but in actual cycle,
it opens 30 to 40 before BDC in power stroke itself
This helps in reducing pressure in the cylinder during
exhaust stroke, so that work required to push out
exhaust gases, reduces
But due to this, lot of heat energy is carried away
by exhaust gases resulting in to loss of work
This work losses are called Exhaust Blow-down Losses

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

4. Pumping Losses:
In ideal cycle, suction and exhaust processes are
assumed to be taking place at atmospheric pressure
But in actual cycle, suction is carried out below and
exhaust above atm pressures and for these
operations, work is required to be done on gases
which comes from actual
work developed, thus
reducing over all power
output
These work losses are
called Pumping losses
(shown in pink in Fig)

Losses In Actual Cycle Other Than Fuel-Air Cycle

5. Friction Losses:
In ideal cycle, engine operation is considered
frictionless but in actual it is not so.
Friction losses do occur between sliding or rotating
components like piston rings and cylinder walls,
bearings etc and it increases rapidly with speed of
the engine. Also, power is required to run various
auxiliary equipment like fans, pumps etc
All this comes from power developed by the engine,
thus reducing actual power out put
These power losses are called Friction Losses

Real/
Actual
Otto Cycle

Latest Developments

Recent Trends in Engine Development

More Power
Compact Size
Fuel Economy (VCR, VVT, MPFI, Stratified Charge,
HCCI)

Reduced Emissions/ Hybrid/ Electric

vehicles
Cheaper
Fuel Low Cetane / Octane No

Lighter engines/ better materials for eng componen

DI combustion chambers; IDI being phased out

Two stage boosting

Increase in specific power output-90kW/Litre

End of Unit I